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1 <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><div xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" id="FP.ix" class="div2">
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2 <a href="summa.FP_Q74_A3.html"></a>
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3 <a href="summa.FP_Q75.html"></a>
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4 <h2 id="FP.ix-p0.1">TREATISE ON MAN (QQ[75]-102)</h2>
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5 <div id="FP_Q75" class="div3">
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6 <a href="summa.FP.ix.html"></a>
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7 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html"></a>
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8 <h3 id="FP_Q75-p0.1">OF MAN WHO IS COMPOSED OF A SPIRITUAL AND A CORPOREAL SUBSTANCE: AND IN THE FIRST PLACE, CONCERNING WHAT BELONGS TO THE ESSENCE
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9 OF THE SOUL (SEVEN ARTICLES)
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10 </h3>
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11 <p id="FP_Q75-p1"></p>
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12 <p id="FP_Q75-p2"> Having treated of the spiritual and of the corporeal creature, we now proceed to treat of man, who is composed of a spiritual
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13 and corporeal substance. We shall treat first of the nature of man, and secondly of his origin. Now the theologian considers
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14 the nature of man in relation to the soul; but not in relation to the body, except in so far as the body has relation to the
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15 soul. Hence the first object of our consideration will be the soul. And since Dionysius (Ang. Hier. xi) says
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16 that three things are to be found in spiritual substances---essence, power, and operation---we shall treat first of what belongs
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17 to the essence of the soul; secondly, of what belongs to its power; thirdly, of what belongs to its operation.
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18 </p>
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19 <p id="FP_Q75-p3"> Concerning the first, two points have to be considered; the first is the nature of the soul considered in itself; the second
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20 is the union of the soul with the body. Under the first head there are seven points of inquiry.
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21 </p>
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22 <p id="FP_Q75-p4"> (1) Whether the soul is a body?</p>
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23 <p id="FP_Q75-p5"> (2) Whether the human soul is a subsistence?</p>
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24 <p id="FP_Q75-p6"> (3) Whether the souls of brute animals are subsistent?</p>
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25 <p id="FP_Q75-p7"> (4) Whether the soul is man, or is man composed of soul and body?</p>
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26 <p id="FP_Q75-p8"> (5) Whether the soul is composed of matter and form?</p>
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27 <p id="FP_Q75-p9"> (6) Whether the soul is incorruptible?</p>
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28 <p id="FP_Q75-p10"> (7) Whether the soul is of the same species as an angel?</p>
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29 <div id="FP_Q75_A1" class="div4">
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30 <a href="summa.FP_Q75.html"></a>
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31 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html"></a>
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32 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A1-p0.1">Whether the soul is a body?</h4>
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33 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p1"></p>
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34 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p2">
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35 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul is a body. For the soul is the moving principle of the body. Nor does it move unless moved. First,
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36 because seemingly nothing can move unless it is itself moved, since nothing gives what it has not; for instance, what is not
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37 hot does not give heat. Secondly, because if there be anything that moves and is not moved, it must be the cause of eternal,
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38 unchanging movement, as we find proved Phys. viii, 6; and this does not appear to be
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39 the case in the movement of an animal, which is caused by the soul. Therefore the soul is a mover moved. But every mover moved
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40 is a body. Therefore the soul is a body.
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41 </p>
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42 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p3">
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43 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, all knowledge is caused by means of a likeness. But there can be no likeness of a body to an incorporeal thing.
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44 If, therefore, the soul were not a body, it could not have knowledge of corporeal things.
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45 </p>
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46 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p4">
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47 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, between the mover and the moved there must be contact. But contact is only between bodies. Since, therefore, the
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48 soul moves the body, it seems that the soul must be a body.
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49 </p>
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50 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p5">
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51 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 6) that the soul "is simple in comparison with the body, inasmuch as it does not occupy space
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52 by its bulk."
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53 </p>
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54 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p6">
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55 <b>I answer that,</b> To seek the nature of the soul, we must premise that the soul is defined as the first principle of life of those things which
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56 live: for we call living things "animate," [*i.e. having a soul], and those things which have no life, "inanimate." Now life
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57 is shown principally by two actions, knowledge and movement. The philosophers of old, not being able to rise above their imagination,
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58 supposed that the principle of these actions was something corporeal: for
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59 they asserted that only bodies were real things; and that what is not corporeal is nothing: hence they maintained that the
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60 soul is something corporeal. This opinion can be proved to be false in many ways; but we shall make use of only one proof,
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61 based on universal and certain principles, which shows clearly that the soul is not a body.
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62 </p>
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63 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p7"> It is manifest that not every principle of vital action is a soul, for then the eye would be a soul, as it is a principle
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64 of vision; and the same might be applied to the other instruments of the soul: but it is the "first" principle of life, which
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65 we call the soul. Now, though a body may be a principle of life, or to be a living thing, as the heart is a principle of life
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66 in an animal, yet nothing corporeal can be the first principle of life. For it is clear that to be a
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67 principle of life, or to be a living thing, does not belong to a body as such; since, if that were the case, every body would
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68 be a living thing, or a principle of life. Therefore a body is competent to be a living thing or even a principle of life,
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69 as "such" a body. Now that it is actually such a body, it owes to some principle which is called its act. Therefore the soul,
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70 which is the first principle of life, is not a body, but the act of a body; thus heat, which is the principle of
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71 calefaction, is not a body, but an act of a body.
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72 </p>
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73 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p8">
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74 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As everything which is in motion must be moved by something else, a process which cannot be prolonged indefinitely, we must
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75 allow that not every mover is moved. For, since to be moved is to pass from potentiality to actuality, the mover gives what
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76 it has to the thing moved, inasmuch as it causes it to be in act. But, as is shown in Phys. viii, 6, there is a mover which
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77 is altogether immovable, and not moved either essentially, or accidentally; and
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78 such a mover can cause an invariable movement. There is, however, another kind of mover, which, though not moved essentially,
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79 is moved accidentally; and for this reason it does not cause an invariable movement; such a mover, is the soul. There is,
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80 again, another mover, which is moved essentially---namely, the body. And because the philosophers of old believed that nothing
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81 existed but bodies, they maintained that every mover is moved; and that the soul is moved directly, and is a body.
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82 </p>
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83 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p9">
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84 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The likeness of a thing known is not of necessity actually in the nature of the knower; but given a thing which knows potentially,
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85 and afterwards knows actually, the likeness of the thing known must be in the nature of the knower, not actually, but only
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86 potentially; thus color is not actually in the pupil of the eye, but only potentially. Hence it is necessary, not that the
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87 likeness of corporeal things should be actually in the nature of the soul, but
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88 that there be a potentiality in the soul for such a likeness. But the ancient philosophers omitted to distinguish between
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89 actuality and potentiality; and so they held that the soul must be a body in order to have knowledge of a body; and that it
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90 must be composed of the principles of which all bodies are formed in order to know all bodies.
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91 </p>
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92 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p10">
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93 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There are two kinds of contact; of "quantity," and of "power." By the former a body can be touched only by a body; by the
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94 latter a body can be touched by an incorporeal thing, which moves that body.
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95 </p>
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96 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p11"></p>
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97 <p id="FP_Q75_A1-p12"></p>
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98 <a href="summa.FP_Q75.html"></a>
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99 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html"></a>
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100 </div>
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101 <div id="FP_Q75_A2" class="div4">
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102 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html"></a>
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103 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html"></a>
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104 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A2-p0.1">Whether the human soul is something subsistent?</h4>
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105 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p1"></p>
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106 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p2">
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107 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human soul is not something subsistent. For that which subsists is said to be "this particular thing."
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108 Now "this particular thing" is said not of the soul, but of that which is composed of soul and body. Therefore the soul is
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109 not something subsistent.
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110 </p>
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111 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p3">
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112 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, everything subsistent operates. But the soul does not operate; for, as the Philosopher says (De Anima i, 4), "to
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113 say that the soul feels or understands is like saying that the soul weaves or builds." Therefore the soul is not subsistent.
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114 </p>
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115 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p4">
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116 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if the soul were subsistent, it would have some operation apart from the body. But it has no operation apart from
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117 the body, not even that of understanding: for the act of understanding does not take place without a phantasm, which cannot
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118 exist apart from the body. Therefore the human soul is not something subsistent.
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119 </p>
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120 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p5">
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121 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 7): "Who understands that the nature of the soul is that of a substance and not that of a body,
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122 will see that those who maintain the corporeal nature of the soul, are led astray through associating with the soul those
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123 things without which they are unable to think of any nature---i.e. imaginary pictures of corporeal things." Therefore the
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124 nature of the human intellect is not only incorporeal, but it is also a substance, that is,
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125 something subsistent.
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126 </p>
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127 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p6">
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128 <b>I answer that,</b> It must necessarily be allowed that the principle of intellectual operation which we call the soul, is a principle both incorporeal
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129 and subsistent. For it is clear that by means of the intellect man can have knowledge of all corporeal things. Now whatever
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130 knows certain things cannot have any of them in its own nature; because that which is in it naturally would impede the knowledge
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131 of anything else. Thus we observe that a sick man's tongue being vitiated by
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132 a feverish and bitter humor, is insensible to anything sweet, and everything seems bitter to it. Therefore, if the intellectual
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133 principle contained the nature of a body it would be unable to know all bodies. Now every body has its own determinate nature.
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134 Therefore it is impossible for the intellectual principle to be a body. It is likewise impossible for it to understand by
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135 means of a bodily organ; since the determinate nature of that organ would impede knowledge of all bodies; as when a
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136 certain determinate color is not only in the pupil of the eye, but also in a glass vase, the liquid in the vase seems to be
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137 of that same color.
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138 </p>
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139 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p7"> Therefore the intellectual principle which we call the mind or the intellect has an operation "per se" apart from the body.
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140 Now only that which subsists can have an operation "per se." For nothing can operate but what is actual: for which reason
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141 we do not say that heat imparts heat, but that what is hot gives heat. We must conclude, therefore, that the human soul, which
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142 is called the intellect or the mind, is something incorporeal and subsistent.
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143 </p>
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144 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p8">
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145 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> "This particular thing" can be taken in two senses. Firstly, for anything subsistent; secondly, for that which subsists,
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146 and is complete in a specific nature. The former sense excludes the inherence of an accident or of a material form; the latter
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147 excludes also the imperfection of the part, so that a hand can be called "this particular thing" in the first sense, but not
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148 in the second. Therefore, as the human soul is a part of human nature, it can
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149 indeed be called "this particular thing," in the first sense, as being something subsistent; but not in the second, for in
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150 this sense, what is composed of body and soul is said to be "this particular thing."
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151 </p>
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152 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p9">
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153 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Aristotle wrote those words as expressing not his own opinion, but the opinion of those who said that to understand is to
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154 be moved, as is clear from the context. Or we may reply that to operate "per se" belongs to what exists "per se." But for
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155 a thing to exist "per se," it suffices sometimes that it be not inherent, as an accident or a material form; even though it
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156 be part of something. Nevertheless, that is rightly said to subsist "per se," which is
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157 neither inherent in the above sense, nor part of anything else. In this sense, the eye or the hand cannot be said to subsist
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158 "per se"; nor can it for that reason be said to operate "per se." Hence the operation of the parts is through each part attributed
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159 to the whole. For we say that man sees with the eye, and feels with the hand, and not in the same sense as when we say that
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160 what is hot gives heat by its heat; for heat, strictly speaking, does not give heat. We may therefore say that the soul
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161 understands, as the eye sees; but it is more correct to say that man understands through the soul.
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162 </p>
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163 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p10">
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164 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The body is necessary for the action of the intellect, not as its origin of action, but on the part of the object; for the
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165 phantasm is to the intellect what color is to the sight. Neither does such a dependence on the body prove the intellect to
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166 be non-subsistent; otherwise it would follow that an animal is non-subsistent, since it requires external objects of the senses
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167 in order to perform its act of perception.
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168 </p>
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169 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p11"></p>
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170 <p id="FP_Q75_A2-p12"></p>
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171 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html"></a>
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172 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html"></a>
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173 </div>
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174 <div id="FP_Q75_A3" class="div4">
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175 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html"></a>
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176 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A4.html"></a>
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177 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A3-p0.1">Whether the souls of brute animals are subsistent?</h4>
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178 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p1"></p>
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179 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p2">
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180 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the souls of brute animals are subsistent. For man is of the same 'genus' as other animals; and, as we
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181 have just shown
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182 <a id="FP_Q75_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, the soul of man is subsistent. Therefore the souls of other animals are subsistent.
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183 </p>
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184 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p3">
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185 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the relation of the sensitive faculty to sensible objects is like the relation of the intellectual faculty to intelligible
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186 objects. But the intellect, apart from the body, apprehends intelligible objects. Therefore the sensitive faculty, apart from
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187 the body, perceives sensible objects. Therefore, since the souls of brute animals are sensitive, it follows that they are
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188 subsistent; just as the human intellectual soul is subsistent.
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189 </p>
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190 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p4">
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191 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the soul of brute animals moves the body. But the body is not a mover, but is moved. Therefore the soul of brute
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192 animals has an operation apart from the body.
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193 </p>
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194 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p5">
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195 <b>On the contrary,</b> Is what is written in the book De Eccl. Dogm. xvi, xvii: "Man alone we believe to have a subsistent soul: whereas the souls
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196 of animals are not subsistent."
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197 </p>
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198 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p6">
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199 <b>I answer that,</b> The ancient philosophers made no distinction between sense and intellect, and referred both a corporeal principle, as has
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200 been said
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201 <a id="FP_Q75_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Plato, however, drew a distinction between intellect and sense; yet he referred both to an incorporeal principle, maintaining
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202 that sensing, just as understanding, belongs to the soul as such. From this it follows that even the souls of brute animals
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203 are subsistent. But Aristotle held that of the
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204 operations of the soul, understanding alone is performed without a corporeal organ. On the other hand, sensation and the consequent
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205 operations of the sensitive soul are evidently accompanied with change in the body; thus in the act of vision, the pupil of
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206 the eye is affected by a reflection of color: and so with the other senses. Hence it is clear that the sensitive soul has
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207 no "per se" operation of its own, and that every operation of the sensitive soul belongs to the composite. Wherefore we
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208 conclude that as the souls of brute animals have no "per se" operations they are not subsistent. For the operation of anything
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209 follows the mode of its being.
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210 </p>
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211 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p7">
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212 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although man is of the same "genus" as other animals, he is of a different "species." Specific difference is derived from
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213 the difference of form; nor does every difference of form necessarily imply a diversity of "genus."
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214 </p>
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215 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p8">
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216 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The relation of the sensitive faculty to the sensible object is in one way the same as that of the intellectual faculty to
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217 the intelligible object, in so far as each is in potentiality to its object. But in another way their relations differ, inasmuch
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218 as the impression of the object on the sense is accompanied with change in the body; so that excessive strength of the sensible
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219 corrupts sense; a thing that never occurs in the case of the intellect. For
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220 an intellect that understands the highest of intelligible objects is more able afterwards to understand those that are lower.
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221 If, however, in the process of intellectual operation the body is weary, this result is accidental, inasmuch as the intellect
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222 requires the operation of the sensitive powers in the production of the phantasms.
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223 </p>
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224 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p9">
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225 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Motive power is of two kinds. One, the appetitive power, commands motion. The operation of this power in the sensitive soul
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226 is not apart from the body; for anger, joy, and passions of a like nature are accompanied by a change in the body. The other
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227 motive power is that which executes motion in adapting the members for obeying the appetite; and the act of this power does
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228 not consist in moving, but in being moved. Whence it is clear that to move is not
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229 an act of the sensitive soul without the body.
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230 </p>
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231 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p10"></p>
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232 <p id="FP_Q75_A3-p11"></p>
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233 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html"></a>
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234 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A4.html"></a>
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235 </div>
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236 <div id="FP_Q75_A4" class="div4">
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237 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html"></a>
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238 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html"></a>
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239 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A4-p0.1">Whether the soul is man?</h4>
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240 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p1"></p>
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241 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p2">
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242 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul is man. For it is written (
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243 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.4.16" target="asv">2 Cor. 4:16</a>): "Though our outward man is corrupted, yet the inward man is renewed day by day." But that which is within man is the soul.
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244 Therefore the soul is the inward man.
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245 </p>
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246 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p3">
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247 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the human soul is a substance. But it is not a universal substance. Therefore it is a particular substance. Therefore
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248 it is a "hypostasis" or a person; and it can only be a human person. Therefore the soul is man; for a human person is a man.
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249 </p>
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250 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p4">
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251 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (De Civ. Dei xix, 3) commends Varro as holding "that man is not a mere soul, nor a mere body; but both soul and
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252 body."
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253 </p>
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254 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p5">
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255 <b>I answer that,</b> The assertion "the soul is man," can be taken in two senses. First, that man is a soul; though this particular man, Socrates,
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256 for instance, is not a soul, but composed of soul and body. I say this, forasmuch as some held that the form alone belongs
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257 to the species; while matter is part of the individual, and not the species. This cannot be true; for to the nature of the
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258 species belongs what the definition signifies; and in natural things the definition does
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259 not signify the form only, but the form and the matter. Hence in natural things the matter is part of the species; not, indeed,
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260 signate matter, which is the principle of individuality; but the common matter. For as it belongs to the notion of this particular
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261 man to be composed of this soul, of this flesh, and of these bones; so it belongs to the notion of man to be composed of soul,
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262 flesh, and bones; for whatever belongs in common to the substance of all the individuals contained under a given
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263 species, must belong to the substance of the species.
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264 </p>
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265 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p6"> It may also be understood in this sense, that this soul is this man; and this could be held if it were supposed that the
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266 operation of the sensitive soul were proper to it, apart from the body; because in that case all the operations which are
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267 attributed to man would belong to the soul only; and whatever performs the operations proper to a thing, is that thing; wherefore
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268 that which performs the operations of a man is man. But it has been shown above
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269 <a id="FP_Q75_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html">(A[3])</a> that sensation is not the operation of the soul only. Since, then, sensation is an operation of man, but not proper to him,
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270 it is clear that man is not a soul only, but something composed of soul and body. Plato, through supposing that sensation
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271 was proper to the soul, could maintain man to be a soul making use of the body.
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272 </p>
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273 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p7">
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274 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. ix, 8), a thing seems to be chiefly what is principle in it; thus what the governor
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275 of a state does, the state is said to do. In this way sometimes what is principle in man is said to be man; sometimes, indeed,
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276 the intellectual part which, in accordance with truth, is called the "inward" man; and sometimes the sensitive part with the
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277 body is called man in the opinion of those whose observation does not go beyond
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278 the senses. And this is called the "outward" man.
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279 </p>
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280 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p8">
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281 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Not every particular substance is a hypostasis or a person, but that which has the complete nature of its species. Hence
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282 a hand, or a foot, is not called a hypostasis, or a person; nor, likewise, is the soul alone so called, since it is a part
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283 of the human species.
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284 </p>
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285 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p9"></p>
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286 <p id="FP_Q75_A4-p10"></p>
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287 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html"></a>
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288 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html"></a>
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289 </div>
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290 <div id="FP_Q75_A5" class="div4">
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291 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A4.html"></a>
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292 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html"></a>
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293 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A5-p0.1">Whether the soul is composed of matter and form?</h4>
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294 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p1"></p>
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295 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p2">
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296 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul is composed of matter and form. For potentiality is opposed to actuality. Now, whatsoever things
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297 are in actuality participate of the First Act, which is God; by participation of Whom, all things are good, are beings, and
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298 are living things, as is clear from the teaching of Dionysius (Div. Nom. v). Therefore whatsoever things are in potentiality
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299 participate of the first potentiality. But the first potentiality is primary matter.
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300 Therefore, since the human soul is, after a manner, in potentiality; which appears from the fact that sometimes a man is potentially
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301 understanding; it seems that the human soul must participate of primary matter, as part of itself.
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302 </p>
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303 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p3">
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304 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, wherever the properties of matter are found, there matter is. But the properties of matter are found in the soul---namely,
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305 to be a subject, and to be changed, for it is a subject to science, and virtue; and it changes from ignorance to knowledge
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306 and from vice to virtue. Therefore matter is in the soul.
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307 </p>
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308 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p4">
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309 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, things which have no matter, have no cause of their existence, as the Philosopher says Metaph. viii (Did. vii, 6).
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310 But the soul has a cause of its existence, since it is created by God. Therefore the soul has matter.
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311 </p>
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312 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p5">
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313 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, what has no matter, and is a form only, is a pure act, and is infinite. But this belongs to God alone. Therefore
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314 the soul has matter.
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315 </p>
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316 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p6">
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317 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (Gen. ad lit. vii, 7,8,9) proves that the soul was made neither of corporeal matter, nor of spiritual matter.
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318 </p>
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319 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p7">
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320 <b>I answer that,</b> The soul has no matter. We may consider this question in two ways. First, from the notion of a soul in general; for it belongs
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321 to the notion of a soul to be the form of a body. Now, either it is a form by virtue of itself, in its entirety, or by virtue
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322 of some part of itself. If by virtue of itself in its entirety, then it is impossible that any part of it should be matter,
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323 if by matter we understand something purely potential: for a form, as such, is an
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324 act; and that which is purely potentiality cannot be part of an act, since potentiality is repugnant to actuality as being
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325 opposite thereto. If, however, it be a form by virtue of a part of itself, then we call that part the soul: and that matter,
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326 which it actualizes first, we call the "primary animate."
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327 </p>
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328 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p8"> Secondly, we may proceed from the specific notion of the human soul inasmuch as it is intellectual. For it is clear that
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329 whatever is received into something is received according to the condition of the recipient. Now a thing is known in as far
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330 as its form is in the knower. But the intellectual soul knows a thing in its nature absolutely: for instance, it knows a stone
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331 absolutely as a stone; and therefore the form of a stone absolutely, as to its proper formal idea, is in the
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332 intellectual soul. Therefore the intellectual soul itself is an absolute form, and not something composed of matter and form.
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333 For if the intellectual soul were composed of matter and form, the forms of things would be received into it as individuals,
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334 and so it would only know the individual: just as it happens with the sensitive powers which receive forms in a corporeal
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335 organ; since matter is the principle by which forms are individualized. It follows, therefore, that the intellectual soul,
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336 and
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337 every intellectual substance which has knowledge of forms absolutely, is exempt from composition of matter and form.
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338 </p>
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339 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p9">
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340 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The First Act is the universal principle of all acts; because It is infinite, virtually "precontaining all things," as Dionysius
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341 says (Div. Nom. v). Wherefore things participate of It not as a part of themselves, but by diffusion of Its processions. Now
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342 as potentiality is receptive of act, it must be proportionate to act. But the acts received which proceed from the First Infinite
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343 Act, and are participations thereof, are diverse, so that there cannot
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344 be one potentiality which receives all acts, as there is one act, from which all participated acts are derived; for then the
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345 receptive potentiality would equal the active potentiality of the First Act. Now the receptive potentiality in the intellectual
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346 soul is other than the receptive potentiality of first matter, as appears from the diversity of the things received by each.
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347 For primary matter receives individual forms; whereas the intelligence receives absolute forms. Hence the existence of
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348 such a potentiality in the intellectual soul does not prove that the soul is composed of matter and form.
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349 </p>
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350 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p10">
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351 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> To be a subject and to be changed belong to matter by reason of its being in potentiality. As, therefore, the potentiality
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352 of the intelligence is one thing and the potentiality of primary matter another, so in each is there a different reason of
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353 subjection and change. For the intelligence is subject to knowledge, and is changed from ignorance to knowledge, by reason
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354 of its being in potentiality with regard to the intelligible species.
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355 </p>
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356 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p11">
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357 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The form causes matter to be, and so does the agent; wherefore the agent causes matter to be, so far as it actualizes it
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358 by transmuting it to the act of a form. A subsistent form, however, does not owe its existence to some formal principle, nor
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359 has it a cause transmuting it from potentiality to act. So after the words quoted above, the Philosopher concludes, that in
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360 things composed of matter and form "there is no other cause but that which moves from
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361 potentiality to act; while whatsoever things have no matter are simply beings at once." [*The Leonine edition has, "simpliciter
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362 sunt quod vere entia aliquid." The Parma edition of St. Thomas's Commentary on Aristotle has, "statim per se unum quiddam
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363 est . . . et ens quiddam."]
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364 </p>
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365 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p12">
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366 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Everything participated is compared to the participator as its act. But whatever created form be supposed to subsist "per
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367 se," must have existence by participation; for "even life," or anything of that sort, "is a participator of existence," as
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368 Dionysius says (Div. Nom. v). Now participated existence is limited by the capacity of the participator; so that God alone,
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369 Who is His own existence, is pure act and infinite. But in intellectual substances
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370 there is composition of actuality and potentiality, not, indeed, of matter and form, but of form and participated existence.
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371 Wherefore some say that they are composed of that "whereby they are" and that "which they are"; for existence itself is that
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372 by which a thing is.
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373 </p>
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374 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p13"></p>
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375 <p id="FP_Q75_A5-p14"></p>
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376 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A4.html"></a>
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377 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html"></a>
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378 </div>
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379 <div id="FP_Q75_A6" class="div4">
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380 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html"></a>
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381 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A7.html"></a>
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382 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A6-p0.1">Whether the human soul is incorruptible?</h4>
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383 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p1"></p>
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384 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p2">
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385 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human soul is corruptible. For those things that have a like beginning and process seemingly have
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386 a like end. But the beginning, by generation, of men is like that of animals, for they are made from the earth. And the process
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387 of life is alike in both; because "all things breathe alike, and man hath nothing more than the beast," as it is written (
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388 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.3.19" target="asv">Eccles. 3:19</a>). Therefore, as the same text concludes, "the death of man
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389 and beast is one, and the condition of both is equal." But the souls of brute animals are corruptible. Therefore, also, the
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390 human soul is corruptible.
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391 </p>
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392 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p3">
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393 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is out of nothing can return to nothingness; because the end should correspond to the beginning. But as
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394 it is written (
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395 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.2.2" target="asv">Wis. 2:2</a>), "We are born of nothing"; which is true, not only of the body, but also of the soul. Therefore, as is concluded in the
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396 same passage, "After this we shall be as if we had not been," even as to our soul.
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397 </p>
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398 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p4">
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399 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing is without its own proper operation. But the operation proper to the soul, which is to understand through
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400 a phantasm, cannot be without the body. For the soul understands nothing without a phantasm; and there is no phantasm without
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401 the body as the Philosopher says (De Anima i, 1). Therefore the soul cannot survive the dissolution of the body.
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402 </p>
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403 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p5">
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404 <b>On the contrary,</b> Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that human souls owe to Divine goodness that they are "intellectual," and that they have "an
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405 incorruptible substantial life."
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406 </p>
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407 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p6">
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408 <b>I answer that,</b> We must assert that the intellectual principle which we call the human soul is incorruptible. For a thing may be corrupted
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409 in two ways---"per se," and accidentally. Now it is impossible for any substance to be generated or corrupted accidentally,
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410 that is, by the generation or corruption of something else. For generation and corruption belong to a thing, just as existence
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411 belongs to it, which is acquired by generation and lost by corruption. Therefore,
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412 whatever has existence "per se" cannot be generated or corrupted except 'per se'; while things which do not subsist, such
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413 as accidents and material forms, acquire existence or lost it through the generation or corruption of composite things. Now
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414 it was shown above (
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415 <a id="FP_Q75_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,3) that the souls of brutes are not self-subsistent, whereas the human soul is; so that the souls of brutes are corrupted,
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416 when their bodies are corrupted; while the human soul could not be corrupted
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417 unless it were corrupted "per se." This, indeed, is impossible, not only as regards the human soul, but also as regards anything
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418 subsistent that is a form alone. For it is clear that what belongs to a thing by virtue of itself is inseparable from it;
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419 but existence belongs to a form, which is an act, by virtue of itself. Wherefore matter acquires actual existence as it acquires
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420 the form; while it is corrupted so far as the form is separated from it. But it is impossible for a form to be
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421 separated from itself; and therefore it is impossible for a subsistent form to cease to exist.
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422 </p>
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423 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p7"> Granted even that the soul is composed of matter and form, as some pretend, we should nevertheless have to maintain that
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424 it is incorruptible. For corruption is found only where there is contrariety; since generation and corruption are from contraries
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425 and into contraries. Wherefore the heavenly bodies, since they have no matter subject to contrariety, are incorruptible. Now
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426 there can be no contrariety in the intellectual soul; for it receives according to the manner of its
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427 existence, and those things which it receives are without contrariety; for the notions even of contraries are not themselves
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428 contrary, since contraries belong to the same knowledge. Therefore it is impossible for the intellectual soul to be corruptible.
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429 Moreover we may take a sign of this from the fact that everything naturally aspires to existence after its own manner. Now,
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430 in things that have knowledge, desire ensues upon knowledge. The senses indeed do not know existence, except under the
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431 conditions of "here" and "now," whereas the intellect apprehends existence absolutely, and for all time; so that everything
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432 that has an intellect naturally desires always to exist. But a natural desire cannot be in vain. Therefore every intellectual
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433 substance is incorruptible.
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434 </p>
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435 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p8">
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436 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Solomon reasons thus in the person of the foolish, as expressed in the words of
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437 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.2" target="asv">Wisdom 2</a>. Therefore the saying that man and animals have a like beginning in generation is true of the body; for all animals alike
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438 are made of earth. But it is not true of the soul. For the souls of brutes are produced by some power of the body; whereas
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439 the human soul is produced by God. To signify this it is written as to other animals: "Let the earth bring forth the
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440 living soul" (
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441 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.24" target="asv">Gn. 1:24</a>): while of man it is written (
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442 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.7" target="asv">Gn. 2:7</a>) that "He breathed into his face the breath of life." And so in the last chapter of Ecclesiastes (12:7) it is concluded:
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443 "(Before) the dust return into its earth from whence it was; and the spirit return to God Who gave it." Again the process
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444 of life is alike as to the body, concerning which it is written (
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445 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p8.4" href="./asv.html#Eccl.3.19" target="asv">Eccles. 3:19</a>): "All things breathe alike," and (
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446 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q75_A6-p8.5" href="./asv.html#Wis.2.2" target="asv">Wis.
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447 2:2
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448 </a>), "The breath in our nostrils is smoke." But the process is not alike of the soul; for man is intelligent, whereas animals
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449 are not. Hence it is false to say: "Man has nothing more than beasts." Thus death comes to both alike as to the body, by not
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450 as to the soul.
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451 </p>
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452 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p9">
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453 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As a thing can be created by reason, not of a passive potentiality, but only of the active potentiality of the Creator, Who
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454 can produce something out of nothing, so when we say that a thing can be reduced to nothing, we do not imply in the creature
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455 a potentiality to non-existence, but in the Creator the power of ceasing to sustain existence. But a thing is said to be corruptible
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456 because there is in it a potentiality to non-existence.
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457 </p>
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458 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p10">
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459 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To understand through a phantasm is the proper operation of the soul by virtue of its union with the body. After separation
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460 from the body it will have another mode of understanding, similar to other substances separated from bodies, as will appear
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461 later on (
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462 <a id="FP_Q75_A6-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html">Q[89], A[1]</a>).
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463 </p>
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464 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p11"></p>
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465 <p id="FP_Q75_A6-p12"></p>
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466 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html"></a>
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467 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A7.html"></a>
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468 </div>
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469 <div id="FP_Q75_A7" class="div4">
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470 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html"></a>
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471 <a href="summa.FP_Q76.html"></a>
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472 <h4 id="FP_Q75_A7-p0.1">Whether the soul is of the same species as an angel?</h4>
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473 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p1"></p>
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474 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p2">
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475 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul is of the same species as an angel. For each thing is ordained to its proper end by the nature
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476 of its species, whence is derived its inclination for that end. But the end of the soul is the same as that of an angel---namely,
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477 eternal happiness. Therefore they are of the same species.
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478 </p>
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479 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p3">
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480 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the ultimate specific difference is the noblest, because it completes the nature of the species. But there is nothing
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481 nobler either in an angel or in the soul than their intellectual nature. Therefore the soul and the angel agree in the ultimate
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482 specific difference: therefore they belong to the same species.
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483 </p>
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484 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p4">
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485 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it seems that the soul does not differ from an angel except in its union with the body. But as the body is outside
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486 the essence of the soul, it seems that it does not belong to its species. Therefore the soul and angel are of the same species.
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487 </p>
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488 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p5">
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489 <b>On the contrary,</b> Things which have different natural operations are of different species. But the natural operations of the soul and of an
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490 angel are different; since, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii), "Angelic minds have simple and blessed intelligence, not gathering
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491 their knowledge of Divine things from visible things." Subsequently he says the contrary to this of the soul. Therefore the
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492 soul and an angel are not of the same species.
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493 </p>
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494 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p6">
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495 <b>I answer that,</b> Origen (Peri Archon iii, 5) held that human souls and angels are all of the same species; and this because he supposed that
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496 in these substances the difference of degree was accidental, as resulting from their free-will: as we have seen above (
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497 <a id="FP_Q75_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q47_A2.html">Q[47], A[2]</a>). But this cannot be; for in incorporeal substances there cannot be diversity of number without diversity of species and
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498 inequality of nature; because, as they are not composed of
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499 matter and form, but are subsistent forms, it is clear that there is necessarily among them a diversity of species. For a
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500 separate form cannot be understood otherwise than as one of a single species; thus, supposing a separate whiteness to exist,
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501 it could only be one; forasmuch as one whiteness does not differ from another except as in this or that subject. But diversity
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502 of species is always accompanied with a diversity of nature; thus in species of colors one is more perfect than another; and
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503 the same applies to other species, because differences which divide a "genus" are contrary to one another. Contraries, however,
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504 are compared to one another as the perfect to the imperfect, since the "principle of contrariety is habit, and privation thereof,"
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505 as is written Metaph. x (Did. ix, 4). The same would follow if the aforesaid substances were composed of matter and form.
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506 For if the matter of one be distinct from the matter of another, it follows that either the form is the principle of
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507 the distinction of matter---that is to say, that the matter is distinct on account of its relation to divers forms; and even
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508 then there would result a difference of species and inequality of nature: or else the matter is the principle of the distinction
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509 of forms. But one matter cannot be distinct from another, except by a distinction of quantity, which has no place in these
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510 incorporeal substances, such as an angel and the soul. So that it is not possible for the angel and the soul to be of the
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511 same species. How it is that there can be many souls of one species will be explained later (
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512 <a id="FP_Q75_A7-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html">Q[76], A[2]</a>, ad 1).
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513 </p>
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514 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p7">
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515 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument proceeds from the proximate and natural end. Eternal happiness is the ultimate and supernatural end.
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516 </p>
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517 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p8">
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518 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The ultimate specific difference is the noblest because it is the most determinate, in the same way as actuality is nobler
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519 than potentiality. Thus, however, the intellectual faculty is not the noblest, because it is indeterminate and common to many
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520 degrees of intellectuality; as the sensible faculty is common to many degrees in the sensible nature. Hence, as all sensible
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521 things are not of one species, so neither are all intellectual things of one
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522 species.
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523 </p>
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524 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p9">
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525 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The body is not of the essence of the soul; but the soul by the nature of its essence can be united to the body, so that,
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526 properly speaking, not the soul alone, but the "composite," is the species. And the very fact that the soul in a certain way
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527 requires the body for its operation, proves that the soul is endowed with a grade of intellectuality inferior to that of an
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528 angel, who is not united to a body.
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529 </p>
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530 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p10"></p>
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531 <p id="FP_Q75_A7-p11"></p>
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532 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html"></a>
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533 <a href="summa.FP_Q76.html"></a>
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534 </div>
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535 <a href="summa.FP.ix.html"></a>
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536 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html"></a>
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537 </div>
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538 <div id="FP_Q76" class="div3">
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539 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A7.html"></a>
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540 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html"></a>
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541 <h3 id="FP_Q76-p0.1">OF THE UNION OF BODY AND SOUL (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
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542 <p id="FP_Q76-p1"></p>
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543 <p id="FP_Q76-p2"> We now consider the union of the soul with the body; and concerning this there are eight points of inquiry:</p>
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544 <p id="FP_Q76-p3"> (1) Whether the intellectual principle is united to the body as its form?</p>
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545 <p id="FP_Q76-p4"> (2) Whether the intellectual principle is multiplied numerically according to the number of bodies; or is there one intelligence
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546 for all men?
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547 </p>
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548 <p id="FP_Q76-p5"> (3) Whether in the body the form of which is an intellectual principle, there is some other soul?</p>
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549 <p id="FP_Q76-p6"> (4) Whether in the body there is any other substantial form?</p>
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550 <p id="FP_Q76-p7"> (5) Of the qualities required in the body of which the intellectual principle is the form?</p>
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551 <p id="FP_Q76-p8"> (6) Whether it be united to such a body by means of another body?</p>
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552 <p id="FP_Q76-p9"> (7) Whether by means of an accident?</p>
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553 <p id="FP_Q76-p10"> (8) Whether the soul is wholly in each part of the body?</p>
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554 <div id="FP_Q76_A1" class="div4">
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555 <a href="summa.FP_Q76.html"></a>
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556 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html"></a>
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557 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A1-p0.1">Whether the intellectual principle is united to the body as its form?</h4>
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558 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p1"></p>
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559 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p2">
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560 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that the intellectual principle is not united to the body as its form. For the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4)
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561 that the intellect is "separate," and that it is not the act of any body. Therefore it is not united to the body as its form.
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562 </p>
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563 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p3">
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564 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every form is determined according to the nature of the matter of which it is the form; otherwise no proportion
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565 would be required between matter and form. Therefore if the intellect were united to the body as its form, since every body
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566 has a determinate nature, it would follow that the intellect has a determinate nature; and thus, it would not be capable of
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567 knowing all things, as is clear from what has been said (
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568 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], A[2]</a>);
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569 which is contrary to the nature of the intellect. Therefore the intellect is not united to the body as its form.
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570 </p>
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571 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p4">
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572 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever receptive power is an act of a body, receives a form materially and individually; for what is received
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573 must be received according to the condition of the receiver. But the form of the thing understood is not received into the
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574 intellect materially and individually, but rather immaterially and universally: otherwise the intellect would not be capable
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575 of the knowledge of immaterial and universal objects, but only of individuals, like the senses.
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576 Therefore the intellect is not united to the body as its form.
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577 </p>
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578 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p5">
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579 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, power and action have the same subject; for the same subject is what can, and does, act. But the intellectual action
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580 is not the action of a body, as appears from above (
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581 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], A[2]</a>). Therefore neither is the intellectual faculty a power of the body. But virtue or power cannot be more abstract or more
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582 simple than the essence from which the faculty or power is derived. Therefore neither is the substance of the intellect the
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583 form
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584 of a body.
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585 </p>
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586 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p6">
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587 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, whatever has "per se" existence is not united to the body as its form; because a form is that by which a thing exists:
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588 so that the very existence of a form does not belong to the form by itself. But the intellectual principle has "per se" existence
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589 and is subsistent, as was said above (
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590 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], A[2]</a>). Therefore it is not united to the body as its form.
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591 </p>
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592 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p7">
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593 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, whatever exists in a thing by reason of its nature exists in it always. But to be united to matter belongs to the
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594 form by reason of its nature; because form is the act of matter, not by an accidental quality, but by its own essence; otherwise
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595 matter and form would not make a thing substantially one, but only accidentally one. Therefore a form cannot be without its
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596 own proper matter. But the intellectual principle, since it is incorruptible, as was
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597 shown above (
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598 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html">Q[75], A[6]</a>), remains separate from the body, after the dissolution of the body. Therefore the intellectual principle is not united to
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599 the body as its form.
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600 </p>
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601 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p8">
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602 <b>On the contrary,</b> According to the Philosopher, Metaph. viii (Did. vii 2), difference is derived from the form. But the difference which constitutes
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603 man is "rational," which is applied to man on account of his intellectual principle. Therefore the intellectual principle
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604 is the form of man.
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605 </p>
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606 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p9">
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607 <b>I answer that,</b> We must assert that the intellect which is the principle of intellectual operation is the form of the human body. For that
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608 whereby primarily anything acts is a form of the thing to which the act is to be attributed: for instance, that whereby a
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609 body is primarily healed is health, and that whereby the soul knows primarily is knowledge; hence health is a form of the
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610 body, and knowledge is a form of the soul. The reason is because nothing acts except so far as
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611 it is in act; wherefore a thing acts by that whereby it is in act. Now it is clear that the first thing by which the body
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612 lives is the soul. And as life appears through various operations in different degrees of living things, that whereby we primarily
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613 perform each of all these vital actions is the soul. For the soul is the primary principle of our nourishment, sensation,
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614 and local movement; and likewise of our understanding. Therefore this principle by which we primarily understand, whether
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615 it
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616 be called the intellect or the intellectual soul, is the form of the body. This is the demonstration used by Aristotle (De
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617 Anima ii, 2).
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618 </p>
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619 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p10"> But if anyone says that the intellectual soul is not the form of the body he must first explain how it is that this action
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620 of understanding is the action of this particular man; for each one is conscious that it is himself who understands. Now an
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621 action may be attributed to anyone in three ways, as is clear from the Philosopher (Phys. v, 1); for a thing is said to move
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622 or act, either by virtue of its whole self, for instance, as a physician heals; or by virtue of a part, as a
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623 man sees by his eye; or through an accidental quality, as when we say that something that is white builds, because it is accidental
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624 to the builder to be white. So when we say that Socrates or Plato understands, it is clear that this is not attributed to
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625 him accidentally; since it is ascribed to him as man, which is predicated of him essentially. We must therefore say either
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626 that Socrates understands by virtue of his whole self, as Plato maintained, holding that man is an intellectual soul; or
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627 that intelligence is a part of Socrates. The first cannot stand, as was shown above (
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628 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A4.html">Q[75], A[4]</a>), for this reason, that it is one and the same man who is conscious both that he understands, and that he senses. But one
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629 cannot sense without a body: therefore the body must be some part of man. It follows therefore that the intellect by which
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630 Socrates understands is a part of Socrates, so that in some way it is united to the body of Socrates.
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631 </p>
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632 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p11"> The Commentator held that this union is through the intelligible species, as having a double subject, in the possible intellect,
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633 and in the phantasms which are in the corporeal organs. Thus through the intelligible species the possible intellect is linked
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634 to the body of this or that particular man. But this link or union does not sufficiently explain the fact, that the act of
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635 the intellect is the act of Socrates. This can be clearly seen from comparison with the sensitive
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636 faculty, from which Aristotle proceeds to consider things relating to the intellect. For the relation of phantasms to the
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637 intellect is like the relation of colors to the sense of sight, as he says De Anima iii, 5,7. Therefore, as the species of
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638 colors are in the sight, so are the species of phantasms in the possible intellect. Now it is clear that because the colors,
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639 the images of which are in the sight, are on a wall, the action of seeing is not attributed to the wall: for we do not say
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640 that
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641 the wall sees, but rather that it is seen. Therefore, from the fact that the species of phantasms are in the possible intellect,
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642 it does not follow that Socrates, in whom are the phantasms, understands, but that he or his phantasms are understood.
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643 </p>
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644 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p12"> Some, however, tried to maintain that the intellect is united to the body as its motor; and hence that the intellect and
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645 body form one thing so that the act of the intellect could be attributed to the whole. This is, however, absurd for many reasons.
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646 First, because the intellect does not move the body except through the appetite, the movement of which presupposes the operation
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647 of the intellect. The reason therefore why Socrates understands is not because he is moved by his
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648 intellect, but rather, contrariwise, he is moved by his intellect because he understands. Secondly, because since Socrates
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649 is an individual in a nature of one essence composed of matter and form, if the intellect be not the form, it follows that
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650 it must be outside the essence, and then the intellect is the whole Socrates as a motor to the thing moved. Whereas the act
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651 of intellect remains in the agent, and does not pass into something else, as does the action of heating. Therefore the action
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652 of
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653 understanding cannot be attributed to Socrates for the reason that he is moved by his intellect. Thirdly, because the action
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654 of a motor is never attributed to the thing moved, except as to an instrument; as the action of a carpenter to a saw. Therefore
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655 if understanding is attributed to Socrates, as the action of what moves him, it follows that it is attributed to him as to
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656 an instrument. This is contrary to the teaching of the Philosopher, who holds that understanding is not possible through a
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657 corporeal instrument (De Anima iii, 4). Fourthly, because, although the action of a part be attributed to the whole, as the
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658 action of the eye is attributed to a man; yet it is never attributed to another part, except perhaps indirectly; for we do
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659 not say that the hand sees because the eye sees. Therefore if the intellect and Socrates are united in the above manner, the
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660 action of the intellect cannot be attributed to Socrates. If, however, Socrates be a whole composed of a union of the intellect
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661 with whatever else belongs to Socrates, and still the intellect be united to those other things only as a motor, it follows
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662 that Socrates is not one absolutely, and consequently neither a being absolutely, for a thing is a being according as it is
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663 one.
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664 </p>
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665 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p13"> There remains, therefore, no other explanation than that given by Aristotle---namely, that this particular man understands,
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666 because the intellectual principle is his form. Thus from the very operation of the intellect it is made clear that the intellectual
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667 principle is united to the body as its form.
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668 </p>
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669 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p14"> The same can be clearly shown from the nature of the human species. For the nature of each thing is shown by its operation.
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670 Now the proper operation of man as man is to understand; because he thereby surpasses all other animals. Whence Aristotle
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671 concludes (Ethic. x, 7) that the ultimate happiness of man must consist in this operation as properly belonging to him. Man
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672 must therefore derive his species from that which is the principle of this operation. But the species of anything
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673 is derived from its form. It follows therefore that the intellectual principle is the proper form of man.
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674 </p>
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675 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p15"> But we must observe that the nobler a form is, the more it rises above corporeal matter, the less it is merged in matter,
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676 and the more it excels matter by its power and its operation; hence we find that the form of a mixed body has another operation
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677 not caused by its elemental qualities. And the higher we advance in the nobility of forms, the more we find that the power
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678 of the form excels the elementary matter; as the vegetative soul excels the form of the metal, and the
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679 sensitive soul excels the vegetative soul. Now the human soul is the highest and noblest of forms. Wherefore it excels corporeal
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680 matter in its power by the fact that it has an operation and a power in which corporeal matter has no share whatever. This
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681 power is called the intellect.
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682 </p>
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683 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p16"> It is well to remark that if anyone holds that the soul is composed of matter and form, it would follow that in no way could
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684 the soul be the form of the body. For since the form is an act, and matter is only in potentiality, that which is composed
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685 of matter and form cannot be the form of another by virtue of itself as a whole. But if it is a form by virtue of some part
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686 of itself, then that part which is the form we call the soul, and that of which it is the form we call the
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687 "primary animate," as was said above (
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688 <a id="FP_Q76_A1-p16.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>).
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689 </p>
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690 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p17">
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691 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As the Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 2), the ultimate natural form to which the consideration of the natural philosopher is
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692 directed is indeed separate; yet it exists in matter. He proves this from the fact that "man and the sun generate man from
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693 matter." It is separate indeed according to its intellectual power, because the intellectual power does not belong to a corporeal
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694 organ, as the power of seeing is the act of the eye; for understanding is an act
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695 which cannot be performed by a corporeal organ, like the act of seeing. But it exists in matter so far as the soul itself,
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696 to which this power belongs, is the form of the body, and the term of human generation. And so the Philosopher says (De Anima
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697 iii) that the intellect is separate, because it is not the faculty of a corporeal organ.
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698 </p>
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81
|
699 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p18"> <b>Reply to Objections 2
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700 & 3:</b> From this it is clear how to answer the Second and Third objections: since, in order that man may be able to understand all
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64
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701 things by means of his intellect, and that his intellect may understand immaterial things and universals, it is sufficient
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702 that the intellectual power be not the act of the body.
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703 </p>
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704 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p19">
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705 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The human soul, by reason of its perfection, is not a form merged in matter, or entirely embraced by matter. Therefore there
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706 is nothing to prevent some power thereof not being the act of the body, although the soul is essentially the form of the body.
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707 </p>
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708 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p20">
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709 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The soul communicates that existence in which it subsists to the corporeal matter, out of which and the intellectual soul
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710 there results unity of existence; so that the existence of the whole composite is also the existence of the soul. This is
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711 not the case with other non-subsistent forms. For this reason the human soul retains its own existence after the dissolution
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712 of the body; whereas it is not so with other forms.
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713 </p>
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714 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p21">
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715 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> To be united to the body belongs to the soul by reason of itself, as it belongs to a light body by reason of itself to be
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716 raised up. And as a light body remains light, when removed from its proper place, retaining meanwhile an aptitude and an inclination
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717 for its proper place; so the human soul retains its proper existence when separated from the body, having an aptitude and
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718 a natural inclination to be united to the body.
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719 </p>
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720 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p22"></p>
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721 <p id="FP_Q76_A1-p23"></p>
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722 <a href="summa.FP_Q76.html"></a>
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723 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html"></a>
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724 </div>
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725 <div id="FP_Q76_A2" class="div4">
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726 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html"></a>
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727 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A3.html"></a>
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728 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A2-p0.1">Whether the intellectual principle is multiplied according to the number of bodies?</h4>
|
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729 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p1"></p>
|
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730 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p2">
|
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|
731 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual principle is not multiplied according to the number of bodies, but that there is one
|
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|
732 intellect in all men. For an immaterial substance is not multiplied in number within one species. But the human soul is an
|
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|
733 immaterial substance; since it is not composed of matter and form as was shown above (
|
|
|
734 <a id="FP_Q76_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>). Therefore there are not many human souls in one species. But all men are of one species.
|
|
|
735 Therefore there is but one intellect in all men.
|
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|
736 </p>
|
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737 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p3">
|
|
|
738 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, when the cause is removed, the effect is also removed. Therefore, if human souls were multiplied according to the
|
|
|
739 number of bodies, it follows that the bodies being removed, the number of souls would not remain; but from all the souls there
|
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|
740 would be but a single remainder. This is heretical; for it would do away with the distinction of rewards and punishments.
|
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|
741 </p>
|
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|
742 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p4">
|
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|
743 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if my intellect is distinct from your intellect, my intellect is an individual, and so is yours; for individuals
|
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|
744 are things which differ in number but agree in one species. Now whatever is received into anything must be received according
|
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|
745 to the condition of the receiver. Therefore the species of things would be received individually into my intellect, and also
|
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|
746 into yours: which is contrary to the nature of the intellect which knows universals.
|
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|
747 </p>
|
|
|
748 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p5">
|
|
|
749 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the thing understood is in the intellect which understands. If, therefore, my intellect is distinct from yours,
|
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|
750 what is understood by me must be distinct from what is understood by you; and consequently it will be reckoned as something
|
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751 individual, and be only potentially something understood; so that the common intention will have to be abstracted from both;
|
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|
752 since from things diverse something intelligible common to them may be abstracted. But this is
|
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|
753 contrary to the nature of the intellect; for then the intellect would seem not to be distinct from the imagination. It seems,
|
|
|
754 therefore, to follow that there is one intellect in all men.
|
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|
755 </p>
|
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756 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p6">
|
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|
757 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, when the disciple receives knowledge from the master, it cannot be said that the master's knowledge begets knowledge
|
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|
758 in the disciple, because then also knowledge would be an active form, such as heat is, which is clearly false. It seems, therefore,
|
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|
759 that the same individual knowledge which is in the master is communicated to the disciple; which cannot be, unless there is
|
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|
760 one intellect in both. Seemingly, therefore, the intellect of the disciple and
|
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|
761 master is but one; and, consequently, the same applies to all men.
|
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|
762 </p>
|
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|
763 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p7">
|
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|
764 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, Augustine (De Quant. Animae xxxii) says: "If I were to say that there are many human souls, I should laugh at myself."
|
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|
765 But the soul seems to be one chiefly on account of the intellect. Therefore there is one intellect of all men.
|
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|
766 </p>
|
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|
767 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p8">
|
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|
768 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 3) that the relation of universal causes to universals is like the relation of particular
|
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769 causes to individuals. But it is impossible that a soul, one in species, should belong to animals of different species. Therefore
|
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770 it is impossible that one individual intellectual soul should belong to several individuals.
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|
771 </p>
|
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772 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p9">
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|
773 <b>I answer that,</b> It is absolutely impossible for one intellect to belong to all men. This is clear if, as Plato maintained, man is the intellect
|
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774 itself. For it would follow that Socrates and Plato are one man; and that they are not distinct from each other, except by
|
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775 something outside the essence of each. The distinction between Socrates and Plato would be no other than that of one man with
|
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776 a tunic and another with a cloak; which is quite absurd.
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777 </p>
|
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|
778 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p10"> It is likewise clear that this is impossible if, according to the opinion of Aristotle (De Anima ii, 2), it is supposed that
|
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779 the intellect is a part or a power of the soul which is the form of man. For it is impossible for many distinct individuals
|
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780 to have one form, as it is impossible for them to have one existence, for the form is the principle of existence.
|
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|
781 </p>
|
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782 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p11"> Again, this is clearly impossible, whatever one may hold as to the manner of the union of the intellect to this or that man.
|
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783 For it is manifest that, supposing there is one principal agent, and two instruments, we can say that there is one agent absolutely,
|
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|
784 but several actions; as when one man touches several things with his two hands, there will be one who touches, but two contacts.
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785 If, on the contrary, we suppose one instrument and several principal agents, we might say that
|
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|
786 there are several agents, but one act; for example, if there be many drawing a ship by means of a rope; there will be many
|
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787 drawing, but one pull. If, however, there is one principal agent, and one instrument, we say that there is one agent and one
|
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788 action, as when the smith strikes with one hammer, there is one striker and one stroke. Now it is clear that no matter how
|
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789 the intellect is united or coupled to this or that man, the intellect has the precedence of all the other things which appertain
|
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790 to man; for the sensitive powers obey the intellect, and are at its service. Therefore, if we suppose two men to have several
|
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|
791 intellects and one sense---for instance, if two men had one eye---there would be several seers, but one sight. But if there
|
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|
792 is one intellect, no matter how diverse may be all those things of which the intellect makes use as instruments, in no way
|
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|
793 is it possible to say that Socrates and Plato are otherwise than one understanding man. And if to this we add that to
|
|
|
794 understand, which is the act of the intellect, is not affected by any organ other than the intellect itself; it will further
|
|
|
795 follow that there is but one agent and one action: that is to say that all men are but one "understander," and have but one
|
|
|
796 act of understanding, in regard, that is, of one intelligible object.
|
|
|
797 </p>
|
|
|
798 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p12"> However, it would be possible to distinguish my intellectual action form yours by the distinction of the phantasms---that
|
|
|
799 is to say, were there one phantasm of a stone in me, and another in you---if the phantasm itself, as it is one thing in me
|
|
|
800 and another in you, were a form of the possible intellect; since the same agent according to divers forms produces divers
|
|
|
801 actions; as, according to divers forms of things with regard to the same eye, there are divers visions. But the
|
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|
802 phantasm itself is not a form of the possible intellect; it is the intelligible species abstracted from the phantasm that
|
|
|
803 is a form. Now in one intellect, from different phantasms of the same species, only one intelligible species is abstracted;
|
|
|
804 as appears in one man, in whom there may be different phantasms of a stone; yet from all of them only one intelligible species
|
|
|
805 of a stone is abstracted; by which the intellect of that one man, by one operation, understands the nature of a stone,
|
|
|
806 notwithstanding the diversity of phantasms. Therefore, if there were one intellect for all men, the diversity of phantasms
|
|
|
807 which are in this one and that one would not cause a diversity of intellectual operation in this man and that man. It follows,
|
|
|
808 therefore, that it is altogether impossible and unreasonable to maintain that there exists one intellect for all men.
|
|
|
809 </p>
|
|
|
810 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p13">
|
|
|
811 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the intellectual soul, like an angel, has no matter from which it is produced, yet it is the form of a certain matter;
|
|
|
812 in which it is unlike an angel. Therefore, according to the division of matter, there are many souls of one species; while
|
|
|
813 it is quite impossible for many angels to be of one species.
|
|
|
814 </p>
|
|
|
815 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p14">
|
|
|
816 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Everything has unity in the same way that it has being; consequently we must judge of the multiplicity of a thing as we judge
|
|
|
817 of its being. Now it is clear that the intellectual soul, by virtue of its very being, is united to the body as its form;
|
|
|
818 yet, after the dissolution of the body, the intellectual soul retains its own being. In like manner the multiplicity of souls
|
|
|
819 is in proportion to the multiplicity of the bodies; yet, after the dissolution of
|
|
|
820 the bodies, the souls retain their multiplied being.
|
|
|
821 </p>
|
|
|
822 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p15">
|
|
|
823 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Individuality of the intelligent being, or of the species whereby it understands, does not exclude the understanding of universals;
|
|
|
824 otherwise, since separate intellects are subsistent substances, and consequently individual, they could not understand universals.
|
|
|
825 But the materiality of the knower, and of the species whereby it knows, impedes the knowledge of the universal. For as every
|
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|
826 action is according to the mode of the form by which the agent
|
|
|
827 acts, as heating is according to the mode of the heat; so knowledge is according to the mode of the species by which the knower
|
|
|
828 knows. Now it is clear that common nature becomes distinct and multiplied by reason of the individuating principles which
|
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|
829 come from the matter. Therefore if the form, which is the means of knowledge, is material---that is, not abstracted from material
|
|
|
830 conditions---its likeness to the nature of a species or genus will be according to the distinction and multiplication
|
|
|
831 of that nature by means of individuating principles; so that knowledge of the nature of a thing in general will be impossible.
|
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|
832 But if the species be abstracted from the conditions of individual matter, there will be a likeness of the nature without
|
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|
833 those things which make it distinct and multiplied; thus there will be knowledge of the universal. Nor does it matter, as
|
|
|
834 to this particular point, whether there be one intellect or many; because, even if there were but one, it would necessarily
|
|
|
835 be
|
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|
836 an individual intellect, and the species whereby it understands, an individual species.
|
|
|
837 </p>
|
|
|
838 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p16">
|
|
|
839 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Whether the intellect be one or many, what is understood is one; for what is understood is in the intellect, not according
|
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|
840 to its own nature, but according to its likeness; for "the stone is not in the soul, but its likeness is," as is said, De
|
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|
841 Anima iii, 8. Yet it is the stone which is understood, not the likeness of the stone; except by a reflection of the intellect
|
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|
842 on itself: otherwise, the objects of sciences would not be things, but only
|
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|
843 intelligible species. Now it happens that different things, according to different forms, are likened to the same thing. And
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|
844 since knowledge is begotten according to the assimilation of the knower to the thing known, it follows that the same thing
|
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|
845 may happen to be known by several knowers; as is apparent in regard to the senses; for several see the same color, according
|
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|
846 to different likenesses. In the same way several intellects understand one object understood. But there is this difference,
|
|
|
847 according to the opinion of Aristotle, between the sense and the intelligence---that a thing is perceived by the sense according
|
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|
848 to the disposition which it has outside the soul ---that is, in its individuality; whereas the nature of the thing understood
|
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|
849 is indeed outside the soul, but the mode according to which it exists outside the soul is not the mode according to which
|
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|
850 it is understood. For the common nature is understood as apart from the individuating principles; whereas such is not its
|
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851 mode of existence outside the soul. But, according to the opinion of Plato, the thing understood exists outside the soul in
|
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|
852 the same condition as those under which it is understood; for he supposed that the natures of things exist separate from matter.
|
|
|
853 </p>
|
|
|
854 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p17">
|
|
|
855 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> One knowledge exists in the disciple and another in the master. How it is caused will be shown later on (
|
|
|
856 <a id="FP_Q76_A2-p17.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q117_A1.html">Q[117], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
857 </p>
|
|
|
858 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p18">
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|
859 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Augustine denies a plurality of souls, that would involve a plurality of species.
|
|
|
860 </p>
|
|
|
861 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p19"></p>
|
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|
862 <p id="FP_Q76_A2-p20"></p>
|
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|
863 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
864 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
865 </div>
|
|
|
866 <div id="FP_Q76_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
867 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
868 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html"></a>
|
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869 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A3-p0.1">Whether besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another?</h4>
|
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|
870 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
871 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p2">
|
|
|
872 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another, such
|
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|
873 as the sensitive soul and the nutritive soul. For corruptible and incorruptible are not of the same substance. But the intellectual
|
|
|
874 soul is incorruptible; whereas the other souls, as the sensitive and the nutritive, are corruptible, as was shown above (
|
|
|
875 <a id="FP_Q76_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A6.html">Q[75], A[6]</a>). Therefore in man the essence of the intellectual
|
|
|
876 soul, the sensitive soul, and the nutritive soul, cannot be the same.
|
|
|
877 </p>
|
|
|
878 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p3">
|
|
|
879 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if it be said that the sensitive soul in man is incorruptible; on the contrary, "corruptible and incorruptible differ
|
|
|
880 generically," says the Philosopher, Metaph. x (Did. ix, 10). But the sensitive soul in the horse, the lion, and other brute
|
|
|
881 animals, is corruptible. If, therefore, in man it be incorruptible, the sensitive soul in man and brute animals will not be
|
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|
882 of the same "genus." Now an animal is so called from its having a sensitive soul; and,
|
|
|
883 therefore, "animal" will not be one genus common to man and other animals, which is absurd.
|
|
81
|
884 </p><p id="FP_Q76_A3-p3a"><!-- Added by HST, missing
|
|
|
885 in original, copied from
|
|
|
886 http://www.nd.edu/~afreddos/summa-translation/Part%201/st1-ques76.pdf --><b>Objection 3:</b> In <i>De Generatione Animalium</i> the Philosopher claims that the embryo is an animal
|
|
|
887 before being a man. But this cannot be the case if the same essence belongs to both the sentient soul and
|
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|
888 the intellective soul, since something is an animal through the sentient soul and a man through the
|
|
|
889 intellective soul. Therefore, it is not the case that in a man the sentient and intellective souls have a
|
|
|
890 single essence.</p>
|
|
|
891 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p4"><!-- labelled Objection 3 in
|
|
|
892 the original -->
|
|
|
893 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Philosopher says, Metaph. viii (Did. vii, 2), that the genus is taken from the matter, and difference from the
|
|
64
|
894 form. But "rational," which is the difference constituting man, is taken from the intellectual soul; while he is called "animal"
|
|
|
895 by reason of his having a body animated by a sensitive soul. Therefore the intellectual soul may be compared to the body animated
|
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|
896 by a sensitive soul, as form to matter. Therefore in man the intellectual soul is
|
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|
897 not essentially the same as the sensitive soul, but presupposes it as a material subject.
|
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|
898 </p>
|
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899 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p5">
|
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900 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said in the book De Ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus xv: "Nor do we say that there are two souls in one man, as James and
|
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|
901 other Syrians write; one, animal, by which the body is animated, and which is mingled with the blood; the other, spiritual,
|
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|
902 which obeys the reason; but we say that it is one and the same soul in man, that both gives life to the body by being united
|
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903 to it, and orders itself by its own reasoning."
|
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|
904 </p>
|
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|
905 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p6">
|
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|
906 <b>I answer that,</b> Plato held that there were several souls in one body, distinct even as to organs, to which souls he referred the different
|
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907 vital actions, saying that the nutritive power is in the liver, the concupiscible in the heart, and the power of knowledge
|
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908 in the brain. Which opinion is rejected by Aristotle (De Anima ii, 2), with regard to those parts of the soul which use corporeal
|
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909 organs; for this reason, that in those animals which continue to live when they have
|
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910 been divided in each part are observed the operations of the soul, as sense and appetite. Now this would not be the case if
|
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|
911 the various principles of the soul's operations were essentially different, and distributed in the various parts of the body.
|
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|
912 But with regard to the intellectual part, he seems to leave it in doubt whether it be "only logically" distinct from the other
|
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913 parts of the soul, "or also locally."
|
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|
914 </p>
|
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|
915 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p7"> The opinion of Plato might be maintained if, as he held, the soul was supposed to be united to the body, not as its form,
|
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|
916 but as its motor. For it involves nothing unreasonable that the same movable thing be moved by several motors; and still less
|
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|
917 if it be moved according to its various parts. If we suppose, however, that the soul is united to the body as its form, it
|
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|
918 is quite impossible for several essentially different souls to be in one body. This can be made clear by three
|
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|
919 different reasons.
|
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|
920 </p>
|
|
|
921 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p8"> In the first place, an animal would not be absolutely one, in which there were several souls. For nothing is absolutely one
|
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|
922 except by one form, by which a thing has existence: because a thing has from the same source both existence and unity; and
|
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|
923 therefore things which are denominated by various forms are not absolutely one; as, for instance, "a white man." If, therefore,
|
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|
924 man were 'living' by one form, the vegetative soul, and 'animal' by another form, the sensitive soul, and
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925 "man" by another form, the intellectual soul, it would follow that man is not absolutely one. Thus Aristotle argues, Metaph.
|
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|
926 viii (Did. vii, 6), against Plato, that if the idea of an animal is distinct from the idea of a biped, then a biped animal
|
|
|
927 is not absolutely one. For this reason, against those who hold that there are several souls in the body, he asks (De Anima
|
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|
928 i, 5), "what contains them?"---that is, what makes them one? It cannot be said that they are united by the one body; because
|
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929 rather does the soul contain the body and make it one, than the reverse.
|
|
|
930 </p>
|
|
|
931 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p9"> Secondly, this is proved to be impossible by the manner in which one thing is predicated of another. Those things which are
|
|
|
932 derived from various forms are predicated of one another, either accidentally, (if the forms are not ordered to one another,
|
|
|
933 as when we say that something white is sweet), or essentially, in the second manner of essential predication, (if the forms
|
|
|
934 are ordered one to another, the subject belonging to the definition of the predicate; as a surface is
|
|
|
935 presupposed to color; so that if we say that a body with a surface is colored, we have the second manner of essential predication.)
|
|
|
936 Therefore, if we have one form by which a thing is an animal, and another form by which it is a man, it follows either that
|
|
|
937 one of these two things could not be predicated of the other, except accidentally, supposing these two forms not to be ordered
|
|
|
938 to one another---or that one would be predicated of the other according to the second manner of essential
|
|
|
939 predication, if one soul be presupposed to the other. But both of these consequences are clearly false: because "animal" is
|
|
|
940 predicated of man essentially and not accidentally; and man is not part of the definition of an animal, but the other way
|
|
|
941 about. Therefore of necessity by the same form a thing is animal and man; otherwise man would not really be the thing which
|
|
|
942 is an animal, so that animal can be essentially predicated of man.
|
|
|
943 </p>
|
|
|
944 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p10"> Thirdly, this is shown to be impossible by the fact that when one operation of the soul is intense it impedes another, which
|
|
|
945 could never be the case unless the principle of action were essentially one.
|
|
|
946 </p>
|
|
|
947 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p11"> We must therefore conclude that in man the sensitive soul, the intellectual soul, and the nutritive soul are numerically
|
|
|
948 one soul. This can easily be explained, if we consider the differences of species and forms. For we observe that the species
|
|
|
949 and forms of things differ from one another, as the perfect and imperfect; as in the order of things, the animate are more
|
|
|
950 perfect than the inanimate, and animals more perfect than plants, and man than brute animals; and in each of these
|
|
|
951 genera there are various degrees. For this reason Aristotle, Metaph. viii (Did. vii, 3), compares the species of things to
|
|
|
952 numbers, which differ in species by the addition or subtraction of unity. And (De Anima ii, 3) he compares the various souls
|
|
|
953 to the species of figures, one of which contains another; as a pentagon contains and exceeds a tetragon. Thus the intellectual
|
|
|
954 soul contains virtually whatever belongs to the sensitive soul of brute animals, and to the nutritive souls of plants.
|
|
|
955 Therefore, as a surface which is of a pentagonal shape, is not tetragonal by one shape, and pentagonal by another---since
|
|
|
956 a tetragonal shape would be superfluous as contained in the pentagonal---so neither is Socrates a man by one soul, and animal
|
|
|
957 by another; but by one and the same soul he is both animal and man.
|
|
|
958 </p>
|
|
|
959 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p12">
|
|
|
960 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sensitive soul is incorruptible, not by reason of its being sensitive, but by reason of its being intellectual. When,
|
|
|
961 therefore, a soul is sensitive only, it is corruptible; but when with sensibility it has also intellectuality, it is incorruptible.
|
|
|
962 For although sensibility does not give incorruptibility, yet it cannot deprive intellectuality of its incorruptibility.
|
|
|
963 </p>
|
|
|
964 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p13">
|
|
|
965 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Not forms, but composites, are classified either generically or specifically. Now man is corruptible like other animals.
|
|
|
966 And so the difference of corruptible and incorruptible which is on the part of the forms does not involve a generic difference
|
|
|
967 between man and the other animals.
|
|
|
968 </p>
|
|
|
969 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p14">
|
|
|
970 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The embryo has first of all a soul which is merely sensitive, and when this is removed, it is supplanted by a more perfect
|
|
|
971 soul, which is both sensitive and intellectual: as will be shown further on (
|
|
|
972 <a id="FP_Q76_A3-p14.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q118_A2.html">Q[118], A[2]</a>, ad 2).
|
|
|
973 </p>
|
|
|
974 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p15">
|
|
|
975 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> We must not consider the diversity of natural things as proceeding from the various logical notions or intentions, which
|
|
|
976 flow from our manner of understanding, because reason can apprehend one and the same thing in various ways. Therefore since,
|
|
|
977 as we have said, the intellectual soul contains virtually what belongs to the sensitive soul, and something more, reason can
|
|
|
978 consider separately what belongs to the power of the sensitive soul, as something
|
|
|
979 imperfect and material. And because it observes that this is something common to man and to other animals, it forms thence
|
|
|
980 the notion of the "genus"; while that wherein the intellectual soul exceeds the sensitive soul, it takes as formal and perfecting;
|
|
|
981 thence it gathers the "difference" of man.
|
|
|
982 </p>
|
|
|
983 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p16"></p>
|
|
|
984 <p id="FP_Q76_A3-p17"></p>
|
|
|
985 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
986 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
987 </div>
|
|
|
988 <div id="FP_Q76_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
989 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
990 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
991 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A4-p0.1">Whether in man there is another form besides the intellectual soul?</h4>
|
|
|
992 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
993 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p2">
|
|
|
994 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in man there is another form besides the intellectual soul. For the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 1),
|
|
|
995 that "the soul is the act of a physical body which has life potentially." Therefore the soul is to the body as a form of matter.
|
|
|
996 But the body has a substantial form by which it is a body. Therefore some other substantial form in the body precedes the
|
|
|
997 soul.
|
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|
998 </p>
|
|
|
999 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p3">
|
|
|
1000 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, man moves himself as every animal does. Now everything that moves itself is divided into two parts, of which one
|
|
|
1001 moves, and the other is moved, as the Philosopher proves (Phys. viii, 5). But the part which moves is the soul. Therefore
|
|
|
1002 the other part must be such that it can be moved. But primary matter cannot be moved (Phys. v, 1), since it is a being only
|
|
|
1003 potentially; indeed everything that is moved is a body. Therefore in man and in every animal
|
|
|
1004 there must be another substantial form, by which the body is constituted.
|
|
|
1005 </p>
|
|
|
1006 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p4">
|
|
|
1007 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the order of forms depends on their relation to primary matter; for "before" and "after" apply by comparison to
|
|
|
1008 some beginning. Therefore if there were not in man some other substantial form besides the rational soul, and if this were
|
|
|
1009 to inhere immediately to primary matter; it would follow that it ranks among the most imperfect forms which inhere to matter
|
|
|
1010 immediately.
|
|
|
1011 </p>
|
|
|
1012 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p5">
|
|
|
1013 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the human body is a mixed body. Now mingling does not result from matter alone; for then we should have mere corruption.
|
|
|
1014 Therefore the forms of the elements must remain in a mixed body; and these are substantial forms. Therefore in the human body
|
|
|
1015 there are other substantial forms besides the intellectual soul.
|
|
|
1016 </p>
|
|
|
1017 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p6">
|
|
|
1018 <b>On the contrary,</b> Of one thing there is but one substantial being. But the substantial form gives substantial being. Therefore of one thing
|
|
|
1019 there is but one substantial form. But the soul is the substantial form of man. Therefore it is impossible for there to be
|
|
|
1020 in man another substantial form besides the intellectual soul.
|
|
|
1021 </p>
|
|
|
1022 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p7">
|
|
|
1023 <b>I answer that,</b> If we suppose that the intellectual soul is not united to the body as its form, but only as its motor, as the Platonists
|
|
|
1024 maintain, it would necessarily follow that in man there is another substantial form, by which the body is established in its
|
|
|
1025 being as movable by the soul. If, however, the intellectual soul be united to the body as its substantial form, as we have
|
|
|
1026 said above
|
|
|
1027 <a id="FP_Q76_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it is impossible for another substantial form
|
|
|
1028 besides the intellectual soul to be found in man.
|
|
|
1029 </p>
|
|
|
1030 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p8"> In order to make this evident, we must consider that the substantial form differs from the accidental form in this, that
|
|
|
1031 the accidental form does not make a thing to be "simply," but to be "such," as heat does not make a thing to be simply, but
|
|
|
1032 only to be hot. Therefore by the coming of the accidental form a thing is not said to be made or generated simply, but to
|
|
|
1033 be made such, or to be in some particular condition; and in like manner, when an accidental form is removed, a thing
|
|
|
1034 is said to be corrupted, not simply, but relatively. Now the substantial form gives being simply; therefore by its coming
|
|
|
1035 a thing is said to be generated simply; and by its removal to be corrupted simply. For this reason, the old natural philosophers,
|
|
|
1036 who held that primary matter was some actual being---for instance, fire or air, or something of that sort---maintained that
|
|
|
1037 nothing is generated simply, or corrupted simply; and stated that "every becoming is nothing but an alteration," as we
|
|
|
1038 read, Phys. i, 4. Therefore, if besides the intellectual soul there pre-existed in matter another substantial form by which
|
|
|
1039 the subject of the soul were made an actual being, it would follow that the soul does not give being simply; and consequently
|
|
|
1040 that it is not the substantial form: and so at the advent of the soul there would not be simple generation; nor at its removal
|
|
|
1041 simple corruption, all of which is clearly false.
|
|
|
1042 </p>
|
|
|
1043 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p9"> Whence we must conclude, that there is no other substantial form in man besides the intellectual soul; and that the soul,
|
|
|
1044 as it virtually contains the sensitive and nutritive souls, so does it virtually contain all inferior forms, and itself alone
|
|
|
1045 does whatever the imperfect forms do in other things. The same is to be said of the sensitive soul in brute animals, and of
|
|
|
1046 the nutritive soul in plants, and universally of all more perfect forms with regard to the imperfect.
|
|
|
1047 </p>
|
|
|
1048 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p10">
|
|
|
1049 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Aristotle does not say that the soul is the act of a body only, but "the act of a physical organic body which has life potentially";
|
|
|
1050 and that this potentiality "does not reject the soul." Whence it is clear that when the soul is called the act, the soul itself
|
|
|
1051 is included; as when we say that heat is the act of what is hot, and light of what is lucid; not as though lucid and light
|
|
|
1052 were two separate things, but because a thing is made lucid by the
|
|
|
1053 light. In like manner, the soul is said to be the "act of a body," etc., because by the soul it is a body, and is organic,
|
|
|
1054 and has life potentially. Yet the first act is said to be in potentiality to the second act, which is operation; for such
|
|
|
1055 a potentiality "does not reject"---that is, does not exclude---the soul.
|
|
|
1056 </p>
|
|
|
1057 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p11">
|
|
|
1058 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The soul does not move the body by its essence, as the form of the body, but by the motive power, the act of which presupposes
|
|
|
1059 the body to be already actualized by the soul: so that the soul by its motive power is the part which moves; and the animate
|
|
|
1060 body is the part moved.
|
|
|
1061 </p>
|
|
|
1062 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p12">
|
|
|
1063 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> We observe in matter various degrees of perfection, as existence, living, sensing, and understanding. Now what is added is
|
|
|
1064 always more perfect. Therefore that form which gives matter only the first degree of perfection is the most imperfect; while
|
|
|
1065 that form which gives the first, second, and third degree, and so on, is the most perfect: and yet it inheres to matter immediately.
|
|
|
1066 </p>
|
|
|
1067 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p13">
|
|
|
1068 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Avicenna held that the substantial forms of the elements remain entire in the mixed body; and that the mixture is made by
|
|
|
1069 the contrary qualities of the elements being reduced to an average. But this is impossible, because the various forms of the
|
|
|
1070 elements must necessarily be in various parts of matter; for the distinction of which we must suppose dimensions, without
|
|
|
1071 which matter cannot be divisible. Now matter subject to dimension is not to be found
|
|
|
1072 except in a body. But various bodies cannot be in the same place. Whence it follows that elements in the mixed body would
|
|
|
1073 be distinct as to situation. And then there would not be a real mixture which is in respect of the whole; but only a mixture
|
|
|
1074 apparent to sense, by the juxtaposition of particles.
|
|
|
1075 </p>
|
|
|
1076 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p14"> Averroes maintained that the forms of elements, by reason of their imperfection, are a medium between accidental and substantial
|
|
|
1077 forms, and so can be "more" or "less"; and therefore in the mixture they are modified and reduced to an average, so that one
|
|
|
1078 form emerges from them. But this is even still more impossible. For the substantial being of each thing consists in something
|
|
|
1079 indivisible, and every addition and subtraction varies the species, as in numbers, as stated in Metaph.
|
|
|
1080 viii (Did. vii, 3); and consequently it is impossible for any substantial form to receive "more" or "less." Nor is it less
|
|
|
1081 impossible for anything to be a medium between substance and accident.
|
|
|
1082 </p>
|
|
|
1083 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p15"> Therefore we must say, in accordance with the Philosopher (De Gener. i, 10), that the forms of the elements remain in the
|
|
|
1084 mixed body, not actually but virtually. For the proper qualities of the elements remain, though modified; and in them is the
|
|
|
1085 power of the elementary forms. This quality of the mixture is the proper disposition for the substantial form of the mixed
|
|
|
1086 body; for instance, the form of a stone, or of any sort of soul.
|
|
|
1087 </p>
|
|
|
1088 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p16"></p>
|
|
|
1089 <p id="FP_Q76_A4-p17"></p>
|
|
|
1090 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1091 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1092 </div>
|
|
|
1093 <div id="FP_Q76_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
1094 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1095 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1096 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A5-p0.1">Whether the intellectual soul is properly united to such a body?</h4>
|
|
|
1097 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1098 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p2">
|
|
|
1099 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual soul is improperly united to such a body. For matter must be proportionate to the form.
|
|
|
1100 But the intellectual soul is incorruptible. Therefore it is not properly united to a corruptible body.
|
|
|
1101 </p>
|
|
|
1102 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p3">
|
|
|
1103 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellectual soul is a perfectly immaterial form; a proof whereof is its operation in which corporeal matter
|
|
|
1104 does not share. But the more subtle is the body, the less has it of matter. Therefore the soul should be united to a most
|
|
|
1105 subtle body, to fire, for instance, and not to a mixed body, still less to a terrestrial body.
|
|
|
1106 </p>
|
|
|
1107 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p4">
|
|
|
1108 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since the form is the principle of the species, one form cannot produce a variety of species. But the intellectual
|
|
|
1109 soul is one form. Therefore, it should not be united to a body which is composed of parts belonging to various species.
|
|
|
1110 </p>
|
|
|
1111 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p5">
|
|
|
1112 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, what is susceptible of a more perfect form should itself be more perfect. But the intellectual soul is the most
|
|
|
1113 perfect of souls. Therefore since the bodies of other animals are naturally provided with a covering, for instance, with hair
|
|
|
1114 instead of clothes, and hoofs instead of shoes; and are, moreover, naturally provided with arms, as claws, teeth, and horns;
|
|
|
1115 it seems that the intellectual soul should not have been united to a body which is imperfect
|
|
|
1116 as being deprived of the above means of protection.
|
|
|
1117 </p>
|
|
|
1118 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p6">
|
|
|
1119 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 1), that "the soul is the act of a physical organic body having life potentially."
|
|
|
1120 </p>
|
|
|
1121 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p7">
|
|
|
1122 <b>I answer that,</b> Since the form is not for the matter, but rather the matter for the form, we must gather from the form the reason why the
|
|
|
1123 matter is such as it is; and not conversely. Now the intellectual soul, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
1124 <a id="FP_Q76_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q55_A2.html">Q[55], A[2]</a>) in the order of nature, holds the lowest place among intellectual substances; inasmuch as it is not naturally gifted with
|
|
|
1125 the knowledge of truth, as the angels are; but has to gather knowledge from
|
|
|
1126 individual things by way of the senses, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii). But nature never fails in necessary things: therefore
|
|
|
1127 the intellectual soul had to be endowed not only with the power of understanding, but also with the power of feeling. Now
|
|
|
1128 the action of the senses is not performed without a corporeal instrument. Therefore it behooved the intellectual soul to be
|
|
|
1129 united to a body fitted to be a convenient organ of sense.
|
|
|
1130 </p>
|
|
|
1131 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p8"> Now all the other senses are based on the sense of touch. But the organ of touch requires to be a medium between contraries,
|
|
|
1132 such as hot and cold, wet and dry, and the like, of which the sense of touch has the perception; thus it is in potentiality
|
|
|
1133 with regard to contraries, and is able to perceive them. Therefore the more the organ of touch is reduced to an equable complexion,
|
|
|
1134 the more sensitive will be the touch. But the intellectual soul has the power of sense in all its
|
|
|
1135 completeness; because what belongs to the inferior nature pre-exists more perfectly in the superior, as Dionysius says (Div.
|
|
|
1136 Nom. v). Therefore the body to which the intellectual soul is united should be a mixed body, above others reduced to the most
|
|
|
1137 equable complexion. For this reason among animals, man has the best sense of touch. And among men, those who have the best
|
|
|
1138 sense of touch have the best intelligence. A sign of which is that we observe "those who are refined in body are well endowed
|
|
|
1139 in mind," as stated in De Anima ii, 9.
|
|
|
1140 </p>
|
|
|
1141 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p9">
|
|
|
1142 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Perhaps someone might attempt to answer this by saying that before sin the human body was incorruptible. This answer does
|
|
|
1143 not seem sufficient; because before sin the human body was immortal not by nature, but by a gift of Divine grace; otherwise
|
|
|
1144 its immortality would not be forfeited through sin, as neither was the immortality of the devil.
|
|
|
1145 </p>
|
|
|
1146 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p10"> Therefore we answer otherwise by observing that in matter two conditions are to be found; one which is chosen in order that
|
|
|
1147 the matter be suitable to the form; the other which follows by force of the first disposition. The artisan, for instance,
|
|
|
1148 for the form of the saw chooses iron adapted for cutting through hard material; but that the teeth of the saw may become blunt
|
|
|
1149 and rusted, follows by force of the matter itself. So the intellectual soul requires a body of equable
|
|
|
1150 complexion, which, however, is corruptible by force of its matter. If, however, it be said that God could avoid this, we answer
|
|
|
1151 that in the formation of natural things we do not consider what God might do; but what is suitable to the nature of things,
|
|
|
1152 as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ii, 1). God, however, provided in this case by applying a remedy against death in the gift
|
|
|
1153 of grace.
|
|
|
1154 </p>
|
|
|
1155 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p11">
|
|
|
1156 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A body is not necessary to the intellectual soul by reason of its intellectual operation considered as such; but on account
|
|
|
1157 of the sensitive power, which requires an organ of equable temperament. Therefore the intellectual soul had to be united to
|
|
|
1158 such a body, and not to a simple element, or to a mixed body, in which fire was in excess; because otherwise there could not
|
|
|
1159 be an equability of temperament. And this body of an equable temperament has a
|
|
|
1160 dignity of its own by reason of its being remote from contraries, thereby resembling in a way a heavenly body.
|
|
|
1161 </p>
|
|
|
1162 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p12">
|
|
|
1163 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The parts of an animal, for instance, the eye, hand, flesh, and bones, and so forth, do not make the species; but the whole
|
|
|
1164 does, and therefore, properly speaking, we cannot say that these are of different species, but that they are of various dispositions.
|
|
|
1165 This is suitable to the intellectual soul, which, although it be one in its essence, yet on account of its perfection, is
|
|
|
1166 manifold in power: and therefore, for its various operations it requires
|
|
|
1167 various dispositions in the parts of the body to which it is united. For this reason we observe that there is a greater variety
|
|
|
1168 of parts in perfect than in imperfect animals; and in these a greater variety than in plants.
|
|
|
1169 </p>
|
|
|
1170 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p13">
|
|
|
1171 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The intellectual soul as comprehending universals, has a power extending to the infinite; therefore it cannot be limited
|
|
|
1172 by nature to certain fixed natural notions, or even to certain fixed means whether of defence or of clothing, as is the case
|
|
|
1173 with other animals, the souls of which are endowed with knowledge and power in regard to fixed particular things. Instead
|
|
|
1174 of all these, man has by nature his reason and his hands, which are "the organs of
|
|
|
1175 organs" (De Anima iii), since by their means man can make for himself instruments of an infinite variety, and for any number
|
|
|
1176 of purposes.
|
|
|
1177 </p>
|
|
|
1178 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p14"></p>
|
|
|
1179 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p15"></p>
|
|
|
1180 <p id="FP_Q76_A5-p16"></p>
|
|
|
1181 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1182 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1183 </div>
|
|
|
1184 <div id="FP_Q76_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
1185 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1186 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1187 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A6-p0.1">Whether the intellectual soul is united to the body through the medium of accidental dispositions?</h4>
|
|
|
1188 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1189 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p2">
|
|
|
1190 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual soul is united to the body through the medium of accidental dispositions. For every form
|
|
|
1191 exists in its proper disposed matter. But dispositions to a form are accidents. Therefore we must presuppose accidents to
|
|
|
1192 be in matter before the substantial form; and therefore before the soul, since the soul is a substantial form.
|
|
|
1193 </p>
|
|
|
1194 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p3">
|
|
|
1195 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, various forms of one species require various parts of matter. But various parts of matter are unintelligible without
|
|
|
1196 division in measurable quantities. Therefore we must suppose dimensions in matter before the substantial forms, which are
|
|
|
1197 many belonging to one species.
|
|
|
1198 </p>
|
|
|
1199 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p4">
|
|
|
1200 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what is spiritual is connected with what is corporeal by virtual contact. But the virtue of the soul is its power.
|
|
|
1201 Therefore it seems that the soul is united to the body by means of a power, which is an accident.
|
|
|
1202 </p>
|
|
|
1203 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p5">
|
|
|
1204 <b>On the contrary,</b> Accident is posterior to substance, both in the order of time and in the order of reason, as the Philosopher says, Metaph.
|
|
|
1205 vii (Did. vi, 1). Therefore it is unintelligible that any accidental form exist in matter before the soul, which is the substantial
|
|
|
1206 form.
|
|
|
1207 </p>
|
|
|
1208 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p6">
|
|
|
1209 <b>I answer that,</b> If the soul were united to the body, merely as a motor, there would be nothing to prevent the existence of certain dispositions
|
|
|
1210 mediating between the soul and the body; on the contrary, they would be necessary, for on the part of the soul would be required
|
|
|
1211 the power to move the body; and on the part of the body, a certain aptitude to be moved by the soul.
|
|
|
1212 </p>
|
|
|
1213 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p7"> If, however, the intellectual soul is united to the body as the substantial form, as we have already said above
|
|
|
1214 <a id="FP_Q76_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it is impossible for any accidental disposition to come between the body and the soul, or between any substantial form whatever
|
|
|
1215 and its matter. The reason is because since matter is in potentiality to all manner of acts in a certain order, what is absolutely
|
|
|
1216 first among the acts must be understood as being first in matter. Now the first
|
|
|
1217 among all acts is existence. Therefore, it is impossible for matter to be apprehended as hot, or as having quantity, before
|
|
|
1218 it is actual. But matter has actual existence by the substantial form, which makes it to exist absolutely, as we have said
|
|
|
1219 above
|
|
|
1220 <a id="FP_Q76_A6-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Wherefore it is impossible for any accidental dispositions to pre-exist in matter before the substantial form, and consequently
|
|
|
1221 before the soul.
|
|
|
1222 </p>
|
|
|
1223 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p8">
|
|
|
1224 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As appears from what has been already said
|
|
|
1225 <a id="FP_Q76_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, the more perfect form virtually contains whatever belongs to the inferior forms; therefore while remaining one and the same,
|
|
|
1226 it perfects matter according to the various degrees of perfection. For the same essential form makes man an actual being,
|
|
|
1227 a body, a living being, an animal, and a man. Now it is clear that to every "genus" follow its own proper accidents. Therefore
|
|
|
1228 as
|
|
|
1229 matter is apprehended as perfected in its existence, before it is understood as corporeal, and so on; so those accidents which
|
|
|
1230 belong to existence are understood to exist before corporeity; and thus dispositions are understood in matter before the form,
|
|
|
1231 not as regards all its effects, but as regards the subsequent effect.
|
|
|
1232 </p>
|
|
|
1233 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p9">
|
|
|
1234 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Dimensions of quantity are accidents consequent to the corporeity which belongs to the whole matter. Wherefore matter, once
|
|
|
1235 understood as corporeal and measurable, can be understood as distinct in its various parts, and as receptive of different
|
|
|
1236 forms according to the further degrees of perfection. For although it is essentially the same form which gives matter the
|
|
|
1237 various degrees of perfection, as we have said (ad 1), yet it is considered as
|
|
|
1238 different when brought under the observation of reason.
|
|
|
1239 </p>
|
|
|
1240 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p10">
|
|
|
1241 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A spiritual substance which is united to a body as its motor only, is united thereto by power or virtue. But the intellectual
|
|
|
1242 soul is united by its very being to the body as a form; and yet it guides and moves the body by its power and virtue.
|
|
|
1243 </p>
|
|
|
1244 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1245 <p id="FP_Q76_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1246 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1247 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1248 </div>
|
|
|
1249 <div id="FP_Q76_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
1250 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1251 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
1252 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A7-p0.1">Whether the soul is united to the animal body by means of a body?</h4>
|
|
|
1253 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1254 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p2">
|
|
|
1255 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that the soul is united to the animal body by means of a body. For Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. vii, 19), that "the
|
|
|
1256 soul administers the body by light," that is, by fire, "and by air, which is most akin to a spirit." But fire and air are
|
|
|
1257 bodies. Therefore the soul is united to the human body by means of a body.
|
|
|
1258 </p>
|
|
|
1259 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p3">
|
|
|
1260 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a link between two things seems to be that thing the removal of which involves the cessation of their union. But
|
|
|
1261 when breathing ceases, the soul is separated from the body. Therefore the breath, which is a subtle body, is the means of
|
|
|
1262 union between soul and body.
|
|
|
1263 </p>
|
|
|
1264 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p4">
|
|
|
1265 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, things which are very distant from one another, are not united except by something between them. But the intellectual
|
|
|
1266 soul is very distant from the body, both because it is incorporeal, and because it is incorruptible. Therefore it seems to
|
|
|
1267 be united to the body by means of an incorruptible body, and such would be some heavenly light, which would harmonize the
|
|
|
1268 elements, and unite them together.
|
|
|
1269 </p>
|
|
|
1270 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p5">
|
|
|
1271 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 1): "We need not ask if the soul and body are one, as neither do we ask if wax and its
|
|
|
1272 shape are one." But the shape is united to the wax without a body intervening. Therefore also the soul is thus united to the
|
|
|
1273 body.
|
|
|
1274 </p>
|
|
|
1275 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p6">
|
|
|
1276 <b>I answer that,</b> If the soul, according to the Platonists, were united to the body merely as a motor, it would be right to say that some other
|
|
|
1277 bodies must intervene between the soul and body of man, or any animal whatever; for a motor naturally moves what is distant
|
|
|
1278 from it by means of something nearer.
|
|
|
1279 </p>
|
|
|
1280 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p7"> If, however, the soul is united to the body as its form, as we have said
|
|
|
1281 <a id="FP_Q76_A7-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it is impossible for it to be united by means of another body. The reason of this is that a thing is one, according as it
|
|
|
1282 is a being. Now the form, through itself, makes a thing to be actual since it is itself essentially an act; nor does it give
|
|
|
1283 existence by means of something else. Wherefore the unity of a thing composed of matter and form, is by virtue of the form
|
|
|
1284 itself,
|
|
|
1285 which by reason of its very nature is united to matter as its act. Nor is there any other cause of union except the agent,
|
|
|
1286 which causes matter to be in act, as the Philosopher says, Metaph. viii (Did. vii, 6).
|
|
|
1287 </p>
|
|
|
1288 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p8"> From this it is clear how false are the opinions of those who maintained the existence of some mediate bodies between the
|
|
|
1289 soul and body of man. Of these certain Platonists said that the intellectual soul has an incorruptible body naturally united
|
|
|
1290 to it, from which it is never separated, and by means of which it is united to the corruptible body of man. Others said that
|
|
|
1291 the soul is united to the body by means of a corporeal spirit. Others said it is united to the body by means of
|
|
|
1292 light, which, they say, is a body and of the nature of the fifth essence; so that the vegetative soul would be united to the
|
|
|
1293 body by means of the light of the sidereal heaven; the sensible soul, by means of the light of the crystal heaven; and the
|
|
|
1294 intellectual soul by means of the light of the empyrean heaven. Now all this is fictious and ridiculous: for light is not
|
|
|
1295 a body; and the fifth essence does not enter materially into the composition of a mixed body (since it is unchangeable), but
|
|
|
1296 only
|
|
|
1297 virtually: and lastly, because the soul is immediately united to the body as the form to matter.
|
|
|
1298 </p>
|
|
|
1299 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p9">
|
|
|
1300 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine speaks there of the soul as it moves the body; whence he uses the word "administration." It is true that it moves
|
|
|
1301 the grosser parts of the body by the more subtle parts. And the first instrument of the motive power is a kind of spirit,
|
|
|
1302 as the Philosopher says in De causa motus animalium (De mot. animal. x).
|
|
|
1303 </p>
|
|
|
1304 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p10">
|
|
|
1305 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The union of soul and body ceases at the cessation of breath, not because this is the means of union, but because of the
|
|
|
1306 removal of that disposition by which the body is disposed for such a union. Nevertheless the breath is a means of moving,
|
|
|
1307 as the first instrument of motion.
|
|
|
1308 </p>
|
|
|
1309 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p11">
|
|
|
1310 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The soul is indeed very distant from the body, if we consider the condition of each separately: so that if each had a separate
|
|
|
1311 existence, many means of connection would have to intervene. But inasmuch as the soul is the form of the body, it has not
|
|
|
1312 an existence apart from the existence of the body, but by its own existence is united to the body immediately. This is the
|
|
|
1313 case with every form which, if considered as an act, is very distant from matter,
|
|
|
1314 which is a being only in potentiality.
|
|
|
1315 </p>
|
|
|
1316 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1317 <p id="FP_Q76_A7-p13"></p>
|
|
|
1318 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1319 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
1320 </div>
|
|
|
1321 <div id="FP_Q76_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
1322 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1323 <a href="summa.FP_Q77.html"></a>
|
|
|
1324 <h4 id="FP_Q76_A8-p0.1">Whether the soul is in each part of the body?</h4>
|
|
|
1325 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1326 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p2">
|
|
|
1327 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the whole soul is not in each part of the body; for the Philosopher says in De causa motus animalium (De
|
|
|
1328 mot. animal. x): "It is not necessary for the soul to be in each part of the body; it suffices that it be in some principle
|
|
|
1329 of the body causing the other parts to live, for each part has a natural movement of its own."
|
|
|
1330 </p>
|
|
|
1331 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p3">
|
|
|
1332 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the soul is in the body of which it is the act. But it is the act of an organic body. Therefore it exists only in
|
|
|
1333 an organic body. But each part of the human body is not an organic body. Therefore the whole soul is not in each part.
|
|
|
1334 </p>
|
|
|
1335 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p4">
|
|
|
1336 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (De Anima. ii, 1) that the relation of a part of the soul to a part of the body, such as the
|
|
|
1337 sight to the pupil of the eye, is the same as the relation of the soul to the whole body of an animal. If, therefore, the
|
|
|
1338 whole soul is in each part of the body, it follows that each part of the body is an animal.
|
|
|
1339 </p>
|
|
|
1340 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p5">
|
|
|
1341 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, all the powers of the soul are rooted in the essence of the soul. If, therefore, the whole soul be in each part
|
|
|
1342 of the body, it follows that all the powers of the soul are in each part of the body; thus the sight will be in the ear, and
|
|
|
1343 hearing in the eye, and this is absurd.
|
|
|
1344 </p>
|
|
|
1345 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p6">
|
|
|
1346 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, if the whole soul is in each part of the body, each part of the body is immediately dependent on the soul. Thus
|
|
|
1347 one part would not depend on another; nor would one part be nobler than another; which is clearly untrue. Therefore the soul
|
|
|
1348 is not in each part of the body.
|
|
|
1349 </p>
|
|
|
1350 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p7">
|
|
|
1351 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 6), that "in each body the whole soul is in the whole body, and in each part is entire."
|
|
|
1352 </p>
|
|
|
1353 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p8">
|
|
|
1354 <b>I answer that,</b> As we have said, if the soul were united to the body merely as its motor, we might say that it is not in each part of the
|
|
|
1355 body, but only in one part through which it would move the others. But since the soul is united to the body as its form, it
|
|
|
1356 must necessarily be in the whole body, and in each part thereof. For it is not an accidental form, but the substantial form
|
|
|
1357 of the body. Now the substantial form perfects not only the whole, but each part of the
|
|
|
1358 whole. For since a whole consists of parts, a form of the whole which does not give existence to each of the parts of the
|
|
|
1359 body, is a form consisting in composition and order, such as the form of a house; and such a form is accidental. But the soul
|
|
|
1360 is a substantial form; and therefore it must be the form and the act, not only of the whole, but also of each part. Therefore,
|
|
|
1361 on the withdrawal of the soul, as we do not speak of an animal or a man unless equivocally, as we speak of a painted animal
|
|
|
1362 or a stone animal; so is it with the hand, the eye, the flesh and bones, as the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 1). A proof
|
|
|
1363 of which is, that on the withdrawal of the soul, no part of the body retains its proper action; although that which retains
|
|
|
1364 its species, retains the action of the species. But act is in that which it actuates: wherefore the soul must be in the whole
|
|
|
1365 body, and in each part thereof.
|
|
|
1366 </p>
|
|
|
1367 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p9"> That it is entire in each part thereof, may be concluded from this, that since a whole is that which is divided into parts,
|
|
|
1368 there are three kinds of totality, corresponding to three kinds of division. There is a whole which is divided into parts
|
|
|
1369 of quantity, as a whole line, or a whole body. There is also a whole which is divided into logical and essential parts: as
|
|
|
1370 a thing defined is divided into the parts of a definition, and a composite into matter and form. There is,
|
|
|
1371 further, a third kind of whole which is potential, divided into virtual parts. The first kind of totality does not apply to
|
|
|
1372 forms, except perhaps accidentally; and then only to those forms, which have an indifferent relationship to a quantitative
|
|
|
1373 whole and its parts; as whiteness, as far as its essence is concerned, is equally disposed to be in the whole surface and
|
|
|
1374 in each part of the surface; and, therefore, the surface being divided, the whiteness is accidentally divided. But a form
|
|
|
1375 which
|
|
|
1376 requires variety in the parts, such as a soul, and specially the soul of perfect animals, is not equally related to the whole
|
|
|
1377 and the parts: hence it is not divided accidentally when the whole is divided. So therefore quantitative totality cannot be
|
|
|
1378 attributed to the soul, either essentially or accidentally. But the second kind of totality, which depends on logical and
|
|
|
1379 essential perfection, properly and essentially belongs to forms: and likewise the virtual totality, because a form is the
|
|
|
1380 principle of operation.
|
|
|
1381 </p>
|
|
|
1382 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p10"> Therefore if it be asked whether the whole whiteness is in the whole surface and in each part thereof, it is necessary to
|
|
|
1383 distinguish. If we mean quantitative totality which whiteness has accidentally, then the whole whiteness is not in each part
|
|
|
1384 of the surface. The same is to be said of totality of power: since the whiteness which is in the whole surface moves the sight
|
|
|
1385 more than the whiteness which is in a small part thereof. But if we mean totality of species and essence,
|
|
|
1386 then the whole whiteness is in each part of a surface.
|
|
|
1387 </p>
|
|
|
1388 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p11"> Since, however, the soul has not quantitative totality, neither essentially, nor accidentally, as we have seen; it is enough
|
|
|
1389 to say that the whole soul is in each part of the body, by totality of perfection and of essence, but not by totality of power.
|
|
|
1390 For it is not in each part of the body, with regard to each of its powers; but with regard to sight, it is in the eye; and
|
|
|
1391 with regard to hearing, it is in the ear; and so forth. We must observe, however, that since the soul
|
|
|
1392 requires variety of parts, its relation to the whole is not the same as its relation to the parts; for to the whole it is
|
|
|
1393 compared primarily and essentially, as to its proper and proportionate perfectible; but to the parts, secondarily, inasmuch
|
|
|
1394 as they are ordained to the whole.
|
|
|
1395 </p>
|
|
|
1396 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p12">
|
|
|
1397 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher is speaking there of the motive power of the soul.
|
|
|
1398 </p>
|
|
|
1399 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p13">
|
|
|
1400 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The soul is the act of an organic body, as of its primary and proportionate perfectible.
|
|
|
1401 </p>
|
|
|
1402 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p14">
|
|
|
1403 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> An animal is that which is composed of a soul and a whole body, which is the soul's primary and proportionate perfectible.
|
|
|
1404 Thus the soul is not in a part. Whence it does not follow that a part of an animal is an animal.
|
|
|
1405 </p>
|
|
|
1406 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p15">
|
|
|
1407 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Some of the powers of the soul are in it according as it exceeds the entire capacity of the body, namely the intellect and
|
|
|
1408 the will; whence these powers are not said to be in any part of the body. Other powers are common to the soul and body; wherefore
|
|
|
1409 each of these powers need not be wherever the soul is, but only in that part of the body, which is adapted to the operation
|
|
|
1410 of such a power.
|
|
|
1411 </p>
|
|
|
1412 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p16">
|
|
|
1413 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> One part of the body is said to be nobler than another, on account of the various powers, of which the parts of the body
|
|
|
1414 are the organs. For that part which is the organ of a nobler power, is a nobler part of the body: as also is that part which
|
|
|
1415 serves the same power in a nobler manner.
|
|
|
1416 </p>
|
|
|
1417 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p17"></p>
|
|
|
1418 <p id="FP_Q76_A8-p18"></p>
|
|
|
1419 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1420 <a href="summa.FP_Q77.html"></a>
|
|
|
1421 </div>
|
|
|
1422 <a href="summa.FP_Q75_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1423 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1424 </div>
|
|
|
1425 <div id="FP_Q77" class="div3">
|
|
|
1426 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
1427 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1428 <h3 id="FP_Q77-p0.1">OF THOSE THINGS WHICH BELONG TO THE POWERS OF THE SOUL IN GENERAL (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
1429 <p id="FP_Q77-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1430 <p id="FP_Q77-p2"> We proceed to consider those things which belong to the powers of the soul; first, in general, secondly, in particular. Under
|
|
|
1431 the first head there are eight points of inquiry:
|
|
|
1432 </p>
|
|
|
1433 <p id="FP_Q77-p3"> (1) Whether the essence of the soul is its power?</p>
|
|
|
1434 <p id="FP_Q77-p4"> (2) Whether there is one power of the soul, or several?</p>
|
|
|
1435 <p id="FP_Q77-p5"> (3) How the powers of the soul are distinguished from one another?</p>
|
|
|
1436 <p id="FP_Q77-p6"> (4) Of the orders of the powers, one to another;</p>
|
|
|
1437 <p id="FP_Q77-p7"> (5) Whether the powers of the soul are in it as in their subject?</p>
|
|
|
1438 <p id="FP_Q77-p8"> (6) Whether the powers flow from the essence of the soul?</p>
|
|
|
1439 <p id="FP_Q77-p9"> (7) Whether one power rises from another?</p>
|
|
|
1440 <p id="FP_Q77-p10"> (8) Whether all the powers of the soul remain in the soul after death?</p>
|
|
|
1441 <div id="FP_Q77_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
1442 <a href="summa.FP_Q77.html"></a>
|
|
|
1443 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1444 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A1-p0.1">Whether the essence of the soul is its power?</h4>
|
|
|
1445 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1446 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p2">
|
|
|
1447 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the essence of the soul is its power. For Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 4), that "mind, knowledge, and
|
|
|
1448 love are in the soul substantially, or, which is the same thing, essentially": and (De Trin. x, 11), that "memory, understanding,
|
|
|
1449 and will are one life, one mind, one essence."
|
|
|
1450 </p>
|
|
|
1451 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p3">
|
|
|
1452 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the soul is nobler than primary matter. But primary matter is its own potentiality. Much more therefore is the soul
|
|
|
1453 its own power.
|
|
|
1454 </p>
|
|
|
1455 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p4">
|
|
|
1456 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the substantial form is simpler than the accidental form; a sign of which is that the substantial form is not intensified
|
|
|
1457 or relaxed, but is indivisible. But the accidental form is its own power. Much more therefore is that substantial form which
|
|
|
1458 is the soul.
|
|
|
1459 </p>
|
|
|
1460 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p5">
|
|
|
1461 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, we sense by the sensitive power and we understand by the intellectual power. But "that by which we first sense and
|
|
|
1462 understand" is the soul, according to the Philosopher (De Anima ii, 2). Therefore the soul is its own power.
|
|
|
1463 </p>
|
|
|
1464 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p6">
|
|
|
1465 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, whatever does not belong to the essence is an accident. Therefore if the power of the soul is something else besides
|
|
|
1466 the essence thereof, it is an accident, which is contrary to Augustine, who says that the foregoing (see OBJ 1) "are not in
|
|
|
1467 the soul as in a subject as color or shape, or any other quality, or quantity, are in a body; for whatever is so, does not
|
|
|
1468 exceed the subject in which it is: Whereas the mind can love and know other things" (De
|
|
|
1469 Trin. ix, 4).
|
|
|
1470 </p>
|
|
|
1471 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p7">
|
|
|
1472 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, " a simple form cannot be a subject." But the soul is a simple form; since it is not composed of matter and form,
|
|
|
1473 as we have said above (
|
|
|
1474 <a id="FP_Q77_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>). Therefore the power of the soul cannot be in it as in a subject.
|
|
|
1475 </p>
|
|
|
1476 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p8">
|
|
|
1477 <b>Objection 7:</b> Further, an accident is not the principle of a substantial difference. But sensitive and rational are substantial differences;
|
|
|
1478 and they are taken from sense and reason, which are powers of the soul. Therefore the powers of the soul are not accidents;
|
|
|
1479 and so it would seem that the power of the soul is its own essence.
|
|
|
1480 </p>
|
|
|
1481 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p9">
|
|
|
1482 <b>On the contrary,</b> Dionysius (Coel. Hier. xi) says that "heavenly spirits are divided into essence, power, and operation." Much more, then,
|
|
|
1483 in the soul is the essence distinct from the virtue or power.
|
|
|
1484 </p>
|
|
|
1485 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p10">
|
|
|
1486 <b>I answer that,</b> It is impossible to admit that the power of the soul is its essence, although some have maintained it. For the present purpose
|
|
|
1487 this may be proved in two ways. First, because, since power and act divide being and every kind of being, we must refer a
|
|
|
1488 power and its act to the same genus. Therefore, if the act be not in the genus of substance, the power directed to that act
|
|
|
1489 cannot be in the genus of substance. Now the operation of the soul is not in the genus of
|
|
|
1490 substance; for this belongs to God alone, whose operation is His own substance. Wherefore the Divine power which is the principle
|
|
|
1491 of His operation is the Divine Essence itself. This cannot be true either of the soul, or of any creature; as we have said
|
|
|
1492 above when speaking of the angels (
|
|
|
1493 <a id="FP_Q77_A1-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q54_A3.html">Q[54], A[3]</a>). Secondly, this may be also shown to be impossible in the soul. For the soul by its very essence is an act. Therefore if
|
|
|
1494 the very essence of the soul were the immediate
|
|
|
1495 principle of operation, whatever has a soul would always have actual vital actions, as that which has a soul is always an
|
|
|
1496 actually living thing. For as a form the soul is not an act ordained to a further act, but the ultimate term of generation.
|
|
|
1497 Wherefore, for it to be in potentiality to another act, does not belong to it according to its essence, as a form, but according
|
|
|
1498 to its power. So the soul itself, as the subject of its power, is called the first act, with a further relation to the
|
|
|
1499 second act. Now we observe that what has a soul is not always actual with respect to its vital operations; whence also it
|
|
|
1500 is said in the definition of the soul, that it is "the act of a body having life potentially"; which potentiality, however,
|
|
|
1501 "does not exclude the soul." Therefore it follows that the essence of the soul is not its power. For nothing is in potentiality
|
|
|
1502 by reason of an act, as act.
|
|
|
1503 </p>
|
|
|
1504 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p11">
|
|
|
1505 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of the mind as it knows and loves itself. Thus knowledge and love as referred to the soul as known
|
|
|
1506 and loved, are substantially or essentially in the soul, for the very substance or essence of the soul is known and loved.
|
|
|
1507 In the same way are we to understand what he says in the other passage, that those things are "one life, one mind, one essence."
|
|
|
1508 Or, as some say, this passage is true in the sense in which the potential whole is
|
|
|
1509 predicated of its parts, being midway between the universal whole, and the integral whole. For the universal whole is in each
|
|
|
1510 part according to its entire essence and power; as animal in a man and in a horse; and therefore it is properly predicated
|
|
|
1511 of each part. But the integral whole is not in each part, neither according to its whole essence, nor according to its whole
|
|
|
1512 power. Therefore in no way can it be predicated of each part; yet in a way it is predicated, though improperly, of all the
|
|
|
1513 parts together; as if we were to say that the wall, roof, and foundations are a house. But the potential whole is in each
|
|
|
1514 part according to its whole essence, not, however, according to its whole power. Therefore in a way it can be predicated of
|
|
|
1515 each part, but not so properly as the universal whole. In this sense, Augustine says that the memory, understanding, and the
|
|
|
1516 will are the one essence of the soul.
|
|
|
1517 </p>
|
|
|
1518 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p12">
|
|
|
1519 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The act to which primary matter is in potentiality is the substantial form. Therefore the potentiality of matter is nothing
|
|
|
1520 else but its essence.
|
|
|
1521 </p>
|
|
|
1522 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p13">
|
|
|
1523 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Action belongs to the composite, as does existence; for to act belongs to what exists. Now the composite has substantial
|
|
|
1524 existence through the substantial form; and it operates by the power which results from the substantial form. Hence an active
|
|
|
1525 accidental form is to the substantial form of the agent (for instance, heat compared to the form of fire) as the power of
|
|
|
1526 the soul is to the soul.
|
|
|
1527 </p>
|
|
|
1528 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p14">
|
|
|
1529 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> That the accidental form is a principle of action is due to the substantial form. Therefore the substantial form is the first
|
|
|
1530 principle of action; but not the proximate principle. In this sense the Philosopher says that "the soul is that whereby we
|
|
|
1531 understand and sense."
|
|
|
1532 </p>
|
|
|
1533 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p15">
|
|
|
1534 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> If we take accident as meaning what is divided against substance, then there can be no medium between substance and accident;
|
|
|
1535 because they are divided by affirmation and negation, that is, according to existence in a subject, and non-existence in a
|
|
|
1536 subject. In this sense, as the power of the soul is not its essence, it must be an accident; and it belongs to the second
|
|
|
1537 species of accident, that of quality. But if we take accident as one of the five
|
|
|
1538 universals, in this sense there is a medium between substance and accident. For the substance is all that belongs to the essence
|
|
|
1539 of a thing; whereas whatever is beyond the essence of a thing cannot be called accident in this sense; but only what is not
|
|
|
1540 caused by the essential principle of the species. For the 'proper' does not belong to the essence of a thing, but is caused
|
|
|
1541 by the essential principles of the species; wherefore it is a medium between the essence and accident thus understood. In
|
|
|
1542 this sense the powers of the soul may be said to be a medium between substance and accident, as being natural properties of
|
|
|
1543 the soul. When Augustine says that knowledge and love are not in the soul as accidents in a subject, this must be understood
|
|
|
1544 in the sense given above, inasmuch as they are compared to the soul, not as loving and knowing, but as loved and known. His
|
|
|
1545 argument proceeds in this sense; for if love were in the soul loved as in a subject, it would follow that an accident
|
|
|
1546 transcends its subject, since even other things are loved through the soul.
|
|
|
1547 </p>
|
|
|
1548 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p16">
|
|
|
1549 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Although the soul is not composed of matter and form, yet it has an admixture of potentiality, as we have said above (
|
|
|
1550 <a id="FP_Q77_A1-p16.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>, ad 4); and for this reason it can be the subject of an accident. The statement quoted is verified in God, Who is the Pure
|
|
|
1551 Act; in treating of which subject Boethius employs that phrase (De Trin. i).
|
|
|
1552 </p>
|
|
|
1553 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p17">
|
|
|
1554 <b>Reply to Objection 7:</b> Rational and sensitive, as differences, are not taken from the powers of sense and reason, but from the sensitive and rational
|
|
|
1555 soul itself. But because substantial forms, which in themselves are unknown to us, are known by their accidents; nothing prevents
|
|
|
1556 us from sometimes substituting accidents for substantial differences.
|
|
|
1557 </p>
|
|
|
1558 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p18"></p>
|
|
|
1559 <p id="FP_Q77_A1-p19"></p>
|
|
|
1560 <a href="summa.FP_Q77.html"></a>
|
|
|
1561 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1562 </div>
|
|
|
1563 <div id="FP_Q77_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
1564 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1565 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1566 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A2-p0.1">Whether there are several powers of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
1567 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1568 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p2">
|
|
|
1569 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there are not several powers of the soul. For the intellectual soul approaches nearest to the likeness
|
|
|
1570 of God. But in God there is one simple power: and therefore also in the intellectual soul.
|
|
|
1571 </p>
|
|
|
1572 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p3">
|
|
|
1573 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the higher a power is, the more unified it is. But the intellectual soul excels all other forms in power. Therefore
|
|
|
1574 above all others it has one virtue or power.
|
|
|
1575 </p>
|
|
|
1576 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p4">
|
|
|
1577 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to operate belongs to what is in act. But by the one essence of the soul, man has actual existence in the different
|
|
|
1578 degrees of perfection, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
1579 <a id="FP_Q77_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A3.html">Q[76], AA[3]</a>,4). Therefore by the one power of the soul he performs operations of various degrees.
|
|
|
1580 </p>
|
|
|
1581 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p5">
|
|
|
1582 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher places several powers in the soul (De Anima ii, 2,3).
|
|
|
1583 </p>
|
|
|
1584 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p6">
|
|
|
1585 <b>I answer that,</b> Of necessity we must place several powers in the soul. To make this evident, we observe that, as the Philosopher says (De
|
|
|
1586 Coelo ii, 12), the lowest order of things cannot acquire perfect goodness, but they acquire a certain imperfect goodness,
|
|
|
1587 by few movements; and those which belong to a higher order acquire perfect goodness by many movements; and those yet higher
|
|
|
1588 acquire perfect goodness by few movements; and the highest perfection is found in those things
|
|
|
1589 which acquire perfect goodness without any movement whatever. Thus he is least of all disposed of health, who can only acquire
|
|
|
1590 imperfect health by means of a few remedies; better disposed is he who can acquire perfect health by means of many remedies;
|
|
|
1591 and better still, he who can by few remedies; best of all is he who has perfect health without any remedies. We conclude,
|
|
|
1592 therefore, that things which are below man acquire a certain limited goodness; and so they have a few determinate operations
|
|
|
1593 and powers. But man can acquire universal and perfect goodness, because he can acquire beatitude. Yet he is in the last degree,
|
|
|
1594 according to his nature, of those to whom beatitude is possible; therefore the human soul requires many and various operations
|
|
|
1595 and powers. But to angels a smaller variety of powers is sufficient. In God there is no power or action beyond His own Essence.
|
|
|
1596 </p>
|
|
|
1597 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p7"> There is yet another reason why the human soul abounds in a variety of powers---because it is on the confines of spiritual
|
|
|
1598 and corporeal creatures; and therefore the powers of both meet together in the soul.
|
|
|
1599 </p>
|
|
|
1600 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p8">
|
|
|
1601 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intellectual soul approaches to the Divine likeness, more than inferior creatures, in being able to acquire perfect goodness;
|
|
|
1602 although by many and various means; and in this it falls short of more perfect creatures.
|
|
|
1603 </p>
|
|
|
1604 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p9">
|
|
|
1605 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A unified power is superior if it extends to equal things: but a multiform power is superior to it, if it is over many things.
|
|
|
1606 </p>
|
|
|
1607 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p10">
|
|
|
1608 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> One thing has one substantial existence, but may have several operations. So there is one essence of the soul, with several
|
|
|
1609 powers.
|
|
|
1610 </p>
|
|
|
1611 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1612 <p id="FP_Q77_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1613 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1614 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1615 </div>
|
|
|
1616 <div id="FP_Q77_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
1617 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1618 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1619 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A3-p0.1">Whether the powers are distinguished by their acts and objects? </h4>
|
|
|
1620 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1621 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p2">
|
|
|
1622 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the powers of the soul are not distinguished by acts and objects. For nothing is determined to its species
|
|
|
1623 by what is subsequent and extrinsic to it. But the act is subsequent to the power; and the object is extrinsic to it. Therefore
|
|
|
1624 the soul's powers are not specifically distinct by acts and objects.
|
|
|
1625 </p>
|
|
|
1626 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p3">
|
|
|
1627 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, contraries are what differ most from each other. Therefore if the powers are distinguished by their objects, it
|
|
|
1628 follows that the same power could not have contrary objects. This is clearly false in almost all the powers; for the power
|
|
|
1629 of vision extends to white and black, and the power to taste to sweet and bitter.
|
|
|
1630 </p>
|
|
|
1631 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p4">
|
|
|
1632 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if the cause be removed, the effect is removed. Hence if the difference of powers came from the difference of objects,
|
|
|
1633 the same object would not come under different powers. This is clearly false; for the same thing is known by the cognitive
|
|
|
1634 power, and desired by the appetitive.
|
|
|
1635 </p>
|
|
|
1636 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p5">
|
|
|
1637 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, that which of itself is the cause of anything, is the cause thereof, wherever it is. But various objects which belong
|
|
|
1638 to various powers, belong also to some one power; as sound and color belong to sight and hearing, which are different powers,
|
|
|
1639 yet they come under the one power of common sense. Therefore the powers are not distinguished according to the difference
|
|
|
1640 of their objects.
|
|
|
1641 </p>
|
|
|
1642 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p6">
|
|
|
1643 <b>On the contrary,</b> Things that are subsequent are distinguished by what precedes. But the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 4) that "acts and operations
|
|
|
1644 precede the powers according to reason; and these again are preceded by their opposites," that is their objects. Therefore
|
|
|
1645 the powers are distinguished according to their acts and objects.
|
|
|
1646 </p>
|
|
|
1647 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p7">
|
|
|
1648 <b>I answer that,</b> A power as such is directed to an act. Wherefore we seek to know the nature of a power from the act to which it is directed,
|
|
|
1649 and consequently the nature of a power is diversified, as the nature of the act is diversified. Now the nature of an act is
|
|
|
1650 diversified according to the various natures of the objects. For every act is either of an active power or of a passive power.
|
|
|
1651 Now, the object is to the act of a passive power, as the principle and moving cause:
|
|
|
1652 for color is the principle of vision, inasmuch as it moves the sight. On the other hand, to the act of an active power the
|
|
|
1653 object is a term and end; as the object of the power of growth is perfect quantity, which is the end of growth. Now, from
|
|
|
1654 these two things an act receives its species, namely, from its principle, or from its end or term; for the act of heating
|
|
|
1655 differs from the act of cooling, in this, that the former proceeds from something hot, which is the active principle, to heat;
|
|
|
1656 the
|
|
|
1657 latter from something cold, which is the active principle, to cold. Therefore the powers are of necessity distinguished by
|
|
|
1658 their acts and objects.
|
|
|
1659 </p>
|
|
|
1660 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p8"> Nevertheless, we must observe that things which are accidental do not change the species. For since to be colored is accidental
|
|
|
1661 to an animal, its species is not changed by a difference of color, but by a difference in that which belongs to the nature
|
|
|
1662 of an animal, that is to say, by a difference in the sensitive soul, which is sometimes rational, and sometimes otherwise.
|
|
|
1663 Hence "rational" and "irrational" are differences dividing animal, constituting its various species. In like
|
|
|
1664 manner therefore, not any variety of objects diversifies the powers of the soul, but a difference in that to which the power
|
|
|
1665 of its very nature is directed. Thus the senses of their very nature are directed to the passive quality which of itself is
|
|
|
1666 divided into color, sound, and the like, and therefore there is one sensitive power with regard to color, namely, the sight,
|
|
|
1667 and another with regard to sound, namely, hearing. But it is accidental to a passive quality, for instance, to something
|
|
|
1668 colored, to be a musician or a grammarian, great or small, a man or a stone. Therefore by reason of such differences the powers
|
|
|
1669 of the soul are not distinct.
|
|
|
1670 </p>
|
|
|
1671 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p9">
|
|
|
1672 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Act, though subsequent in existence to power, is, nevertheless, prior to it in intention and logically; as the end is with
|
|
|
1673 regard to the agent. And the object, although extrinsic, is, nevertheless, the principle or end of the action; and those conditions
|
|
|
1674 which are intrinsic to a thing, are proportionate to its principle and end.
|
|
|
1675 </p>
|
|
|
1676 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p10">
|
|
|
1677 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> If any power were to have one of two contraries as such for its object, the other contrary would belong to another power.
|
|
|
1678 But the power of the soul does not regard the nature of the contrary as such, but rather the common aspect of both contraries;
|
|
|
1679 as sight does not regard white as such, but as color. This is because of two contraries one, in a manner, includes the idea
|
|
|
1680 of the other, since they are to one another as perfect and imperfect.
|
|
|
1681 </p>
|
|
|
1682 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p11">
|
|
|
1683 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Nothing prevents things which coincide in subject, from being considered under different aspects; therefore they can belong
|
|
|
1684 to various powers of the soul.
|
|
|
1685 </p>
|
|
|
1686 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p12">
|
|
|
1687 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The higher power of itself regards a more universal formality of the object than the lower power; because the higher a power
|
|
|
1688 is, to a greater number of things does it extend. Therefore many things are combined in the one formality of the object, which
|
|
|
1689 the higher power considers of itself; while they differ in the formalities regarded by the lower powers of themselves. Thus
|
|
|
1690 it is that various objects belong to various lower powers; which objects,
|
|
|
1691 however, are subject to one higher power.
|
|
|
1692 </p>
|
|
|
1693 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p13"></p>
|
|
|
1694 <p id="FP_Q77_A3-p14"></p>
|
|
|
1695 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1696 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1697 </div>
|
|
|
1698 <div id="FP_Q77_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
1699 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1700 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1701 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A4-p0.1">Whether among the powers of the soul there is order?</h4>
|
|
|
1702 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1703 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p2">
|
|
|
1704 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is no order among the powers of the soul. For in those things which come under one division, there
|
|
|
1705 is no before and after, but all are naturally simultaneous. But the powers of the soul are contradistinguished from one another.
|
|
|
1706 Therefore there is no order among them.
|
|
|
1707 </p>
|
|
|
1708 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p3">
|
|
|
1709 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the powers of the soul are referred to their objects and to the soul itself. On the part of the soul, there is not
|
|
|
1710 order among them, because the soul is one. In like manner the objects are various and dissimilar, as color and sound. Therefore
|
|
|
1711 there is no order among the powers of the soul.
|
|
|
1712 </p>
|
|
|
1713 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p4">
|
|
|
1714 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, where there is order among powers, we find that the operation of one depends on the operation of another. But the
|
|
|
1715 action of one power of the soul does not depend on that of another; for sight can act independently of hearing, and conversely.
|
|
|
1716 Therefore there is no order among the powers of the soul.
|
|
|
1717 </p>
|
|
|
1718 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p5">
|
|
|
1719 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher (De Anima ii, 3) compares the parts or powers of the soul to figures. But figures have an order among themselves.
|
|
|
1720 Therefore the powers of the soul have order.
|
|
|
1721 </p>
|
|
|
1722 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p6">
|
|
|
1723 <b>I answer that,</b> Since the soul is one, and the powers are many; and since a number of things that proceed from one must proceed in a certain
|
|
|
1724 order; there must be some order among the powers of the soul. Accordingly we may observe a triple order among them, two of
|
|
|
1725 which correspond to the dependence of one power on another; while the third is taken from the order of the objects. Now the
|
|
|
1726 dependence of one power on another can be taken in two ways; according to the order of
|
|
|
1727 nature, forasmuch as perfect things are by their nature prior to imperfect things; and according to the order of generation
|
|
|
1728 and time; forasmuch as from being imperfect, a thing comes to be perfect. Thus, according to the first kind of order among
|
|
|
1729 the powers, the intellectual powers are prior to the sensitive powers; wherefore they direct them and command them. Likewise
|
|
|
1730 the sensitive powers are prior in this order to the powers of the nutritive soul.
|
|
|
1731 </p>
|
|
|
1732 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p7"> In the second kind of order, it is the other way about. For the powers of the nutritive soul are prior by way of generation
|
|
|
1733 to the powers of the sensitive soul; for which, therefore, they prepare the body. The same is to be said of the sensitive
|
|
|
1734 powers with regard to the intellectual. But in the third kind of order, certain sensitive powers are ordered among themselves,
|
|
|
1735 namely, sight, hearing, and smelling. For the visible naturally comes first; since it is common to higher and
|
|
|
1736 lower bodies. But sound is audible in the air, which is naturally prior to the mingling of elements, of which smell is the
|
|
|
1737 result.
|
|
|
1738 </p>
|
|
|
1739 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p8">
|
|
|
1740 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The species of a given genus are to one another as before and after, like numbers and figures, if considered in their nature;
|
|
|
1741 although they may be said to be simultaneous, according as they receive the predication of the common genus.
|
|
|
1742 </p>
|
|
|
1743 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p9">
|
|
|
1744 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This order among the powers of the soul is both on the part of the soul (which, though it be one according to its essence,
|
|
|
1745 has a certain aptitude to various acts in a certain order) and on the part of the objects, and furthermore on the part of
|
|
|
1746 the acts, as we have said above.
|
|
|
1747 </p>
|
|
|
1748 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p10">
|
|
|
1749 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument is verified as regards those powers among which order of the third kind exists. Those powers among which the
|
|
|
1750 two other kinds of order exist are such that the action of one depends on another.
|
|
|
1751 </p>
|
|
|
1752 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1753 <p id="FP_Q77_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1754 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1755 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1756 </div>
|
|
|
1757 <div id="FP_Q77_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
1758 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1759 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1760 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A5-p0.1">Whether all the powers of the soul are in the soul as their subject?</h4>
|
|
|
1761 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1762 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p2">
|
|
|
1763 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that all the powers of the soul are in the soul as their subject. For as the powers of the body are to the
|
|
|
1764 body; so are the powers of the soul to the soul. But the body is the subject of the corporeal powers. Therefore the soul is
|
|
|
1765 the subject of the powers of the soul.
|
|
|
1766 </p>
|
|
|
1767 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p3">
|
|
|
1768 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the operations of the powers of the soul are attributed to the body by reason of the soul; because, as the Philosopher
|
|
|
1769 says (De Anima ii, 2), "The soul is that by which we sense and understand primarily." But the natural principles of the operations
|
|
|
1770 of the soul are the powers. Therefore the powers are primarily in the soul.
|
|
|
1771 </p>
|
|
|
1772 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p4">
|
|
|
1773 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 7,24) that the soul senses certain things, not through the body, in fact, without
|
|
|
1774 the body, as fear and such like; and some things through the body. But if the sensitive powers were not in the soul alone
|
|
|
1775 as their subject, the soul could not sense anything without the body. Therefore the soul is the subject of the sensitive powers;
|
|
|
1776 and for a similar reason, of all the other powers.
|
|
|
1777 </p>
|
|
|
1778 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p5">
|
|
|
1779 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Somno et Vigilia i) that "sensation belongs neither to the soul, nor to the body, but to the composite."
|
|
|
1780 Therefore the sensitive power is in "the composite" as its subject. Therefore the soul alone is not the subject of all the
|
|
|
1781 powers.
|
|
|
1782 </p>
|
|
|
1783 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p6">
|
|
|
1784 <b>I answer that,</b> The subject of operative power is that which is able to operate, for every accident denominates its proper subject. Now the
|
|
|
1785 same is that which is able to operate, and that which does operate. Wherefore the "subject of power" is of necessity "the
|
|
|
1786 subject of operation," as again the Philosopher says in the beginning of De Somno et Vigilia. Now, it is clear from what we
|
|
|
1787 have said above (
|
|
|
1788 <a id="FP_Q77_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], AA[2]</a>,3;
|
|
|
1789 <a id="FP_Q77_A5-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76],
|
|
|
1790 A[1]
|
|
|
1791 </a>, ad 1), that some operations of the soul are performed without a corporeal organ, as understanding and will. Hence the powers
|
|
|
1792 of these operations are in the soul as their subject. But some operations of the soul are performed by means of corporeal
|
|
|
1793 organs; as sight by the eye, and hearing by the ear. And so it is with all the other operations of the nutritive and sensitive
|
|
|
1794 parts. Therefore the powers which are the principles of these operations have their subject in the composite, and
|
|
|
1795 not in the soul alone.
|
|
|
1796 </p>
|
|
|
1797 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p7">
|
|
|
1798 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> All the powers are said to belong to the soul, not as their subject, but as their principle; because it is by the soul that
|
|
|
1799 the composite has the power to perform such operations.
|
|
|
1800 </p>
|
|
|
1801 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p8">
|
|
|
1802 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> All such powers are primarily in the soul, as compared to the composite; not as in their subject, but as in their principle.
|
|
|
1803 </p>
|
|
|
1804 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p9">
|
|
|
1805 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Plato's opinion was that sensation is an operation proper to the soul, just as understanding is. Now in many things relating
|
|
|
1806 to Philosophy Augustine makes use of the opinions of Plato, not asserting them as true, but relating them. However, as far
|
|
|
1807 as the present question is concerned, when it is said that the soul senses some things with the body, and some without the
|
|
|
1808 body, this can be taken in two ways. Firstly, the words "with the body or without
|
|
|
1809 the body" may determine the act of sense in its mode of proceeding from the sentient. Thus the soul senses nothing without
|
|
|
1810 the body, because the action of sensation cannot proceed from the soul except by a corporeal organ. Secondly, they may be
|
|
|
1811 understood as determining the act of sense on the part of the object sensed. Thus the soul senses some things with the body,
|
|
|
1812 that is, things existing in the body, as when it feels a wound or something of that sort; while it senses some things without
|
|
|
1813 the
|
|
|
1814 body, that is, which do not exist in the body, but only in the apprehension of the soul, as when it feels sad or joyful on
|
|
|
1815 hearing something.
|
|
|
1816 </p>
|
|
|
1817 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1818 <p id="FP_Q77_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1819 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1820 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1821 </div>
|
|
|
1822 <div id="FP_Q77_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
1823 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1824 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1825 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A6-p0.1">Whether the powers of the soul flow from its essence?</h4>
|
|
|
1826 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1827 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p2">
|
|
|
1828 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the powers of the soul do not flow from its essence. For different things do not proceed from one simple
|
|
|
1829 thing. But the essence of the soul is one and simple. Since, therefore, the powers of the soul are many and various, they
|
|
|
1830 cannot proceed from its essence.
|
|
|
1831 </p>
|
|
|
1832 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p3">
|
|
|
1833 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that from which a thing proceeds is its cause. But the essence of the soul cannot be said to be the cause of the
|
|
|
1834 powers; as is clear if one considers the different kinds of causes. Therefore the powers of the soul do not flow from its
|
|
|
1835 essence.
|
|
|
1836 </p>
|
|
|
1837 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p4">
|
|
|
1838 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, emanation involves some sort of movement. But nothing is moved by itself, as the Philosopher proves (Phys. vii,
|
|
|
1839 1,2); except, perhaps, by reason of a part of itself, as an animal is said to be moved by itself, because one part thereof
|
|
|
1840 moves and another is moved. Neither is the soul moved, as the Philosopher proves (De Anima i, 4). Therefore the soul does
|
|
|
1841 not produce its powers within itself.
|
|
|
1842 </p>
|
|
|
1843 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p5">
|
|
|
1844 <b>On the contrary,</b> The powers of the soul are its natural properties. But the subject is the cause of its proper accidents; whence also it is
|
|
|
1845 included in the definition of accident, as is clear from Metaph. vii (Did. vi, 4). Therefore the powers of the soul proceed
|
|
|
1846 from its essence as their cause.
|
|
|
1847 </p>
|
|
|
1848 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p6">
|
|
|
1849 <b>I answer that,</b> The substantial and the accidental form partly agree and partly differ. They agree in this, that each is an act; and that
|
|
|
1850 by each of them something is after a manner actual. They differ, however, in two respects. First, because the substantial
|
|
|
1851 form makes a thing to exist absolutely, and its subject is something purely potential. But the accidental form does not make
|
|
|
1852 a thing to exist absolutely but to be such, or so great, or in some particular condition; for
|
|
|
1853 its subject is an actual being. Hence it is clear that actuality is observed in the substantial form prior to its being observed
|
|
|
1854 in the subject: and since that which is first in a genus is the cause in that genus, the substantial form causes existence
|
|
|
1855 in its subject. On the other hand, actuality is observed in the subject of the accidental form prior to its being observed
|
|
|
1856 in the accidental form; wherefore the actuality of the accidental form is caused by the actuality of the subject. So the
|
|
|
1857 subject, forasmuch as it is in potentiality, is receptive of the accidental form: but forasmuch as it is in act, it produces
|
|
|
1858 it. This I say of the proper and "per se" accident; for with regard to the extraneous accident, the subject is receptive only,
|
|
|
1859 the accident being caused by an extrinsic agent. Secondly, substantial and accidental forms differ, because, since that which
|
|
|
1860 is the less principal exists for the sake of that which is the more principal, matter therefore exists on account of the
|
|
|
1861 substantial form; while on the contrary, the accidental form exists on account of the completeness of the subject.
|
|
|
1862 </p>
|
|
|
1863 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p7"> Now it is clear, from what has been said
|
|
|
1864 <a id="FP_Q77_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html">(A[5])</a>, that either the subject of the soul's powers is the soul itself alone, which can be the subject of an accident, forasmuch
|
|
|
1865 as it has something of potentiality, as we have said above (A[1], ad 6); or else this subject is the composite. Now the composite
|
|
|
1866 is actual by the soul. Whence it is clear that all the powers of the soul, whether their subject be the soul alone, or the
|
|
|
1867 composite, flow from the essence
|
|
|
1868 of the soul, as from their principle; because it has already been said that the accident is caused by the subject according
|
|
|
1869 as it is actual, and is received into it according as it is in potentiality.
|
|
|
1870 </p>
|
|
|
1871 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p8">
|
|
|
1872 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> From one simple thing many things may proceed naturally, in a certain order; or again if there be diversity of recipients.
|
|
|
1873 Thus, from the one essence of the soul many and various powers proceed; both because order exists among these powers; and
|
|
|
1874 also by reason of the diversity of the corporeal organs.
|
|
|
1875 </p>
|
|
|
1876 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p9">
|
|
|
1877 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The subject is both the final cause, and in a way the active cause, of its proper accident. It is also as it were the material
|
|
|
1878 cause, inasmuch as it is receptive of the accident. From this we may gather that the essence of the soul is the cause of all
|
|
|
1879 its powers, as their end, and as their active principle; and of some as receptive thereof.
|
|
|
1880 </p>
|
|
|
1881 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p10">
|
|
|
1882 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The emanation of proper accidents from their subject is not by way of transmutation, but by a certain natural resultance;
|
|
|
1883 thus one thing results naturally from another, as color from light.
|
|
|
1884 </p>
|
|
|
1885 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1886 <p id="FP_Q77_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1887 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1888 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1889 </div>
|
|
|
1890 <div id="FP_Q77_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
1891 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1892 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
1893 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A7-p0.1">Whether one power of the soul arises from another?</h4>
|
|
|
1894 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1895 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p2">
|
|
|
1896 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one power of the soul does not arise from another. For if several things arise together, one of them does
|
|
|
1897 not arise from another. But all the powers of the soul are created at the same time with the soul. Therefore one of them does
|
|
|
1898 not arise from another.
|
|
|
1899 </p>
|
|
|
1900 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p3">
|
|
|
1901 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the power of the soul arises from the soul as an accident from the subject. But one power of the soul cannot be
|
|
|
1902 the subject of another; because nothing is the accident of an accident. Therefore one power does not arise from another.
|
|
|
1903 </p>
|
|
|
1904 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p4">
|
|
|
1905 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one opposite does not arise from the other opposite; but everything arises from that which is like it in species.
|
|
|
1906 Now the powers of the soul are oppositely divided, as various species. Therefore one of them does not proceed from another.
|
|
|
1907 </p>
|
|
|
1908 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p5">
|
|
|
1909 <b>On the contrary,</b> Powers are known by their actions. But the action of one power is caused by the action of another power, as the action of
|
|
|
1910 the imagination by the action of the senses. Therefore one power of the soul is caused by another.
|
|
|
1911 </p>
|
|
|
1912 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p6">
|
|
|
1913 <b>I answer that,</b> In those things which proceed from one according to a natural order, as the first is the cause of all, so that which is nearer
|
|
|
1914 to the first is, in a way, the cause of those which are more remote. Now it has been shown above
|
|
|
1915 <a id="FP_Q77_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A4.html">(A[4])</a> that among the powers of the soul there are several kinds of order. Therefore one power of the soul proceeds from the essence
|
|
|
1916 of the soul by the medium of another. But since the essence of the soul is
|
|
|
1917 compared to the powers both as a principle active and final, and as a receptive principle, either separately by itself, or
|
|
|
1918 together with the body; and since the agent and the end are more perfect, while the receptive principle, as such, is less
|
|
|
1919 perfect; it follows that those powers of the soul which precede the others, in the order of perfection and nature, are the
|
|
|
1920 principles of the others, after the manner of the end and active principle. For we see that the senses are for the sake of
|
|
|
1921 the
|
|
|
1922 intelligence, and not the other way about. The senses, moreover, are a certain imperfect participation of the intelligence;
|
|
|
1923 wherefore, according to their natural origin, they proceed from the intelligence as the imperfect from the perfect. But considered
|
|
|
1924 as receptive principles, the more perfect powers are principles with regard to the others; thus the soul, according as it
|
|
|
1925 has the sensitive power, is considered as the subject, and as something material with regard to the intelligence. On this
|
|
|
1926 account, the more imperfect powers precede the others in the order of generation, for the animal is generated before the man.
|
|
|
1927 </p>
|
|
|
1928 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p7">
|
|
|
1929 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As the power of the soul flows from the essence, not by a transmutation, but by a certain natural resultance, and is simultaneous
|
|
|
1930 with the soul, so is it the case with one power as regards another.
|
|
|
1931 </p>
|
|
|
1932 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p8">
|
|
|
1933 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> An accident cannot of itself be the subject of an accident; but one accident is received prior to another into substance,
|
|
|
1934 as quantity prior to quality. In this sense one accident is said to be the subject of another; as surface is of color, inasmuch
|
|
|
1935 as substance receives an accident through the means of another. The same thing may be said of the powers of the soul.
|
|
|
1936 </p>
|
|
|
1937 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p9">
|
|
|
1938 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The powers of the soul are opposed to one another, as perfect and imperfect; as also are the species of numbers and figures.
|
|
|
1939 But this opposition does not prevent the origin of one from another, because imperfect things naturally proceed from perfect
|
|
|
1940 things.
|
|
|
1941 </p>
|
|
|
1942 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1943 <p id="FP_Q77_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1944 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1945 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
1946 </div>
|
|
|
1947 <div id="FP_Q77_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
1948 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
1949 <a href="summa.FP_Q78.html"></a>
|
|
|
1950 <h4 id="FP_Q77_A8-p0.1">Whether all the powers remain in the soul when separated from the body?</h4>
|
|
|
1951 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1952 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p2">
|
|
|
1953 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that all the powers of the soul remain in the soul separated from the body. For we read in the book De Spiritu
|
|
|
1954 et Anima that "the soul withdraws from the body, taking with itself sense and imagination, reason and intelligence, concupiscibility
|
|
|
1955 and irascibility."
|
|
|
1956 </p>
|
|
|
1957 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p3">
|
|
|
1958 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the powers of the soul are its natural properties. But properties are always in that to which they belong; and are
|
|
|
1959 never separated from it. Therefore the powers of the soul are in it even after death.
|
|
|
1960 </p>
|
|
|
1961 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p4">
|
|
|
1962 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the powers even of the sensitive soul are not weakened when the body becomes weak; because, as the Philosopher says
|
|
|
1963 (De Anima i, 4), "If an old man were given the eye of a young man, he would see even as well as a young man." But weakness
|
|
|
1964 is the road to corruption. Therefore the powers of the soul are not corrupted when the body is corrupted, but remain in the
|
|
|
1965 separated soul.
|
|
|
1966 </p>
|
|
|
1967 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p5">
|
|
|
1968 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, memory is a power of the sensitive soul, as the Philosopher proves (De Memor. et Remin. 1). But memory remains in
|
|
|
1969 the separated soul; for it was said to the rich glutton whose soul was in hell: "Remember that thou didst receive good things
|
|
|
1970 during thy lifetime" (
|
|
|
1971 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q77_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.25" target="asv">Lk. 16:25</a>). Therefore memory remains in the separated soul; and consequently the other powers of the sensitive part.
|
|
|
1972 </p>
|
|
|
1973 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p6">
|
|
|
1974 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, joy and sorrow are in the concupiscible part, which is a power of the sensitive soul. But it is clear that separate
|
|
|
1975 souls grieve or rejoice at the pains or rewards which they receive. Therefore the concupiscible power remains in the separate
|
|
|
1976 soul.
|
|
|
1977 </p>
|
|
|
1978 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p7">
|
|
|
1979 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 32) that, as the soul, when the body lies senseless, yet not quite dead, sees
|
|
|
1980 some things by imaginary vision; so also when by death the soul is quite separate from the body. But the imagination is a
|
|
|
1981 power of the sensitive part. Therefore the power of the sensitive part remains in the separate soul; and consequently all
|
|
|
1982 the other powers.
|
|
|
1983 </p>
|
|
|
1984 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p8">
|
|
|
1985 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said (De Eccl. Dogm. xix) that "of two substances only does man consist; the soul with its reason, and the body with
|
|
|
1986 its senses." Therefore the body being dead, the sensitive powers do not remain.
|
|
|
1987 </p>
|
|
|
1988 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p9">
|
|
|
1989 <b>I answer that,</b> As we have said already (
|
|
|
1990 <a id="FP_Q77_A8-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A5.html">AA[5]</a>,6,7), all the powers of the soul belong to the soul alone as their principle. But some powers belong to the soul alone as
|
|
|
1991 their subject; as the intelligence and the will. These powers must remain in the soul, after the destruction of the body.
|
|
|
1992 But other powers are subjected in the composite; as all the powers of the sensitive and nutritive parts. Now accidents cannot
|
|
|
1993 remain after the destruction of the
|
|
|
1994 subject. Wherefore, the composite being destroyed, such powers do not remain actually; but they remain virtually in the soul,
|
|
|
1995 as in their principle or root.
|
|
|
1996 </p>
|
|
|
1997 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p10"> So it is false that, as some say, these powers remain in the soul even after the corruption of the body. It is much more
|
|
|
1998 false that, as they say also, the acts of these powers remain in the separate soul; because these powers have no act apart
|
|
|
1999 from the corporeal organ.
|
|
|
2000 </p>
|
|
|
2001 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p11">
|
|
|
2002 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That book has no authority, and so what is there written can be despised with the same facility as it was said; although
|
|
|
2003 we may say that the soul takes with itself these powers, not actually but virtually.
|
|
|
2004 </p>
|
|
|
2005 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p12">
|
|
|
2006 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> These powers, which we say do not actually remain in the separate soul, are not the properties of the soul alone, but of
|
|
|
2007 the composite.
|
|
|
2008 </p>
|
|
|
2009 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p13">
|
|
|
2010 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> These powers are said not to be weakened when the body becomes weak, because the soul remains unchangeable, and is the virtual
|
|
|
2011 principle of these powers.
|
|
|
2012 </p>
|
|
|
2013 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p14">
|
|
|
2014 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The recollection spoken of there is to be taken in the same way as Augustine (De Trin. x, 11; xiv, 7) places memory in the
|
|
|
2015 mind; not as a part of the sensitive soul.
|
|
|
2016 </p>
|
|
|
2017 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p15">
|
|
|
2018 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> In the separate soul, sorrow and joy are not in the sensitive, but in the intellectual appetite, as in the angels.
|
|
|
2019 </p>
|
|
|
2020 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p16">
|
|
|
2021 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Augustine in that passage is speaking as inquiring, not as asserting. Wherefore he retracted some things which he had said
|
|
|
2022 there (Retrac. ii, 24).
|
|
|
2023 </p>
|
|
|
2024 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p17"></p>
|
|
|
2025 <p id="FP_Q77_A8-p18"></p>
|
|
|
2026 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
2027 <a href="summa.FP_Q78.html"></a>
|
|
|
2028 </div>
|
|
|
2029 <a href="summa.FP_Q76_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
2030 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2031 </div>
|
|
|
2032 <div id="FP_Q78" class="div3">
|
|
|
2033 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
2034 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2035 <h3 id="FP_Q78-p0.1">OF THE SPECIFIC POWERS OF THE SOUL (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
2036 <p id="FP_Q78-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2037 <p id="FP_Q78-p2"> We next treat of the powers of the soul specifically. The theologian, however, has only to inquire specifically concerning
|
|
|
2038 the intellectual and appetitive powers, in which the virtues reside. And since the knowledge of these powers depends to a
|
|
|
2039 certain extent on the other powers, our consideration of the powers of the soul taken specifically will be divided into three
|
|
|
2040 parts: first, we shall consider those powers which are a preamble to the intellect; secondly, the intellectual
|
|
|
2041 powers; thirdly, the appetitive powers.
|
|
|
2042 </p>
|
|
|
2043 <p id="FP_Q78-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
2044 <p id="FP_Q78-p4"> (1) The powers of the soul considered generally;</p>
|
|
|
2045 <p id="FP_Q78-p5"> (2) The various species of the vegetative part;</p>
|
|
|
2046 <p id="FP_Q78-p6"> (3) The exterior senses;</p>
|
|
|
2047 <p id="FP_Q78-p7"> (4) The interior senses.</p>
|
|
|
2048 <div id="FP_Q78_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
2049 <a href="summa.FP_Q78.html"></a>
|
|
|
2050 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2051 <h4 id="FP_Q78_A1-p0.1">Whether there are to be distinguished five genera of powers in the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
2052 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2053 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p2">
|
|
|
2054 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there are not to be distinguished five genera of powers in the soul---namely, vegetative, sensitive, appetitive,
|
|
|
2055 locomotive, and intellectual. For the powers of the soul are called its parts. But only three parts of the soul are commonly
|
|
|
2056 assigned---namely, the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Therefore there are only three genera of
|
|
|
2057 powers in the soul, and not five.
|
|
|
2058 </p>
|
|
|
2059 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p3">
|
|
|
2060 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the powers of the soul are the principles of its vital operations. Now, in four ways is a thing said to live. For
|
|
|
2061 the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 2): "In several ways a thing is said to live, and even if only one of these is present,
|
|
|
2062 the thing is said to live; as intellect and sense, local movement and rest, and lastly, movement of decrease and increase
|
|
|
2063 due to nourishment." Therefore there are only four genera of powers of the soul, as the
|
|
|
2064 appetitive is excluded.
|
|
|
2065 </p>
|
|
|
2066 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p4">
|
|
|
2067 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a special kind of soul ought not to be assigned as regards what is common to all the powers. Now desire is common
|
|
|
2068 to each power of the soul. For sight desires an appropriate visible object; whence we read (
|
|
|
2069 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q78_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.40.22" target="asv">Ecclus. 40:22</a>): "The eye desireth favor and beauty, but more than these green sown fields." In the same way every other power desires its
|
|
|
2070 appropriate object. Therefore the appetitive power should not be made a special genus of
|
|
|
2071 the powers of the soul.
|
|
|
2072 </p>
|
|
|
2073 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p5">
|
|
|
2074 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the moving principle in animals is sense, intellect or appetite, as the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 10). Therefore
|
|
|
2075 the motive power should not be added to the above as a special genus of soul.
|
|
|
2076 </p>
|
|
|
2077 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p6">
|
|
|
2078 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 3), "The powers are the vegetative, the sensitive, the appetitive, the locomotion, and
|
|
|
2079 the intellectual."
|
|
|
2080 </p>
|
|
|
2081 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p7">
|
|
|
2082 <b>I answer that,</b> There are five genera of powers of the soul, as above numbered. Of these, three are called souls, and four are called modes
|
|
|
2083 of living. The reason of this diversity lies in the various souls being distinguished accordingly as the operation of the
|
|
|
2084 soul transcends the operation of the corporeal nature in various ways; for the whole corporeal nature is subject to the soul,
|
|
|
2085 and is related to it as its matter and instrument. There exists, therefore, an operation
|
|
|
2086 of the soul which so far exceeds the corporeal nature that it is not even performed by any corporeal organ; and such is the
|
|
|
2087 operation of the "rational soul." Below this, there is another operation of the soul, which is indeed performed through a
|
|
|
2088 corporeal organ, but not through a corporeal quality, and this is the operation of the "sensitive soul"; for though hot and
|
|
|
2089 cold, wet and dry, and other such corporeal qualities are required for the work of the senses, yet they are not required in
|
|
|
2090 such
|
|
|
2091 a way that the operation of the senses takes place by virtue of such qualities; but only for the proper disposition of the
|
|
|
2092 organ. The lowest of the operations of the soul is that which is performed by a corporeal organ, and by virtue of a corporeal
|
|
|
2093 quality. Yet this transcends the operation of the corporeal nature; because the movements of bodies are caused by an extrinsic
|
|
|
2094 principle, while these operations are from an intrinsic principle; for this is common to all the operations of the soul;
|
|
|
2095 since every animate thing, in some way, moves itself. Such is the operation of the "vegetative soul"; for digestion, and what
|
|
|
2096 follows, is caused instrumentally by the action of heat, as the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 4).
|
|
|
2097 </p>
|
|
|
2098 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p8"> Now the powers of the soul are distinguished generically by their objects. For the higher a power is, the more universal
|
|
|
2099 is the object to which it extends, as we have said above (
|
|
|
2100 <a id="FP_Q78_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html">Q[77], A[3]</a>, ad 4). But the object of the soul's operation may be considered in a triple order. For in the soul there is a power the
|
|
|
2101 object of which is only the body that is united to that soul; the powers of this genus are called "vegetative" for the vegetative
|
|
|
2102 power acts only
|
|
|
2103 on the body to which the soul is united. There is another genus in the powers of the soul, which genus regards a more universal
|
|
|
2104 object---namely, every sensible body, not only the body to which the soul is united. And there is yet another genus in the
|
|
|
2105 powers of the soul, which genus regards a still more universal object---namely, not only the sensible body, but all being
|
|
|
2106 in universal. Wherefore it is evident that the latter two genera of the soul's powers have an operation in regard not merely
|
|
|
2107 to that which is united to them, but also to something extrinsic. Now, since whatever operates must in some way be united
|
|
|
2108 to the object about which it operates, it follows of necessity that this something extrinsic, which is the object of the soul's
|
|
|
2109 operation, must be related to the soul in a twofold manner. First, inasmuch as this something extrinsic has a natural aptitude
|
|
|
2110 to be united to the soul, and to be by its likeness in the soul. In this way there are two kinds of powers ---namely, the
|
|
|
2111 "sensitive" in regard to the less common object---the sensible body; and the "intellectual," in regard to the most common
|
|
|
2112 object---universal being. Secondly, forasmuch as the soul itself has an inclination and tendency to the something extrinsic.
|
|
|
2113 And in this way there are again two kinds of powers in the soul: one---the "appetitive"---in respect of which the soul is
|
|
|
2114 referred to something extrinsic as to an end, which is first in the intention; the other---the "locomotive" power---in respect
|
|
|
2115 of
|
|
|
2116 which the soul is referred to something extrinsic as to the term of its operation and movement; for every animal is moved
|
|
|
2117 for the purpose of realizing its desires and intentions.
|
|
|
2118 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p9"> The modes of living are distinguished according to the degrees of living things. There are some living things in which there
|
|
|
2119 exists only vegetative power, as the plants. There are others in which with the vegetative there exists also the sensitive,
|
|
|
2120 but not the locomotive power; such as immovable animals, as shellfish. There are others which besides this have locomotive
|
|
|
2121 powers, as perfect animals, which require many things for their life, and consequently movement to seek
|
|
|
2122 necessaries of life from a distance. And there are some living things which with these have intellectual power---namely, men.
|
|
|
2123 But the appetitive power does not constitute a degree of living things; because wherever there is sense there is also appetite
|
|
84
|
2124 (De Anima ii, 3).</p>
|
|
64
|
2125 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p10"> Thus the first two objectives are hereby solved.</p>
|
|
84
|
2126 </p>
|
|
64
|
2127 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p11">
|
|
|
2128 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The "natural appetite" is that inclination which each thing has, of its own nature, for something; wherefore by its natural
|
|
|
2129 appetite each power desires something suitable to itself. But the "animal appetite" results from the form apprehended; this
|
|
|
2130 sort of appetite requires a special power of the soul---mere apprehension does not suffice. For a thing is desired as it exists
|
|
|
2131 in its own nature, whereas in the apprehensive power it exists not according to
|
|
|
2132 its own nature, but according to its likeness. Whence it is clear that sight desires naturally a visible object for the purpose
|
|
|
2133 of its act only---namely, for the purpose of seeing; but the animal by the appetitive power desires the thing seen, not merely
|
|
|
2134 for the purpose of seeing it, but also for other purposes. But if the soul did not require things perceived by the senses,
|
|
|
2135 except on account of the actions of the senses, that is, for the purpose of sensing them; there would be no need for a
|
|
|
2136 special genus of appetitive powers, since the natural appetite of the powers would suffice.
|
|
|
2137 </p>
|
|
|
2138 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p12">
|
|
|
2139 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Although sense and appetite are principles of movement in perfect animals, yet sense and appetite, as such, are not sufficient
|
|
|
2140 to cause movement, unless another power be added to them; for immovable animals have sense and appetite, and yet they have
|
|
|
2141 not the power of motion. Now this motive power is not only in the appetite and sense as commanding the movement, but also
|
|
|
2142 in the parts of the body, to make them obey the appetite of the soul which moves
|
|
|
2143 them. Of this we have a sign in the fact that when the members are deprived of their natural disposition, they do not move
|
|
|
2144 in obedience to the appetite.
|
|
|
2145 </p>
|
|
|
2146 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
2147 <p id="FP_Q78_A1-p14"></p>
|
|
|
2148 <a href="summa.FP_Q78.html"></a>
|
|
|
2149 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2150 </div>
|
|
|
2151 <div id="FP_Q78_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
2152 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2153 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2154 <h4 id="FP_Q78_A2-p0.1">Whether the parts of the vegetative soul are fittingly described as the nutritive, augmentative, and generative?</h4>
|
|
|
2155 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2156 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p2">
|
|
|
2157 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the parts of the vegetative soul are not fittingly described---namely, the nutritive, augmentative, and
|
|
|
2158 generative. For these are called "natural" forces. But the powers of the soul are above the natural forces. Therefore we should
|
|
|
2159 not class the above forces as powers of the soul.
|
|
|
2160 </p>
|
|
|
2161 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p3">
|
|
|
2162 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, we should not assign a particular power of the soul to that which is common to living and non-living things. But
|
|
|
2163 generation is common to all things that can be generated and corrupted, whether living or not living. Therefore the generative
|
|
|
2164 force should not be classed as a power of the soul.
|
|
|
2165 </p>
|
|
|
2166 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p4">
|
|
|
2167 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the soul is more powerful than the body. But the body by the same force gives species and quantity; much more, therefore,
|
|
|
2168 does the soul. Therefore the augmentative power of the soul is not distinct from the generative power.
|
|
|
2169 </p>
|
|
|
2170 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p5">
|
|
|
2171 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, everything is preserved in being by that whereby it exists. But the generative power is that whereby a living thing
|
|
|
2172 exists. Therefore by the same power the living thing is preserved. Now the nutritive force is directed to the preservation
|
|
|
2173 of the living thing (De Anima ii, 4), being "a power which is capable of preserving whatever receives it." Therefore we should
|
|
|
2174 not distinguish the nutritive power from the generative.
|
|
|
2175 </p>
|
|
|
2176 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p6">
|
|
|
2177 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 2,4) that the operations of this soul are "generation, the use of food," and (cf. De Anima
|
|
|
2178 iii, 9) "growth."
|
|
|
2179 </p>
|
|
|
2180 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p7">
|
|
|
2181 <b>I answer that,</b> The vegetative part has three powers. For the vegetative part, as we have said
|
|
|
2182 <a id="FP_Q78_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, has for its object the body itself, living by the soul; for which body a triple operation of the soul is required. One is
|
|
|
2183 whereby it acquires existence, and to this is directed the "generative" power. Another is whereby the living body acquires
|
|
|
2184 its due quantity; to this is directed the "augmentative" power. Another is whereby the body of a living
|
|
|
2185 thing is preserved in its existence and in its due quantity; to this is directed the "nutritive" power.
|
|
|
2186 </p>
|
|
|
2187 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p8"> We must, however, observe a difference among these powers. The nutritive and the augmentative have their effect where they
|
|
|
2188 exist, since the body itself united to the soul grows and is preserved by the augmentative and nutritive powers which exist
|
|
|
2189 in one and the same soul. But the generative power has its effect, not in one and the same body but in another; for a thing
|
|
|
2190 cannot generate itself. Therefore the generative power, in a way, approaches to the dignity of the sensitive
|
|
|
2191 soul, which has an operation extending to extrinsic things, although in a more excellent and more universal manner; for that
|
|
|
2192 which is highest in an inferior nature approaches to that which is lowest in the higher nature, as is made clear by Dionysius
|
|
|
2193 (Div. Nom. vii). Therefore, of these three powers, the generative has the greater finality, nobility, and perfection, as the
|
|
|
2194 Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 4), for it belongs to a thing which is already perfect to "produce another like unto
|
|
|
2195 itself." And the generative power is served by the augmentative and nutritive powers; and the augmentative power by the nutritive.
|
|
|
2196 </p>
|
|
|
2197 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p9">
|
|
|
2198 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Such forces are called natural, both because they produce an effect like that of nature, which also gives existence, quantity
|
|
|
2199 and preservation (although the above forces accomplish these things in a more perfect way); and because those forces perform
|
|
|
2200 their actions instrumentally, through the active and passive qualities, which are the principles of natural actions.
|
|
|
2201 </p>
|
|
|
2202 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p10">
|
|
|
2203 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Generation of inanimate things is entirely from an extrinsic source; whereas the generation of living things is in a higher
|
|
|
2204 way, through something in the living thing itself, which is the semen containing the principle productive of the body. Therefore
|
|
|
2205 there must be in the living thing a power that prepares this semen; and this is the generative power.
|
|
|
2206 </p>
|
|
|
2207 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p11">
|
|
|
2208 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since the generation of living things is from a semen, it is necessary that in the beginning an animal of small size be generated.
|
|
|
2209 For this reason it must have a power in the soul, whereby it is brought to its appropriate size. But the inanimate body is
|
|
|
2210 generated from determinate matter by an extrinsic agent; therefore it receives at once its nature and its quantity, according
|
|
|
2211 to the condition of the matter.
|
|
|
2212 </p>
|
|
|
2213 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p12">
|
|
|
2214 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As we have said above
|
|
|
2215 <a id="FP_Q78_A2-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, the operation of the vegetative principle is performed by means of heat, the property of which is to consume humidity. Therefore,
|
|
|
2216 in order to restore the humidity thus lost, the nutritive power is required, whereby the food is changed into the substance
|
|
|
2217 of the body. This is also necessary for the action of the augmentative and generative powers.
|
|
|
2218 </p>
|
|
|
2219 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p13"></p>
|
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|
2220 <p id="FP_Q78_A2-p14"></p>
|
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|
2221 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2222 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2223 </div>
|
|
|
2224 <div id="FP_Q78_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
2225 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2226 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
2227 <h4 id="FP_Q78_A3-p0.1">Whether the five exterior senses are properly distinguished?</h4>
|
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|
2228 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2229 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p2">
|
|
|
2230 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem inaccurate to distinguish five exterior senses. But there are many kinds of accidents. Therefore, as powers
|
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|
2231 are distinguished by their objects, it seems that the senses are multiplied according to the number of the kinds of accidents.
|
|
|
2232 </p>
|
|
|
2233 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p3">
|
|
|
2234 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, magnitude and shape, and other things which are called "common sensibles," are "not sensibles by accident," but
|
|
|
2235 are contradistinguished from them by the Philosopher (De Anima ii, 6). Now the diversity of objects, as such, diversifies
|
|
|
2236 the powers. Since, therefore, magnitude and shape are further from color than sound is, it seems that there is much more need
|
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|
2237 for another sensitive power than can grasp magnitude or shape than for that which grasps color
|
|
|
2238 or sound.
|
|
|
2239 </p>
|
|
|
2240 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p4">
|
|
|
2241 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one sense regards one contrariety; as sight regards white and black. But the sense of touch grasps several contraries;
|
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|
2242 such as hot or cold, damp or dry, and suchlike. Therefore it is not a single sense but several. Therefore there are more than
|
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|
2243 five senses.
|
|
|
2244 </p>
|
|
|
2245 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p5">
|
|
|
2246 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, a species is not divided against its genus. But taste is a kind of touch. Therefore it should not be classed as
|
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|
2247 a distinct sense of touch.
|
|
|
2248 </p>
|
|
|
2249 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p6">
|
|
|
2250 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 1): "There is no other besides the five senses."
|
|
|
2251 </p>
|
|
|
2252 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p7">
|
|
|
2253 <b>I answer that,</b> The reason of the distinction and number of the senses has been assigned by some to the organs in which one or other of the
|
|
|
2254 elements preponderate, as water, air, or the like. By others it has been assigned to the medium, which is either in conjunction
|
|
|
2255 or extrinsic and is either water or air, or such like. Others have ascribed it to the various natures of the sensible qualities,
|
|
|
2256 according as such quality belongs to a simple body or results from complexity.
|
|
|
2257 But none of these explanations is apt. For the powers are not for the organs, but the organs for the powers; wherefore there
|
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|
2258 are not various powers for the reason that there are various organs; on the contrary, for this has nature provided a variety
|
|
|
2259 of organs, that they might be adapted to various powers. In the same way nature provided various mediums for the various senses,
|
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|
2260 according to the convenience of the acts of the powers. And to be cognizant of the natures of sensible qualities does
|
|
|
2261 not pertain to the senses, but to the intellect.
|
|
|
2262 </p>
|
|
|
2263 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p8"> The reason of the number and distinction of the exterior senses must therefore be ascribed to that which belongs to the senses
|
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|
2264 properly and "per se." Now, sense is a passive power, and is naturally immuted by the exterior sensible. Wherefore the exterior
|
|
|
2265 cause of such immutation is what is "per se" perceived by the sense, and according to the diversity of that exterior cause
|
|
|
2266 are the sensitive powers diversified.
|
|
|
2267 </p>
|
|
|
2268 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p9"> Now, immutation is of two kinds, one natural, the other spiritual. Natural immutation takes place by the form of the immuter
|
|
|
2269 being received according to its natural existence, into the thing immuted, as heat is received into the thing heated. Whereas
|
|
|
2270 spiritual immutation takes place by the form of the immuter being received, according to a spiritual mode of existence, into
|
|
|
2271 the thing immuted, as the form of color is received into the pupil which does not thereby become colored.
|
|
|
2272 Now, for the operation of the senses, a spiritual immutation is required, whereby an intention of the sensible form is effected
|
|
|
2273 in the sensile organ. Otherwise, if a natural immutation alone sufficed for the sense's action, all natural bodies would feel
|
|
|
2274 when they undergo alteration.
|
|
|
2275 </p>
|
|
|
2276 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p10"> But in some senses we find spiritual immutation only, as in "sight" while in others we find not only spiritual but also a
|
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|
2277 natural immutation; either on the part of the object only, or likewise on the part of the organ. On the part of the object
|
|
|
2278 we find natural immutation, as to place, in sound which is the object of "hearing"; for sound is caused by percussion and
|
|
|
2279 commotion of air: and we find natural immutation by alteration, in odor which is the object of "smelling"; for in
|
|
|
2280 order to exhale an odor, a body must be in a measure affected by heat. On the part of an organ, natural immutation takes place
|
|
|
2281 in "touch" and "taste"; for the hand that touches something hot becomes hot, while the tongue is moistened by the humidity
|
|
|
2282 of the flavored morsel. But the organs of smelling and hearing are not affected in their respective operations by any natural
|
|
|
2283 immutation unless indirectly.
|
|
|
2284 </p>
|
|
|
2285 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p11"> Now, the sight, which is without natural immutation either in its organ or in its object, is the most spiritual, the most
|
|
|
2286 perfect, and the most universal of all the senses. After this comes the hearing and then the smell, which require a natural
|
|
|
2287 immutation on the part of the object; while local motion is more perfect than, and naturally prior to, the motion of alteration,
|
|
|
2288 as the Philosopher proves (Phys. viii, 7). Touch and taste are the most material of all: of the distinction
|
|
|
2289 of which we shall speak later on (ad 3,4). Hence it is that the three other senses are not exercised through a medium united
|
|
|
2290 to them, to obviate any natural immutation in their organ; as happens as regards these two senses.
|
|
|
2291 </p>
|
|
|
2292 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p12">
|
|
|
2293 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Not every accident has in itself a power of immutation but only qualities of the third species, which are the principles
|
|
|
2294 of alteration: therefore only suchlike qualities are the objects of the senses; because "the senses are affected by the same
|
|
|
2295 things whereby inanimate bodies are affected," as stated in Phys. vii, 2.
|
|
|
2296 </p>
|
|
|
2297 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p13">
|
|
|
2298 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Size, shape, and the like, which are called "common sensibles," are midway between "accidental sensibles" and "proper sensibles,"
|
|
|
2299 which are the objects of the senses. For the proper sensibles first, and of their very nature, affect the senses; since they
|
|
|
2300 are qualities that cause alteration. But the common sensibles are all reducible to quantity. As to size and number, it is
|
|
|
2301 clear that they are species of quantity. Shape is a quality about quantity.
|
|
|
2302 Shape is a quality about quantity, since the notion of shape consists of fixing the bounds of magnitude. Movement and rest
|
|
|
2303 are sensed according as the subject is affected in one or more ways in the magnitude of the subject or of its local distance,
|
|
|
2304 as in the movement of growth or of locomotion, or again, according as it is affected in some sensible qualities, as in the
|
|
|
2305 movement of alteration; and thus to sense movement and rest is, in a way, to sense one thing and many. Now quantity is the
|
|
|
2306 proximate subject of the qualities that cause alteration, as surface is of color. Therefore the common sensibles do not move
|
|
|
2307 the senses first and of their own nature, but by reason of the sensible quality; as the surface by reason of color. Yet they
|
|
|
2308 are not accidental sensibles, for they produce a certain variety in the immutation of the senses. For sense is immuted differently
|
|
|
2309 by a large and by a small surface: since whiteness itself is said to be great or small, and therefore it is divided
|
|
|
2310 according to its proper subject.
|
|
|
2311 </p>
|
|
|
2312 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p14">
|
|
|
2313 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As the Philosopher seems to say (De Anima ii, 11), the sense of touch is generically one, but is divided into several specific
|
|
|
2314 senses, and for this reason it extends to various contrarieties; which senses, however, are not separate from one another
|
|
|
2315 in their organ, but are spread throughout the whole body, so that their distinction is not evident. But taste, which perceives
|
|
|
2316 the sweet and the bitter, accompanies touch in the tongue, but not in the whole
|
|
|
2317 body; so it is easily distinguished from touch. We might also say that all those contrarieties agree, each in some proximate
|
|
|
2318 genus, and all in a common genus, which is the common and formal object of touch. Such common genus is, however, unnamed,
|
|
|
2319 just as the proximate genus of hot and cold is unnamed.
|
|
|
2320 </p>
|
|
|
2321 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p15">
|
|
|
2322 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The sense of taste, according to a saying of the Philosopher (De Anima ii, 9), is a kind of touch existing in the tongue
|
|
|
2323 only. It is not distinct from touch in general, but only from the species of touch distributed in the body. But if touch is
|
|
|
2324 one sense only, on account of the common formality of its object: we must say that taste is distinguished from touch by reason
|
|
|
2325 of a different formality of immutation. For touch involves a natural, and not only
|
|
|
2326 a spiritual, immutation in its organ, by reason of the quality which is its proper object. But the organ of taste is not necessarily
|
|
|
2327 immuted by a natural immutation by reason of the quality which is its proper object, so that the tongue itself becomes sweet
|
|
|
2328 and bitter: but by reason of a quality which is a preamble to, and on which is based, the flavor, which quality is moisture,
|
|
|
2329 the object of touch.
|
|
|
2330 </p>
|
|
|
2331 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p16"></p>
|
|
|
2332 <p id="FP_Q78_A3-p17"></p>
|
|
|
2333 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2334 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2335 </div>
|
|
|
2336 <div id="FP_Q78_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
2337 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2338 <a href="summa.FP_Q79.html"></a>
|
|
|
2339 <h4 id="FP_Q78_A4-p0.1">Whether the interior senses are suitably distinguished?</h4>
|
|
|
2340 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2341 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p2">
|
|
|
2342 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the interior senses are not suitably distinguished. For the common is not divided against the proper.
|
|
|
2343 Therefore the common sense should not be numbered among the interior sensitive powers, in addition to the proper exterior
|
|
|
2344 senses.
|
|
|
2345 </p>
|
|
|
2346 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p3">
|
|
|
2347 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, there is no need to assign an interior power of apprehension when the proper and exterior sense suffices. But the
|
|
|
2348 proper and exterior senses suffice for us to judge of sensible things; for each sense judges of its proper object. In like
|
|
|
2349 manner they seem to suffice for the perception of their own actions; for since the action of the sense is, in a way, between
|
|
|
2350 the power and its object, it seems that sight must be much more able to perceive its own
|
|
|
2351 vision, as being nearer to it, than the color; and in like manner with the other senses. Therefore for this there is no need
|
|
|
2352 to assign an interior power, called the common sense.
|
|
|
2353 </p>
|
|
|
2354 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p4">
|
|
|
2355 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to the Philosopher (De Memor. et Remin. i), the imagination and the memory are passions of the "first
|
|
|
2356 sensitive." But passion is not divided against its subject. Therefore memory and imagination should not be assigned as powers
|
|
|
2357 distinct from the senses.
|
|
|
2358 </p>
|
|
|
2359 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p5">
|
|
|
2360 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the intellect depends on the senses less than any power of the sensitive part. But the intellect knows nothing but
|
|
|
2361 what it receives from the senses; whence we read (Poster. i, 8), that "those who lack one sense lack one kind of knowledge."
|
|
|
2362 Therefore much less should we assign to the sensitive part a power, which they call the "estimative" power, for the perception
|
|
|
2363 of intentions which the sense does not perceive.
|
|
|
2364 </p>
|
|
|
2365 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p6">
|
|
|
2366 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the action of the cogitative power, which consists in comparing, adding and dividing, and the action of the reminiscence,
|
|
|
2367 which consists in the use of a kind of syllogism for the sake of inquiry, is not less distant from the actions of the estimative
|
|
|
2368 and memorative powers, than the action of the estimative is from the action of the imagination. Therefore either we must add
|
|
|
2369 the cognitive and reminiscitive to the estimative and memorative powers, or the
|
|
|
2370 estimative and memorative powers should not be made distinct from the imagination.
|
|
|
2371 </p>
|
|
|
2372 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p7">
|
|
|
2373 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, Augustine (Gen. ad lit. xii, 6,7,24) describes three kinds of vision; namely, corporeal, which is the action of
|
|
|
2374 the sense; spiritual, which is an action of the imagination or phantasy; and intellectual, which is an action of the intellect.
|
|
|
2375 Therefore there is no interior power between the sense and intellect, besides the imagination.
|
|
|
2376 </p>
|
|
|
2377 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p8">
|
|
|
2378 <b>On the contrary,</b> Avicenna (De Anima iv, 1) assigns five interior sensitive powers; namely, "common sense, phantasy, imagination, and the estimative
|
|
|
2379 and memorative powers."
|
|
|
2380 </p>
|
|
|
2381 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p9">
|
|
|
2382 <b>I answer that,</b> As nature does not fail in necessary things, there must needs be as many actions of the sensitive soul as may suffice for
|
|
|
2383 the life of a perfect animal. If any of these actions cannot be reduced to the same one principle, they must be assigned to
|
|
|
2384 diverse powers; since a power of the soul is nothing else than the proximate principle of the soul's operation.
|
|
|
2385 </p>
|
|
|
2386 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p10"> Now we must observe that for the life of a perfect animal, the animal should apprehend a thing not only at the actual time
|
|
|
2387 of sensation, but also when it is absent. Otherwise, since animal motion and action follow apprehension, an animal would not
|
|
|
2388 be moved to seek something absent: the contrary of which we may observe specially in perfect animals, which are moved by progression,
|
|
|
2389 for they are moved towards something apprehended and absent. Therefore an animal through the
|
|
|
2390 sensitive soul must not only receive the species of sensible things, when it is actually affected by them, but it must also
|
|
|
2391 retain and preserve them. Now to receive and retain are, in corporeal things, reduced to diverse principles; for moist things
|
|
|
2392 are apt to receive, but retain with difficulty, while it is the reverse with dry things. Wherefore, since the sensitive power
|
|
|
2393 is the act of a corporeal organ, it follows that the power which receives the species of sensible things must be distinct
|
|
|
2394 from the power which preserves them.
|
|
|
2395 </p>
|
|
|
2396 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p11"> Again we must observe that if an animal were moved by pleasing and disagreeable things only as affecting the sense, there
|
|
|
2397 would be no need to suppose that an animal has a power besides the apprehension of those forms which the senses perceive,
|
|
|
2398 and in which the animal takes pleasure, or from which it shrinks with horror. But the animal needs to seek or to avoid certain
|
|
|
2399 things, not only because they are pleasing or otherwise to the senses, but also on account of other advantages
|
|
|
2400 and uses, or disadvantages: just as the sheep runs away when it sees a wolf, not on account of its color or shape, but as
|
|
|
2401 a natural enemy: and again a bird gathers together straws, not because they are pleasant to the sense, but because they are
|
|
|
2402 useful for building its nest. Animals, therefore, need to perceive such intentions, which the exterior sense does not perceive.
|
|
|
2403 And some distinct principle is necessary for this; since the perception of sensible forms comes by an immutation caused by
|
|
|
2404 the sensible, which is not the case with the perception of those intentions.
|
|
|
2405 </p>
|
|
|
2406 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p12"> Thus, therefore, for the reception of sensible forms, the "proper sense" and the "common sense" are appointed, and of their
|
|
|
2407 distinction we shall speak farther on (ad 1,2). But for the retention and preservation of these forms, the "phantasy" or "imagination"
|
|
|
2408 is appointed; which are the same, for phantasy or imagination is as it were a storehouse of forms received through the senses.
|
|
|
2409 Furthermore, for the apprehension of intentions which are not received through the senses, the
|
|
|
2410 "estimative" power is appointed: and for the preservation thereof, the "memorative" power, which is a storehouse of such-like
|
|
|
2411 intentions. A sign of which we have in the fact that the principle of memory in animals is found in some such intention, for
|
|
|
2412 instance, that something is harmful or otherwise. And the very formality of the past, which memory observes, is to be reckoned
|
|
|
2413 among these intentions.
|
|
|
2414 </p>
|
|
|
2415 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p13"> Now, we must observe that as to sensible forms there is no difference between man and other animals; for they are similarly
|
|
|
2416 immuted by the extrinsic sensible. But there is a difference as to the above intentions: for other animals perceive these
|
|
|
2417 intentions only by some natural instinct, while man perceives them by means of coalition of ideas. Therefore the power by
|
|
|
2418 which in other animals is called the natural estimative, in man is called the "cogitative," which by some sort of
|
|
|
2419 collation discovers these intentions. Wherefore it is also called the "particular reason," to which medical men assign a certain
|
|
|
2420 particular organ, namely, the middle part of the head: for it compares individual intentions, just as the intellectual reason
|
|
|
2421 compares universal intentions. As to the memorative power, man has not only memory, as other animals have in the sudden recollection
|
|
|
2422 of the past; but also "reminiscence" by syllogistically, as it were, seeking for a recollection of the past by
|
|
|
2423 the application of individual intentions. Avicenna, however, assigns between the estimative and the imaginative, a fifth power,
|
|
|
2424 which combines and divides imaginary forms: as when from the imaginary form of gold, and imaginary form of a mountain, we
|
|
|
2425 compose the one form of a golden mountain, which we have never seen. But this operation is not to be found in animals other
|
|
|
2426 than man, in whom the imaginative power suffices thereto. To man also does Averroes attribute this action in his book De
|
|
|
2427 sensu et sensibilibus (viii). So there is no need to assign more than four interior powers of the sensitive part---namely,
|
|
|
2428 the common sense, the imagination, and the estimative and memorative powers.
|
|
|
2429 </p>
|
|
|
2430 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p14">
|
|
|
2431 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The interior sense is called "common" not by predication, as if it were a genus; but as the common root and principle of
|
|
|
2432 the exterior senses.
|
|
|
2433 </p>
|
|
|
2434 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p15">
|
|
|
2435 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The proper sense judges of the proper sensible by discerning it from other things which come under the same sense; for instance,
|
|
|
2436 by discerning white from black or green. But neither sight nor taste can discern white from sweet: because what discerns between
|
|
|
2437 two things must know both. Wherefore the discerning judgment must be assigned to the common sense; to which, as to a common
|
|
|
2438 term, all apprehensions of the senses must be referred: and by which,
|
|
|
2439 again, all the intentions of the senses are perceived; as when someone sees that he sees. For this cannot be done by the proper
|
|
|
2440 sense, which only knows the form of the sensible by which it is immuted, in which immutation the action of sight is completed,
|
|
|
2441 and from immutation follows another in the common sense which perceives the act of vision.
|
|
|
2442 </p>
|
|
|
2443 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p16">
|
|
|
2444 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As one power arises from the soul by means of another, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
2445 <a id="FP_Q78_A4-p16.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A7.html">Q[77], A[7]</a>), so also the soul is the subject of one power through another. In this way the imagination and the memory are called passions
|
|
|
2446 of the "first sensitive."
|
|
|
2447 </p>
|
|
|
2448 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p17">
|
|
|
2449 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Although the operation of the intellect has its origin in the senses: yet, in the thing apprehended through the senses, the
|
|
|
2450 intellect knows many things which the senses cannot perceive. In like manner does the estimative power, though in a less perfect
|
|
|
2451 manner.
|
|
|
2452 </p>
|
|
|
2453 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p18">
|
|
|
2454 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The cogitative and memorative powers in man owe their excellence not to that which is proper to the sensitive part; but to
|
|
|
2455 a certain affinity and proximity to the universal reason, which, so to speak, overflows into them. Therefore they are not
|
|
|
2456 distinct powers, but the same, yet more perfect than in other animals.
|
|
|
2457 </p>
|
|
|
2458 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p19">
|
|
|
2459 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Augustine calls that vision spiritual which is effected by the images of bodies in the absence of bodies. Whence it is clear
|
|
|
2460 that it is common to all interior apprehensions.
|
|
|
2461 </p>
|
|
|
2462 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p20"></p>
|
|
|
2463 <p id="FP_Q78_A4-p21"></p>
|
|
|
2464 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2465 <a href="summa.FP_Q79.html"></a>
|
|
|
2466 </div>
|
|
|
2467 <a href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
2468 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2469 </div>
|
|
|
2470 <div id="FP_Q79" class="div3">
|
|
|
2471 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2472 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2473 <h3 id="FP_Q79-p0.1">OF THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS (THIRTEEN ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
2474 <p id="FP_Q79-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2475 <p id="FP_Q79-p2"> The next question concerns the intellectual powers, under which head there are thirteen points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
2476 <p id="FP_Q79-p3"> (1) Whether the intellect is a power of the soul, or its essence?</p>
|
|
|
2477 <p id="FP_Q79-p4"> (2) If it be a power, whether it is a passive power?</p>
|
|
|
2478 <p id="FP_Q79-p5"> (3) If it is a passive power, whether there is an active intellect?</p>
|
|
|
2479 <p id="FP_Q79-p6"> (4) Whether it is something in the soul?</p>
|
|
|
2480 <p id="FP_Q79-p7"> (5) Whether the active intellect is one in all?</p>
|
|
|
2481 <p id="FP_Q79-p8"> (6) Whether memory is in the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
2482 <p id="FP_Q79-p9"> (7) Whether the memory be distinct from the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
2483 <p id="FP_Q79-p10"> (8) Whether the reason is a distinct power from the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
2484 <p id="FP_Q79-p11"> (9) Whether the superior and inferior reason are distinct powers?</p>
|
|
|
2485 <p id="FP_Q79-p12"> (10) Whether the intelligence is distinct from the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
2486 <p id="FP_Q79-p13"> (11) Whether the speculative and practical intellect are distinct powers?</p>
|
|
|
2487 <p id="FP_Q79-p14"> (12) Whether "synderesis" is a power of the intellectual part?</p>
|
|
|
2488 <p id="FP_Q79-p15"> (13) Whether the conscience is a power of the intellectual part?</p>
|
|
|
2489 <div id="FP_Q79_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
2490 <a href="summa.FP_Q79.html"></a>
|
|
|
2491 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2492 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A1-p0.1">Whether the intellect is a power of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
2493 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2494 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p2">
|
|
|
2495 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect is not a power of the soul, but the essence of the soul. For the intellect seems to be the
|
|
|
2496 same as the mind. Now the mind is not a power of the soul, but the essence; for Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 2): "Mind and
|
|
|
2497 spirit are not relative things, but denominate the essence." Therefore the intellect is the essence of the soul.
|
|
|
2498 </p>
|
|
|
2499 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p3">
|
|
|
2500 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, different genera of the soul's powers are not united in some one power, but only in the essence of the soul. Now
|
|
|
2501 the appetitive and the intellectual are different genera of the soul's powers as the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 3), but
|
|
|
2502 they are united in the mind, for Augustine (De Trin. x, 11) places the intelligence and will in the mind. Therefore the mind
|
|
|
2503 and intellect of man is of the very essence of the soul and not a power thereof.
|
|
|
2504 </p>
|
|
|
2505 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p4">
|
|
|
2506 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to Gregory, in a homily for the Ascension (xxix in Ev.), "man understands with the angels." But angels
|
|
|
2507 are called "minds" and "intellects." Therefore the mind and intellect of man are not a power of the soul, but the soul itself.
|
|
|
2508 </p>
|
|
|
2509 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p5">
|
|
|
2510 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, a substance is intellectual by the fact that it is immaterial. But the soul is immaterial through its essence. Therefore
|
|
|
2511 it seems that the soul must be intellectual through its essence.
|
|
|
2512 </p>
|
|
|
2513 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p6">
|
|
|
2514 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher assigns the intellectual faculty as a power of the soul (De Anima ii, 3).
|
|
|
2515 </p>
|
|
|
2516 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p7">
|
|
|
2517 <b>I answer that,</b> In accordance with what has been already shown (
|
|
|
2518 <a id="FP_Q79_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q54_A3.html">Q[54], A[3]</a>;
|
|
|
2519 <a id="FP_Q79_A1-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A1.html">Q[77], A[1]</a>) it is necessary to say that the intellect is a power of the soul, and not the very essence of the soul. For then alone the
|
|
|
2520 essence of that which operates is the immediate principle of operation, when operation itself is its being: for as power is
|
|
|
2521 to operation as its act, so is the essence to being. But in God alone His action of
|
|
|
2522 understanding is His very Being. Wherefore in God alone is His intellect His essence: while in other intellectual creatures,
|
|
|
2523 the intellect is power.
|
|
|
2524 </p>
|
|
|
2525 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p8">
|
|
|
2526 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Sense is sometimes taken for the power, and sometimes for the sensitive soul; for the sensitive soul takes its name from
|
|
|
2527 its chief power, which is sense. And in like manner the intellectual soul is sometimes called intellect, as from its chief
|
|
|
2528 power; and thus we read (De Anima i, 4), that the "intellect is a substance." And in this sense also Augustine says that the
|
|
|
2529 mind is spirit and essence (De Trin. ix, 2; xiv, 16).
|
|
|
2530 </p>
|
|
|
2531 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p9">
|
|
|
2532 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The appetitive and intellectual powers are different genera of powers in the soul, by reason of the different formalities
|
|
|
2533 of their objects. But the appetitive power agrees partly with the intellectual power and partly with the sensitive in its
|
|
|
2534 mode of operation either through a corporeal organ or without it: for appetite follows apprehension. And in this way Augustine
|
|
|
2535 puts the will in the mind; and the Philosopher, in the reason (De Anima iii, 9).
|
|
|
2536 </p>
|
|
|
2537 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p10">
|
|
|
2538 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In the angels there is no other power besides the intellect, and the will, which follows the intellect. And for this reason
|
|
|
2539 an angel is called a "mind" or an "intellect"; because his whole power consists in this. But the soul has many other powers,
|
|
|
2540 such as the sensitive and nutritive powers, and therefore the comparison fails.
|
|
|
2541 </p>
|
|
|
2542 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p11">
|
|
|
2543 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The immateriality of the created intelligent substance is not its intellect; and through its immateriality it has the power
|
|
|
2544 of intelligence. Wherefore it follows not that the intellect is the substance of the soul, but that it is its virtue and power.
|
|
|
2545 </p>
|
|
|
2546 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2547 <p id="FP_Q79_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
2548 <a href="summa.FP_Q79.html"></a>
|
|
|
2549 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2550 </div>
|
|
|
2551 <div id="FP_Q79_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
2552 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2553 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2554 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A2-p0.1">Whether the intellect is a passive power?</h4>
|
|
|
2555 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2556 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p2">
|
|
|
2557 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect is not a passive power. For everything is passive by its matter, and acts by its form. But
|
|
|
2558 the intellectual power results from the immateriality of the intelligent substance. Therefore it seems that the intellect
|
|
|
2559 is not a passive power.
|
|
|
2560 </p>
|
|
|
2561 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p3">
|
|
|
2562 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellectual power is incorruptible, as we have said above (
|
|
|
2563 <a id="FP_Q79_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html">Q[79], A[6]</a>). But "if the intellect is passive, it is corruptible" (De Anima iii, 5). Therefore the intellectual power is not passive.
|
|
|
2564 </p>
|
|
|
2565 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p4">
|
|
|
2566 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the "agent is nobler than the patient," as Augustine (Gen. ad lit. xii, 16) and Aristotle (De Anima iii, 5) says.
|
|
|
2567 But all the powers of the vegetative part are active; yet they are the lowest among the powers of the soul. Much more, therefore,
|
|
|
2568 all the intellectual powers, which are the highest, are active.
|
|
|
2569 </p>
|
|
|
2570 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p5">
|
|
|
2571 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4) that "to understand is in a way to be passive."
|
|
|
2572 </p>
|
|
|
2573 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p6">
|
|
|
2574 <b>I answer that,</b> To be passive may be taken in three ways. Firstly, in its most strict sense, when from a thing is taken something which belongs
|
|
|
2575 to it by virtue either of its nature, or of its proper inclination: as when water loses coolness by heating, and as when a
|
|
|
2576 man becomes ill or sad. Secondly, less strictly, a thing is said to be passive, when something, whether suitable or unsuitable,
|
|
|
2577 is taken away from it. And in this way not only he who is ill is said to be
|
|
|
2578 passive, but also he who is healed; not only he that is sad, but also he that is joyful; or whatever way he be altered or
|
|
|
2579 moved. Thirdly, in a wide sense a thing is said to be passive, from the very fact that what is in potentiality to something
|
|
|
2580 receives that to which it was in potentiality, without being deprived of anything. And accordingly, whatever passes from potentiality
|
|
|
2581 to act, may be said to be passive, even when it is perfected. And thus with us to understand is to be passive. This is
|
|
|
2582 clear from the following reason. For the intellect, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
2583 <a id="FP_Q79_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A1.html">Q[78], A[1]</a>), has an operation extending to universal being. We may therefore see whether the intellect be in act or potentiality by
|
|
|
2584 observing first of all the nature of the relation of the intellect to universal being. For we find an intellect whose relation
|
|
|
2585 to universal being is that of the act of all being: and such is the Divine intellect, which is the Essence of God, in which
|
|
|
2586 originally and
|
|
|
2587 virtually, all being pre-exists as in its first cause. And therefore the Divine intellect is not in potentiality, but is pure
|
|
|
2588 act. But no created intellect can be an act in relation to the whole universal being; otherwise it would needs be an infinite
|
|
|
2589 being. Wherefore every created intellect is not the act of all things intelligible, by reason of its very existence; but is
|
|
|
2590 compared to these intelligible things as a potentiality to act.
|
|
|
2591 </p>
|
|
|
2592 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p7"> Now, potentiality has a double relation to act. There is a potentiality which is always perfected by its act: as the matter
|
|
|
2593 of the heavenly bodies (
|
|
|
2594 <a id="FP_Q79_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q58_A1.html">Q[58], A[1]</a>). And there is another potentiality which is not always in act, but proceeds from potentiality to act; as we observe in things
|
|
|
2595 that are corrupted and generated. Wherefore the angelic intellect is always in act as regards those things which it can understand,
|
|
|
2596 by reason of its proximity to the first
|
|
|
2597 intellect, which is pure act, as we have said above. But the human intellect, which is the lowest in the order of intelligence
|
|
|
2598 and most remote from the perfection of the Divine intellect, is in potentiality with regard to things intelligible, and is
|
|
|
2599 at first "like a clean tablet on which nothing is written," as the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4). This is made clear
|
|
|
2600 from the fact, that at first we are only in potentiality to understand, and afterwards we are made to understand actually.
|
|
|
2601 And
|
|
|
2602 so it is evident that with us to understand is "in a way to be passive"; taking passion in the third sense. And consequently
|
|
|
2603 the intellect is a passive power.
|
|
|
2604 </p>
|
|
|
2605 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p8">
|
|
|
2606 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This objection is verified of passion in the first and second senses, which belong to primary matter. But in the third sense
|
|
|
2607 passion is in anything which is reduced from potentiality to act.
|
|
|
2608 </p>
|
|
|
2609 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p9">
|
|
|
2610 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> "Passive intellect" is the name given by some to the sensitive appetite, in which are the passions of the soul; which appetite
|
|
|
2611 is also called "rational by participation," because it "obeys the reason" (Ethic. i, 13). Others give the name of passive
|
|
|
2612 intellect to the cogitative power, which is called the "particular reason." And in each case "passive" may be taken in the
|
|
|
2613 two first senses; forasmuch as this so-called intellect is the act of a corporeal
|
|
|
2614 organ. But the intellect which is in potentiality to things intelligible, and which for this reason Aristotle calls the "possible"
|
|
|
2615 intellect (De Anima iii, 4) is not passive except in the third sense: for it is not an act of a corporeal organ. Hence it
|
|
|
2616 is incorruptible.
|
|
|
2617 </p>
|
|
|
2618 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p10">
|
|
|
2619 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The agent is nobler than the patient, if the action and the passion are referred to the same thing: but not always, if they
|
|
|
2620 refer to different things. Now the intellect is a passive power in regard to the whole universal being: while the vegetative
|
|
|
2621 power is active in regard to some particular thing, namely, the body as united to the soul. Wherefore nothing prevents such
|
|
|
2622 a passive force being nobler than such an active one.
|
|
|
2623 </p>
|
|
|
2624 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2625 <p id="FP_Q79_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2626 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2627 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2628 </div>
|
|
|
2629 <div id="FP_Q79_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
2630 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2631 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2632 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A3-p0.1">Whether there is an active intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
2633 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2634 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p2">
|
|
|
2635 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is no active intellect. For as the senses are to things sensible, so is our intellect to things
|
|
|
2636 intelligible. But because sense is in potentiality to things sensible, the sense is not said to be active, but only passive.
|
|
|
2637 Therefore, since our intellect is in potentiality to things intelligible, it seems that we cannot say that the intellect is
|
|
|
2638 active, but only that it is passive.
|
|
|
2639 </p>
|
|
|
2640 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p3">
|
|
|
2641 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if we say that also in the senses there is something active, such as light: on the contrary, light is required for
|
|
|
2642 sight, inasmuch as it makes the medium to be actually luminous; for color of its own nature moves the luminous medium. But
|
|
|
2643 in the operation of the intellect there is no appointed medium that has to be brought into act. Therefore there is no necessity
|
|
|
2644 for an active intellect.
|
|
|
2645 </p>
|
|
|
2646 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p4">
|
|
|
2647 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the likeness of the agent is received into the patient according to the nature of the patient. But the passive intellect
|
|
|
2648 is an immaterial power. Therefore its immaterial nature suffices for forms to be received into it immaterially. Now a form
|
|
|
2649 is intelligible in act from the very fact that it is immaterial. Therefore there is no need for an active intellect to make
|
|
|
2650 the species actually intelligible.
|
|
|
2651 </p>
|
|
|
2652 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p5">
|
|
|
2653 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 5), "As in every nature, so in the soul is there something by which it becomes all things,
|
|
|
2654 and something by which it makes all things." Therefore we must admit an active intellect.
|
|
|
2655 </p>
|
|
|
2656 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p6">
|
|
|
2657 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the opinion of Plato, there is no need for an active intellect in order to make things actually intelligible;
|
|
|
2658 but perhaps in order to provide intellectual light to the intellect, as will be explained farther on
|
|
|
2659 <a id="FP_Q79_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. For Plato supposed that the forms of natural things subsisted apart from matter, and consequently that they are intelligible:
|
|
|
2660 since a thing is actually intelligible from the very fact that it is
|
|
|
2661 immaterial. And he called such forms "species or ideas"; from a participation of which, he said that even corporeal matter
|
|
|
2662 was formed, in order that individuals might be naturally established in their proper genera and species: and that our intellect
|
|
|
2663 was formed by such participation in order to have knowledge of the genera and species of things. But since Aristotle did not
|
|
|
2664 allow that forms of natural things exist apart from matter, and as forms existing in matter are not actually intelligible;
|
|
|
2665 it follows that the natures of forms of the sensible things which we understand are not actually intelligible. Now nothing
|
|
|
2666 is reduced from potentiality to act except by something in act; as the senses as made actual by what is actually sensible.
|
|
|
2667 We must therefore assign on the part of the intellect some power to make things actually intelligible, by abstraction of the
|
|
|
2668 species from material conditions. And such is the necessity for an active intellect.
|
|
|
2669 </p>
|
|
|
2670 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p7">
|
|
|
2671 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Sensible things are found in act outside the soul; and hence there is no need for an active sense. Wherefore it is clear
|
|
|
2672 that in the nutritive part all the powers are active, whereas in the sensitive part all are passive: but in the intellectual
|
|
|
2673 part, there is something active and something passive.
|
|
|
2674 </p>
|
|
|
2675 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p8">
|
|
|
2676 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> There are two opinions as to the effect of light. For some say that light is required for sight, in order to make colors
|
|
|
2677 actually visible. And according to this the active intellect is required for understanding, in like manner and for the same
|
|
|
2678 reason as light is required for seeing. But in the opinion of others, light is required for sight; not for the colors to become
|
|
|
2679 actually visible; but in order that the medium may become actually luminous, as
|
|
|
2680 the Commentator says on De Anima ii. And according to this, Aristotle's comparison of the active intellect to light is verified
|
|
|
2681 in this, that as it is required for understanding, so is light required for seeing; but not for the same reason.
|
|
|
2682 </p>
|
|
|
2683 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p9">
|
|
|
2684 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If the agent pre-exist, it may well happen that its likeness is received variously into various things, on account of their
|
|
|
2685 dispositions. But if the agent does not pre-exist, the disposition of the recipient has nothing to do with the matter. Now
|
|
|
2686 the intelligible in act is not something existing in nature; if we consider the nature of things sensible, which do not subsist
|
|
|
2687 apart from matter. And therefore in order to understand them, the immaterial
|
|
|
2688 nature of the passive intellect would not suffice but for the presence of the active intellect which makes things actually
|
|
|
2689 intelligible by way of abstraction.
|
|
|
2690 </p>
|
|
|
2691 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2692 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2693 <p id="FP_Q79_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2694 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2695 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2696 </div>
|
|
|
2697 <div id="FP_Q79_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
2698 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2699 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2700 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A4-p0.1">Whether the active intellect is something in the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
2701 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2702 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p2">
|
|
|
2703 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the active intellect is not something in the soul. For the effect of the active intellect is to give light
|
|
|
2704 for the purpose of understanding. But this is done by something higher than the soul: according to
|
|
|
2705 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#John.1.9" target="asv"> Jn. 1:9, </a> "He was the true light that enlighteneth every man coming into this world." Therefore the active intellect is not something
|
|
|
2706 in the soul.
|
|
|
2707 </p>
|
|
|
2708 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p3">
|
|
|
2709 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Philosopher (De Anima iii, 5) says of the active intellect, "that it does not sometimes understand and sometimes
|
|
|
2710 not understand." But our soul does not always understand: sometimes it understands, sometimes it does not understand. Therefore
|
|
|
2711 the active intellect is not something in our soul.
|
|
|
2712 </p>
|
|
|
2713 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p4">
|
|
|
2714 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, agent and patient suffice for action. If, therefore, the passive intellect, which is a passive power, is something
|
|
|
2715 belonging to the soul; and also the active intellect, which is an active power: it follows that a man would always be able
|
|
|
2716 to understand when he wished, which is clearly false. Therefore the active intellect is not something in our soul.
|
|
|
2717 </p>
|
|
|
2718 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p5">
|
|
|
2719 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Philosopher (De Anima iii, 5) says that the active intellect is a "substance in actual being." But nothing can
|
|
|
2720 be in potentiality and in act with regard to the same thing. If, therefore, the passive intellect, which is in potentiality
|
|
|
2721 to all things intelligible, is something in the soul, it seems impossible for the active intellect to be also something in
|
|
|
2722 our soul.
|
|
|
2723 </p>
|
|
|
2724 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p6">
|
|
|
2725 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, if the active intellect is something in the soul, it must be a power. For it is neither a passion nor a habit; since
|
|
|
2726 habits and passions are not in the nature of agents in regard to the passivity of the soul; but rather passion is the very
|
|
|
2727 action of the passive power; while habit is something which results from acts. But every power flows from the essence of the
|
|
|
2728 soul. It would therefore follow that the active intellect flows from the essence of the
|
|
|
2729 soul. And thus it would not be in the soul by way of participation from some higher intellect: which is unfitting. Therefore
|
|
|
2730 the active intellect is not something in our soul.
|
|
|
2731 </p>
|
|
|
2732 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p7">
|
|
|
2733 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 5), that "it is necessary for these differences," namely, the passive and active intellect,
|
|
|
2734 "to be in the soul."
|
|
|
2735 </p>
|
|
|
2736 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p8">
|
|
|
2737 <b>I answer that,</b> The active intellect, of which the Philosopher speaks, is something in the soul. In order to make this evident, we must observe
|
|
|
2738 that above the intellectual soul of man we must needs suppose a superior intellect, from which the soul acquires the power
|
|
|
2739 of understanding. For what is such by participation, and what is mobile, and what is imperfect always requires the pre-existence
|
|
|
2740 of something essentially such, immovable and perfect. Now the human soul is called
|
|
|
2741 intellectual by reason of a participation in intellectual power; a sign of which is that it is not wholly intellectual but
|
|
|
2742 only in part. Moreover it reaches to the understanding of truth by arguing, with a certain amount of reasoning and movement.
|
|
|
2743 Again it has an imperfect understanding; both because it does not understand everything, and because, in those things which
|
|
|
2744 it does understand, it passes from potentiality to act. Therefore there must needs be some higher intellect, by which the
|
|
|
2745 soul
|
|
|
2746 is helped to understand.
|
|
|
2747 </p>
|
|
|
2748 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p9"> Wherefore some held that this intellect, substantially separate, is the active intellect, which by lighting up the phantasms
|
|
|
2749 as it were, makes them to be actually intelligible. But, even supposing the existence of such a separate active intellect,
|
|
|
2750 it would still be necessary to assign to the human soul some power participating in that superior intellect, by which power
|
|
|
2751 the human soul makes things actually intelligible. Just as in other perfect natural things, besides the
|
|
|
2752 universal active causes, each one is endowed with its proper powers derived from those universal causes: for the sun alone
|
|
|
2753 does not generate man; but in man is the power of begetting man: and in like manner with other perfect animals. Now among
|
|
|
2754 these lower things nothing is more perfect than the human soul. Wherefore we must say that in the soul is some power derived
|
|
|
2755 from a higher intellect, whereby it is able to light up the phantasms. And we know this by experience, since we perceive that
|
|
|
2756 we
|
|
|
2757 abstract universal forms from their particular conditions, which is to make them actually intelligible. Now no action belongs
|
|
|
2758 to anything except through some principle formally inherent therein; as we have said above of the passive intellect (
|
|
|
2759 <a id="FP_Q79_A4-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>). Therefore the power which is the principle of this action must be something in the soul. For this reason Aristotle (De
|
|
|
2760 Anima iii, 5) compared the active intellect to light, which is something received into the air:
|
|
|
2761 while Plato compared the separate intellect impressing the soul to the sun, as Themistius says in his commentary on De Anima
|
|
|
2762 iii. But the separate intellect, according to the teaching of our faith, is God Himself, Who is the soul's Creator, and only
|
|
|
2763 beatitude; as will be shown later on (
|
|
|
2764 <a id="FP_Q79_A4-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q90_A3.html">Q[90], A[3]</a>; FS,
|
|
|
2765 <a id="FP_Q79_A4-p9.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q3_A7.html">Q[3], A[7]</a>). Wherefore the human soul derives its intellectual light from Him, according to
|
|
|
2766 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A4-p9.4" href="./asv.html#Ps.4.7" target="asv"> Ps. 4:7, </a> "The light of Thy
|
|
|
2767 countenance, O Lord, is signed upon us."
|
|
|
2768 </p>
|
|
|
2769 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p10">
|
|
|
2770 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That true light enlightens as a universal cause, from which the human soul derives a particular power, as we have explained.
|
|
|
2771 </p>
|
|
|
2772 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p11">
|
|
|
2773 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The Philosopher says those words not of the active intellect, but of the intellect in act: of which he had already said:
|
|
|
2774 "Knowledge in act is the same as the thing." Or, if we refer those words to the active intellect, then they are said because
|
|
|
2775 it is not owing to the active intellect that sometimes we do, and sometimes we do not understand, but to the intellect which
|
|
|
2776 is in potentiality.
|
|
|
2777 </p>
|
|
|
2778 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p12">
|
|
|
2779 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If the relation of the active intellect to the passive were that of the active object to a power, as, for instance, of the
|
|
|
2780 visible in act to the sight; it would follow that we could understand all things instantly, since the active intellect is
|
|
|
2781 that which makes all things (in act). But now the active intellect is not an object, rather is it that whereby the objects
|
|
|
2782 are made to be in act: for which, besides the presence of the active intellect, we
|
|
|
2783 require the presence of phantasms, the good disposition of the sensitive powers, and practice in this sort of operation; since
|
|
|
2784 through one thing understood, other things come to be understood, as from terms are made propositions, and from first principles,
|
|
|
2785 conclusions. From this point of view it matters not whether the active intellect is something belonging to the soul, or something
|
|
|
2786 separate from the soul.
|
|
|
2787 </p>
|
|
|
2788 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p13">
|
|
|
2789 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The intellectual soul is indeed actually immaterial, but it is in potentiality to determinate species. On the contrary, phantasms
|
|
|
2790 are actual images of certain species, but are immaterial in potentiality. Wherefore nothing prevents one and the same soul,
|
|
|
2791 inasmuch as it is actually immaterial, having one power by which it makes things actually immaterial, by abstraction from
|
|
|
2792 the conditions of individual matter: which power is called the "active
|
|
|
2793 intellect"; and another power, receptive of such species, which is called the "passive intellect" by reason of its being in
|
|
|
2794 potentiality to such species.
|
|
|
2795 </p>
|
|
|
2796 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p14">
|
|
|
2797 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Since the essence of the soul is immaterial, created by the supreme intellect, nothing prevents that power which it derives
|
|
|
2798 from the supreme intellect, and whereby it abstracts from matter, flowing from the essence of the soul, in the same way as
|
|
|
2799 its other powers.
|
|
|
2800 </p>
|
|
|
2801 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p15"></p>
|
|
|
2802 <p id="FP_Q79_A4-p16"></p>
|
|
|
2803 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2804 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2805 </div>
|
|
|
2806 <div id="FP_Q79_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
2807 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2808 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2809 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A5-p0.1">Whether the active intellect is one in all?</h4>
|
|
|
2810 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2811 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p2">
|
|
|
2812 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is one active intellect in all. For what is separate from the body is not multiplied according to
|
|
|
2813 the number of bodies. But the active intellect is "separate," as the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 5). Therefore it is not
|
|
|
2814 multiplied in the many human bodies, but is one for all men.
|
|
|
2815 </p>
|
|
|
2816 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p3">
|
|
|
2817 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the active intellect is the cause of the universal, which is one in many. But that which is the cause of unity is
|
|
|
2818 still more itself one. Therefore the active intellect is the same in all.
|
|
|
2819 </p>
|
|
|
2820 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p4">
|
|
|
2821 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, all men agree in the first intellectual concepts. But to these they assent by the active intellect. Therefore all
|
|
|
2822 agree in one active intellect.
|
|
|
2823 </p>
|
|
|
2824 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p5">
|
|
|
2825 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 5) that the active intellect is as a light. But light is not the same in the various
|
|
|
2826 things enlightened. Therefore the same active intellect is not in various men.
|
|
|
2827 </p>
|
|
|
2828 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p6">
|
|
|
2829 <b>I answer that,</b> The truth about this question depends on what we have already said
|
|
|
2830 <a id="FP_Q79_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. For if the active intellect were not something belonging to the soul, but were some separate substance, there would be one
|
|
|
2831 active intellect for all men. And this is what they mean who hold that there is one active intellect for all. But if the active
|
|
|
2832 intellect is something belonging to the soul, as one of its powers, we are bound to say that there are as many
|
|
|
2833 active intellects as there are souls, which are multiplied according to the number of men, as we have said above (
|
|
|
2834 <a id="FP_Q79_A5-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A2.html">Q[76], A[2]</a>). For it is impossible that one same power belong to various substances.
|
|
|
2835 </p>
|
|
|
2836 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p7">
|
|
|
2837 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher proves that the active intellect is separate, by the fact that the passive intellect is separate: because,
|
|
|
2838 as he says (De Anima iii, 5), "the agent is more noble than the patient." Now the passive intellect is said to be separate,
|
|
|
2839 because it is not the act of any corporeal organ. And in the same sense the active intellect is also called "separate"; but
|
|
|
2840 not as a separate substance.
|
|
|
2841 </p>
|
|
|
2842 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p8">
|
|
|
2843 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The active intellect is the cause of the universal, by abstracting it from matter. But for this purpose it need not be the
|
|
|
2844 same intellect in all intelligent beings; but it must be one in its relationship to all those things from which it abstracts
|
|
|
2845 the universal, with respect to which things the universal is one. And this befits the active intellect inasmuch as it is immaterial.
|
|
|
2846 </p>
|
|
|
2847 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p9">
|
|
|
2848 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> All things which are of one species enjoy in common the action which accompanies the nature of the species, and consequently
|
|
|
2849 the power which is the principle of such action; but not so as that power be identical in all. Now to know the first intelligible
|
|
|
2850 principles is the action belonging to the human species. Wherefore all men enjoy in common the power which is the principle
|
|
|
2851 of this action: and this power is the active intellect. But there is no need
|
|
|
2852 for it to be identical in all. Yet it must be derived by all from one principle. And thus the possession by all men in common
|
|
|
2853 of the first principles proves the unity of the separate intellect, which Plato compares to the sun; but not the unity of
|
|
|
2854 the active intellect, which Aristotle compares to light.
|
|
|
2855 </p>
|
|
|
2856 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2857 <p id="FP_Q79_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2858 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2859 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2860 </div>
|
|
|
2861 <div id="FP_Q79_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
2862 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2863 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
2864 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A6-p0.1">Whether memory is in the intellectual part of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
2865 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2866 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p2">
|
|
|
2867 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that memory is not in the intellectual part of the soul. For Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 2,3,8) that to the
|
|
|
2868 higher part of the soul belongs those things which are not "common to man and beast." But memory is common to man and beast,
|
|
|
2869 for he says (De Trin. xii, 2,3,8) that "beasts can sense corporeal things through the senses of the body, and commit them
|
|
|
2870 to memory." Therefore memory does not belong to the intellectual part of the soul.
|
|
|
2871 </p>
|
|
|
2872 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p3">
|
|
|
2873 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, memory is of the past. But the past is said of something with regard to a fixed time. Memory, therefore, knows a
|
|
|
2874 thing under a condition of a fixed time; which involves knowledge under the conditions of "here" and "now." But this is not
|
|
|
2875 the province of the intellect, but of the sense. Therefore memory is not in the intellectual part, but only in the sensitive.
|
|
|
2876 </p>
|
|
|
2877 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p4">
|
|
|
2878 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in the memory are preserved the species of those things of which we are not actually thinking. But this cannot happen
|
|
|
2879 in the intellect, because the intellect is reduced to act by the fact that the intelligible species are received into it.
|
|
|
2880 Now the intellect in act implies understanding in act; and therefore the intellect actually understands all things of which
|
|
|
2881 it has the species. Therefore the memory is not in the intellectual part.
|
|
|
2882 </p>
|
|
|
2883 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p5">
|
|
|
2884 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11) that "memory, understanding, and will are one mind."
|
|
|
2885 </p>
|
|
|
2886 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p6">
|
|
|
2887 <b>I answer that,</b> Since it is of the nature of the memory to preserve the species of those things which are not actually apprehended, we must
|
|
|
2888 first of all consider whether the intelligible species can thus be preserved in the intellect: because Avicenna held that
|
|
|
2889 this was impossible. For he admitted that this could happen in the sensitive part, as to some powers, inasmuch as they are
|
|
|
2890 acts of corporeal organs, in which certain species may be preserved apart from actual
|
|
|
2891 apprehension. But in the intellect, which has no corporeal organ, nothing but what is intelligible exists. Wherefore every
|
|
|
2892 thing of which the likeness exists in the intellect must be actually understood. Thus, therefore, according to him, as soon
|
|
|
2893 as we cease to understand something actually, the species of that thing ceases to be in our intellect, and if we wish to understand
|
|
|
2894 that thing anew, we must turn to the active intellect, which he held to be a separate substance, in order that the
|
|
|
2895 intelligible species may thence flow again into our passive intellect. And from the practice and habit of turning to the active
|
|
|
2896 intellect there is formed, according to him, a certain aptitude in the passive intellect for turning to the active intellect;
|
|
|
2897 which aptitude he calls the habit of knowledge. According, therefore, to this supposition, nothing is preserved in the intellectual
|
|
|
2898 part that is not actually understood: wherefore it would not be possible to admit memory in the intellectual
|
|
|
2899 part.
|
|
|
2900 </p>
|
|
|
2901 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p7"> But this opinion is clearly opposed to the teaching of Aristotle. For he says (De Anima iii, 4) that, when the passive intellect
|
|
|
2902 "is identified with each thing as knowing it, it is said to be in act," and that "this happens when it can operate of itself.
|
|
|
2903 And, even then, it is in potentiality, but not in the same way as before learning and discovering." Now, the passive intellect
|
|
|
2904 is said to be each thing, inasmuch as it receives the intelligible species of each thing. To the
|
|
|
2905 fact, therefore, that it receives the species of intelligible things it owes its being able to operate when it wills, but
|
|
|
2906 not so that it be always operating: for even then is it in potentiality in a certain sense, though otherwise than before the
|
|
|
2907 act of understanding---namely, in the sense that whoever has habitual knowledge is in potentiality to actual consideration.
|
|
|
2908 </p>
|
|
|
2909 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p8"> The foregoing opinion is also opposed to reason. For what is received into something is received according to the conditions
|
|
|
2910 of the recipient. But the intellect is of a more stable nature, and is more immovable than corporeal nature. If, therefore,
|
|
|
2911 corporeal matter holds the forms which it receives, not only while it actually does something through them, but also after
|
|
|
2912 ceasing to act through them, much more cogent reason is there for the intellect to receive the species
|
|
|
2913 unchangeably and lastingly, whether it receive them from things sensible, or derive them from some superior intellect. Thus,
|
|
|
2914 therefore, if we take memory only for the power of retaining species, we must say that it is in the intellectual part. But
|
|
|
2915 if in the notion of memory we include its object as something past, then the memory is not in the intellectual, but only in
|
|
|
2916 the sensitive part, which apprehends individual things. For past, as past, since it signifies being under a condition of fixed
|
|
|
2917 time, is something individual.
|
|
|
2918 </p>
|
|
|
2919 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p9">
|
|
|
2920 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Memory, if considered as retentive of species, is not common to us and other animals. For species are not retained in the
|
|
|
2921 sensitive part of the soul only, but rather in the body and soul united: since the memorative power is the act of some organ.
|
|
|
2922 But the intellect in itself is retentive of species, without the association of any corporeal organ. Wherefore the Philosopher
|
|
|
2923 says (De Anima iii, 4) that "the soul is the seat of the species, not the whole
|
|
|
2924 soul, but the intellect."
|
|
|
2925 </p>
|
|
|
2926 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p10">
|
|
|
2927 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The condition of past may be referred to two things---namely, to the object which is known, and to the act of knowledge.
|
|
|
2928 These two are found together in the sensitive part, which apprehends something from the fact of its being immuted by a present
|
|
|
2929 sensible: wherefore at the same time an animal remembers to have sensed before in the past, and to have sensed some past sensible
|
|
|
2930 thing. But as concerns the intellectual part, the past is accidental, and is
|
|
|
2931 not in itself a part of the object of the intellect. For the intellect understands man, as man: and to man, as man, it is
|
|
|
2932 accidental that he exist in the present, past, or future. But on the part of the act, the condition of past, even as such,
|
|
|
2933 may be understood to be in the intellect, as well as in the senses. Because our soul's act of understanding is an individual
|
|
|
2934 act, existing in this or that time, inasmuch as a man is said to understand now, or yesterday, or tomorrow. And this is not
|
|
|
2935 incompatible with the intellectual nature: for such an act of understanding, though something individual, is yet an immaterial
|
|
|
2936 act, as we have said above of the intellect (
|
|
|
2937 <a id="FP_Q79_A6-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>); and therefore, as the intellect understands itself, though it be itself an individual intellect, so also it understands
|
|
|
2938 its act of understanding, which is an individual act, in the past, present, or future. In this way, then, the notion of memory,
|
|
|
2939 in as far as it regards past events, is
|
|
|
2940 preserved in the intellect, forasmuch as it understands that it previously understood: but not in the sense that it understands
|
|
|
2941 the past as something "here" and "now."
|
|
|
2942 </p>
|
|
|
2943 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p11">
|
|
|
2944 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The intelligible species is sometimes in the intellect only in potentiality, and then the intellect is said to be in potentiality.
|
|
|
2945 Sometimes the intelligible species is in the intellect as regards the ultimate completion of the act, and then it understands
|
|
|
2946 in act. And sometimes the intelligible species is in a middle state, between potentiality and act: and then we have habitual
|
|
|
2947 knowledge. In this way the intellect retains the species, even when it
|
|
|
2948 does not understand in act.
|
|
|
2949 </p>
|
|
|
2950 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2951 <p id="FP_Q79_A6-p13"></p>
|
|
|
2952 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2953 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
2954 </div>
|
|
|
2955 <div id="FP_Q79_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
2956 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2957 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
2958 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A7-p0.1">Whether the intellectual memory is a power distinct from the intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
2959 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2960 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p2">
|
|
|
2961 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual memory is distinct from the intellect. For Augustine (De Trin. x, 11) assigns to the
|
|
|
2962 soul memory, understanding, and will. But it is clear that the memory is a distinct power from the will. Therefore it is also
|
|
|
2963 distinct from the intellect.
|
|
|
2964 </p>
|
|
|
2965 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p3">
|
|
|
2966 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the reason of distinction among the powers in the sensitive part is the same as in the intellectual part. But memory
|
|
|
2967 in the sensitive part is distinct from sense, as we have said (
|
|
|
2968 <a id="FP_Q79_A7-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">Q[78], A[4]</a>). Therefore memory in the intellectual part is distinct from the intellect.
|
|
|
2969 </p>
|
|
|
2970 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p4">
|
|
|
2971 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to Augustine (De Trin. x, 11; xi, 7), memory, understanding, and will are equal to one another, and one
|
|
|
2972 flows from the other. But this could not be if memory and intellect were the same power. Therefore they are not the same power.
|
|
|
2973 </p>
|
|
|
2974 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p5">
|
|
|
2975 <b>On the contrary,</b> From its nature the memory is the treasury or storehouse of species. But the Philosopher (De Anima iii) attributes this to
|
|
|
2976 the intellect, as we have said (A[6], ad 1). Therefore the memory is not another power from the intellect.
|
|
|
2977 </p>
|
|
|
2978 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p6">
|
|
|
2979 <b>I answer that,</b> As has been said above (
|
|
|
2980 <a id="FP_Q79_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html">Q[77], A[3]</a>), the powers of the soul are distinguished by the different formal aspects of their objects: since each power is defined
|
|
|
2981 in reference to that thing to which it is directed and which is its object. It has also been said above (
|
|
|
2982 <a id="FP_Q79_A7-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q59_A4.html">Q[59], A[4]</a>) that if any power by its nature be directed to an object according to the common ratio of the object, that power will not
|
|
|
2983 be
|
|
|
2984 differentiated according to the individual differences of that object: just as the power of sight, which regards its object
|
|
|
2985 under the common ratio of color, is not differentiated by differences of black and white. Now, the intellect regards its object
|
|
|
2986 under the common ratio of being: since the passive intellect is that "in which all are in potentiality." Wherefore the passive
|
|
|
2987 intellect is not differentiated by any difference of being. Nevertheless there is a distinction between the power of the
|
|
|
2988 active intellect and of the passive intellect: because as regards the same object, the active power which makes the object
|
|
|
2989 to be in act must be distinct from the passive power, which is moved by the object existing in act. Thus the active power
|
|
|
2990 is compared to its object as a being in act is to a being in potentiality; whereas the passive power, on the contrary, is
|
|
|
2991 compared to its object as being in potentiality is to a being in act. Therefore there can be no other difference of powers
|
|
|
2992 in the
|
|
|
2993 intellect, but that of passive and active. Wherefore it is clear that memory is not a distinct power from the intellect: for
|
|
|
2994 it belongs to the nature of a passive power to retain as well as to receive.
|
|
|
2995 </p>
|
|
|
2996 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p7">
|
|
|
2997 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although it is said (3 Sent. D, 1) that memory, intellect, and will are three powers, this is not in accordance with the
|
|
|
2998 meaning of Augustine, who says expressly (De Trin. xiv) that "if we take memory, intelligence, and will as always present
|
|
|
2999 in the soul, whether we actually attend to them or not, they seem to pertain to the memory only. And by intelligence I mean
|
|
|
3000 that by which we understand when actually thinking; and by will I mean that love or
|
|
|
3001 affection which unites the child and its parent." Wherefore it is clear that Augustine does not take the above three for three
|
|
|
3002 powers; but by memory he understands the soul's habit of retention; by intelligence, the act of the intellect; and by will,
|
|
|
3003 the act of the will.
|
|
|
3004 </p>
|
|
|
3005 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p8">
|
|
|
3006 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Past and present may differentiate the sensitive powers, but not the intellectual powers, for the reason give above.
|
|
|
3007 </p>
|
|
|
3008 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p9">
|
|
|
3009 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Intelligence arises from memory, as act from habit; and in this way it is equal to it, but not as a power to a power.
|
|
|
3010 </p>
|
|
|
3011 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3012 <p id="FP_Q79_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3013 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3014 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3015 </div>
|
|
|
3016 <div id="FP_Q79_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
3017 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3018 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3019 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A8-p0.1">Whether the reason is distinct from the intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
3020 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3021 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p2">
|
|
|
3022 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the reason is a distinct power from the intellect. For it is stated in De Spiritu et Anima that "when
|
|
|
3023 we wish to rise from lower things to higher, first the sense comes to our aid, then imagination, then reason, then the intellect."
|
|
|
3024 Therefore the reason is distinct from the intellect, as imagination is from sense.
|
|
|
3025 </p>
|
|
|
3026 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p3">
|
|
|
3027 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Boethius says (De Consol. iv, 6), that intellect is compared to reason, as eternity to time. But it does not belong
|
|
|
3028 to the same power to be in eternity and to be in time. Therefore reason and intellect are not the same power.
|
|
|
3029 </p>
|
|
|
3030 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p4">
|
|
|
3031 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man has intellect in common with the angels, and sense in common with the brutes. But reason, which is proper to
|
|
|
3032 man, whence he is called a rational animal, is a power distinct from sense. Therefore is it equally true to say that it is
|
|
|
3033 distinct from the intellect, which properly belongs to the angel: whence they are called intellectual.
|
|
|
3034 </p>
|
|
|
3035 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p5">
|
|
|
3036 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. iii, 20) that "that in which man excels irrational animals is reason, or mind, or intelligence
|
|
|
3037 or whatever appropriate name we like to give it." Therefore, reason, intellect and mind are one power.
|
|
|
3038 </p>
|
|
|
3039 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p6">
|
|
|
3040 <b>I answer that,</b> Reason and intellect in man cannot be distinct powers. We shall understand this clearly if we consider their respective actions.
|
|
|
3041 For to understand is simply to apprehend intelligible truth: and to reason is to advance from one thing understood to another,
|
|
|
3042 so as to know an intelligible truth. And therefore angels, who according to their nature, possess perfect knowledge of intelligible
|
|
|
3043 truth, have no need to advance from one thing to another; but apprehend
|
|
|
3044 the truth simply and without mental discussion, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii). But man arrives at the knowledge of intelligible
|
|
|
3045 truth by advancing from one thing to another; and therefore he is called rational. Reasoning, therefore, is compared to understanding,
|
|
|
3046 as movement is to rest, or acquisition to possession; of which one belongs to the perfect, the other to the imperfect. And
|
|
|
3047 since movement always proceeds from something immovable, and ends in something at rest; hence it is that
|
|
|
3048 human reasoning, by way of inquiry and discovery, advances from certain things simply understood---namely, the first principles;
|
|
|
3049 and, again, by way of judgment returns by analysis to first principles, in the light of which it examines what it has found.
|
|
|
3050 Now it is clear that rest and movement are not to be referred to different powers, but to one and the same, even in natural
|
|
|
3051 things: since by the same nature a thing is moved towards a certain place. Much more, therefore, by the same power do we
|
|
|
3052 understand and reason: and so it is clear that in man reason and intellect are the same power.
|
|
|
3053 </p>
|
|
|
3054 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p7">
|
|
|
3055 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That enumeration is made according to the order of actions, not according to the distinction of powers. Moreover, that book
|
|
|
3056 is not of great authority.
|
|
|
3057 </p>
|
|
|
3058 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p8">
|
|
|
3059 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The answer is clear from what we have said. For eternity is compared to time as immovable to movable. And thus Boethius compared
|
|
|
3060 the intellect to eternity, and reason to time.
|
|
|
3061 </p>
|
|
|
3062 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p9">
|
|
|
3063 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Other animals are so much lower than man that they cannot attain to the knowledge of truth, which reason seeks. But man attains,
|
|
|
3064 although imperfectly, to the knowledge of intelligible truth, which angels know. Therefore in the angels the power of knowledge
|
|
|
3065 is not of a different genus fro that which is in the human reason, but is compared to it as the perfect to the imperfect.
|
|
|
3066 </p>
|
|
|
3067 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3068 <p id="FP_Q79_A8-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3069 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3070 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3071 </div>
|
|
|
3072 <div id="FP_Q79_A9" class="div4">
|
|
|
3073 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3074 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
3075 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A9-p0.1">Whether the higher and lower reason are distinct powers?</h4>
|
|
|
3076 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3077 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p2">
|
|
|
3078 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the higher and lower reason are distinct powers. For Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 4,7), that the image
|
|
|
3079 of the Trinity is in the higher part of the reason, and not in the lower. But the parts of the soul are its powers. Therefore
|
|
|
3080 the higher and lower reason are two powers.
|
|
|
3081 </p>
|
|
|
3082 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p3">
|
|
|
3083 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing flows from itself. Now, the lower reason flows from the higher, and is ruled and directed by it. Therefore
|
|
|
3084 the higher reason is another power from the lower.
|
|
|
3085 </p>
|
|
|
3086 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p4">
|
|
|
3087 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 1) that "the scientific part" of the soul, by which the soul knows necessary things,
|
|
|
3088 is another principle, and another part from the "opinionative" and "reasoning" part by which it knows contingent things. And
|
|
|
3089 he proves this from the principle that for those things which are "generically different, generically different parts of the
|
|
|
3090 soul are ordained." Now contingent and necessary are generically different, as
|
|
|
3091 corruptible and incorruptible. Since, therefore, necessary is the same as eternal, and temporal the same as contingent, it
|
|
|
3092 seems that what the Philosopher calls the "scientific" part must be the same as the higher reason, which, according to Augustine
|
|
|
3093 (De Trin. xii, 7) "is intent on the consideration and consultation of things eternal"; and that what the Philosopher calls
|
|
|
3094 the "reasoning" or "opinionative" part is the same as the lower reason, which, according to Augustine, "is intent on the
|
|
|
3095 disposal of temporal things." Therefore the higher reason is another power than the lower.
|
|
|
3096 </p>
|
|
|
3097 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p5">
|
|
|
3098 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii) that "opinion rises from the imagination: then the mind by judging of the truth
|
|
|
3099 or error of the opinion discovers the truth: whence" men's (mind) "is derived from" metiendo [measuring]. "And therefore the
|
|
|
3100 intellect regards those things which are already subject to judgment and true decision." Therefore the opinionative power,
|
|
|
3101 which is the lower reason, is distinct from the mind and the intellect, by which we may
|
|
|
3102 understand the higher reason.
|
|
|
3103 </p>
|
|
|
3104 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p6">
|
|
|
3105 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 4) that "the higher and lower reason are only distinct by their functions." Therefore they
|
|
|
3106 are not two powers.
|
|
|
3107 </p>
|
|
|
3108 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p7">
|
|
|
3109 <b>I answer that,</b> The higher and lower reason, as they are understood by Augustine, can in no way be two powers of the soul. For he says that
|
|
|
3110 "the higher reason is that which is intent on the contemplation and consultation of things eternal": forasmuch as in contemplation
|
|
|
3111 it sees them in themselves, and in consultation it takes its rules of action from them. But he calls the lower reason that
|
|
|
3112 which "is intent on the disposal of temporal things." Now these two---namely,
|
|
|
3113 eternal and temporal ---are related to our knowledge in this way, that one of them is the means of knowing the other. For
|
|
|
3114 by way of discovery, we come through knowledge of temporal things to that of things eternal, according to the words of the
|
|
|
3115 Apostle (
|
|
|
3116 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A9-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv">Rom. 1:20</a>), "The invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made": while by way of judgment,
|
|
|
3117 from eternal things already known, we judge of temporal things, and according to laws of
|
|
|
3118 things eternal we dispose of temporal things.
|
|
|
3119 </p>
|
|
|
3120 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p8"> But it may happen that the medium and what is attained thereby belong to different habits: as the first indemonstrable principles
|
|
|
3121 belong to the habit of the intellect; whereas the conclusions which we draw from them belong to the habit of science. And
|
|
|
3122 so it happens that from the principles of geometry we draw a conclusion in another science---for example, perspective. But
|
|
|
3123 the power of the reason is such that both medium and term belong to it. For the act of the reason is, as it
|
|
|
3124 were, a movement from one thing to another. But the same movable thing passes through the medium and reaches the end. Wherefore
|
|
|
3125 the higher and lower reasons are one and the same power. But according to Augustine they are distinguished by the functions
|
|
|
3126 of their actions, and according to their various habits: for wisdom is attributed to the higher reason, science to the lower.
|
|
|
3127 </p>
|
|
|
3128 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p9">
|
|
|
3129 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We speak of parts, in whatever way a thing is divided. And so far as reason is divided according to its various acts, the
|
|
|
3130 higher and lower reason are called parts; but not because they are different powers.
|
|
|
3131 </p>
|
|
|
3132 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p10">
|
|
|
3133 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The lower reason is said to flow from the higher, or to be ruled by it, as far as the principles made use of by the lower
|
|
|
3134 reason are drawn from and directed by the principles of the higher reason.
|
|
|
3135 </p>
|
|
|
3136 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p11">
|
|
|
3137 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The "scientific" part, of which the Philosopher speaks, is not the same as the higher reason: for necessary truths are found
|
|
|
3138 even among temporal things, of which natural science and mathematics treat. And the "opinionative" and "ratiocinative" part
|
|
|
3139 is more limited than the lower reason; for it regards only things contingent. Neither must we say, without any qualification,
|
|
|
3140 that a power, by which the intellect knows necessary things, is distinct from a
|
|
|
3141 power by which it knows contingent things: because it knows both under the same objective aspect---namely, under the aspect
|
|
|
3142 of being and truth. Wherefore it perfectly knows necessary things which have perfect being in truth; since it penetrates to
|
|
|
3143 their very essence, from which it demonstrates their proper accidents. On the other hand, it knows contingent things, but
|
|
|
3144 imperfectly; forasmuch as they have but imperfect being and truth. Now perfect and imperfect in the action do not vary the
|
|
|
3145 power,
|
|
|
3146 but they vary the actions as to the mode of acting, and consequently the principles of the actions and the habits themselves.
|
|
|
3147 And therefore the Philosopher postulates two lesser parts of the soul---namely, the "scientific" and the "ratiocinative,"
|
|
|
3148 not because they are two powers, but because they are distinct according to a different aptitude for receiving various habits,
|
|
|
3149 concerning the variety of which he inquires. For contingent and necessary, though differing according to their proper
|
|
|
3150 genera, nevertheless agree in the common aspect of being, which the intellect considers, and to which they are variously compared
|
|
|
3151 as perfect and imperfect.
|
|
|
3152 </p>
|
|
|
3153 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p12">
|
|
|
3154 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> That distinction given by Damascene is according to the variety of acts, not according to the variety of powers. For "opinion"
|
|
|
3155 signifies an act of the intellect which leans to one side of a contradiction, whilst in fear of the other. While to "judge"
|
|
|
3156 or "measure" [mensurare] is an act of the intellect, applying certain principles to examine propositions. From this is taken
|
|
|
3157 the word "mens" [mind]. Lastly, to "understand" is to adhere to the formed
|
|
|
3158 judgment with approval.
|
|
|
3159 </p>
|
|
|
3160 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p13"></p>
|
|
|
3161 <p id="FP_Q79_A9-p14"></p>
|
|
|
3162 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3163 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
3164 </div>
|
|
|
3165 <div id="FP_Q79_A10" class="div4">
|
|
|
3166 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3167 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A11.html"></a>
|
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|
3168 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A10-p0.1">Whether intelligence is a power distinct from intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
3169 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3170 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p2">
|
|
|
3171 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intelligence is another power than the intellect. For we read in De Spiritu et Anima that "when we
|
|
|
3172 wish to rise from lower to higher things, first the sense comes to our aid, then imagination, then reason, then intellect,
|
|
|
3173 and afterwards intelligence." But imagination and sense are distinct powers. Therefore also intellect and intelligence are
|
|
|
3174 distinct.
|
|
|
3175 </p>
|
|
|
3176 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p3">
|
|
|
3177 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Boethius says (De Consol. v, 4) that "sense considers man in one way, imagination in another, reason in another,
|
|
|
3178 intelligence in another." But intellect is the same power as reason. Therefore, seemingly, intelligence is a distinct power
|
|
|
3179 from intellect, as reason is a distinct power from imagination or sense.
|
|
|
3180 </p>
|
|
|
3181 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p4">
|
|
|
3182 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "actions came before powers," as the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 4). But intelligence is an act separate from
|
|
|
3183 others attributed to the intellect. For Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii) that "the first movement is called intelligence;
|
|
|
3184 but that intelligence which is about a certain thing is called intention; that which remains and conforms the soul to that
|
|
|
3185 which is understood is called invention, and invention when it remains in the same man,
|
|
|
3186 examining and judging of itself, is called phronesis [that is, wisdom], and phronesis if dilated makes thought, that is, orderly
|
|
|
3187 internal speech; from which, they say, comes speech expressed by the tongue." Therefore it seems that intelligence is some
|
|
|
3188 special power.
|
|
|
3189 </p>
|
|
|
3190 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p5">
|
|
|
3191 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 6) that "intelligence is of indivisible things in which there is nothing false." But
|
|
|
3192 the knowledge of these things belongs to the intellect. Therefore intelligence is not another power than the intellect.
|
|
|
3193 </p>
|
|
|
3194 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p6">
|
|
|
3195 <b>I answer that,</b> This word "intelligence" properly signifies the intellect's very act, which is to understand. However, in some works translated
|
|
|
3196 from the Arabic, the separate substances which we call angels are called "intelligences," and perhaps for this reason, that
|
|
|
3197 such substances are always actually understanding. But in works translated from the Greek, they are called "intellects" or
|
|
|
3198 "minds." Thus intelligence is not distinct from intellect, as power is from power; but
|
|
|
3199 as act is from power. And such a division is recognized even by the philosophers. For sometimes they assign four intellects---namely,
|
|
|
3200 the "active" and "passive" intellects, the intellect "in habit," and the "actual" intellect. Of which four the active and
|
|
|
3201 passive intellects are different powers; just as in all things the active power is distinct from the passive. But three of
|
|
|
3202 these are distinct, as three states of the passive intellect, which is sometimes in potentiality only, and thus it is
|
|
|
3203 called passive; sometimes it is in the first act, which is knowledge, and thus it is called intellect in habit; and sometimes
|
|
|
3204 it is in the second act, which is to consider, and thus it is called intellect in act, or actual intellect.
|
|
|
3205 </p>
|
|
|
3206 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p7">
|
|
|
3207 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If this authority is accepted, intelligence there means the act of the intellect. And thus it is divided against intellect
|
|
|
3208 as act against power.
|
|
|
3209 </p>
|
|
|
3210 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p8">
|
|
|
3211 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Boethius takes intelligence as meaning that act of the intellect which transcends the act of the reason. Wherefore he also
|
|
|
3212 says that reason alone belongs to the human race, as intelligence alone belongs to God, for it belongs to God to understand
|
|
|
3213 all things without any investigation.
|
|
|
3214 </p>
|
|
|
3215 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p9">
|
|
|
3216 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> All those acts which Damascene enumerates belong to one power---namely, the intellectual power. For this power first of all
|
|
|
3217 only apprehends something; and this act is called "intelligence." Secondly, it directs what it apprehends to the knowledge
|
|
|
3218 of something else, or to some operation; and this is called "intention." And when it goes on in search of what it "intends,"
|
|
|
3219 it is called "invention." When, by reference to something known for certain, it
|
|
|
3220 examines what it has found, it is said to know or to be wise, which belongs to "phronesis" or "wisdom"; for "it belongs to
|
|
|
3221 the wise man to judge," as the Philosopher says (Metaph. i, 2). And when once it has obtained something for certain, as being
|
|
|
3222 fully examined, it thinks about the means of making it known to others; and this is the ordering of "interior speech," from
|
|
|
3223 which proceeds "external speech." For every difference of acts does not make the powers vary, but only what cannot be reduced
|
|
|
3224 to the one same principle, as we have said above (
|
|
|
3225 <a id="FP_Q79_A10-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">Q[78], A[4]</a>).
|
|
|
3226 </p>
|
|
|
3227 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3228 <p id="FP_Q79_A10-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3229 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3230 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A11.html"></a>
|
|
|
3231 </div>
|
|
|
3232 <div id="FP_Q79_A11" class="div4">
|
|
|
3233 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
3234 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A12.html"></a>
|
|
|
3235 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A11-p0.1">Whether the speculative and practical intellects are distinct powers?</h4>
|
|
|
3236 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3237 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p2">
|
|
|
3238 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the speculative and practical intellects are distinct powers. For the apprehensive and motive are different
|
|
|
3239 kinds of powers, as is clear from De Anima ii, 3. But the speculative intellect is merely an apprehensive power; while the
|
|
|
3240 practical intellect is a motive power. Therefore they are distinct powers.
|
|
|
3241 </p>
|
|
|
3242 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p3">
|
|
|
3243 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the different nature of the object differentiates the power. But the object of the speculative intellect is "truth,"
|
|
|
3244 and of the practical is "good"; which differ in nature. Therefore the speculative and practical intellect are distinct powers.
|
|
|
3245 </p>
|
|
|
3246 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p4">
|
|
|
3247 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in the intellectual part, the practical intellect is compared to the speculative, as the estimative is to the imaginative
|
|
|
3248 power in the sensitive part. But the estimative differs from the imaginative, as power form power, as we have said above (
|
|
|
3249 <a id="FP_Q79_A11-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">Q[78], A[4]</a>). Therefore also the speculative intellect differs from the practical.
|
|
|
3250 </p>
|
|
|
3251 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p5">
|
|
|
3252 <b>On the contrary,</b> The speculative intellect by extension becomes practical (De Anima iii, 10). But one power is not changed into another. Therefore
|
|
|
3253 the speculative and practical intellects are not distinct powers.
|
|
|
3254 </p>
|
|
|
3255 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p6">
|
|
|
3256 <b>I answer that,</b> The speculative and practical intellects are not distinct powers. The reason of which is that, as we have said above (
|
|
|
3257 <a id="FP_Q79_A11-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html">Q[77], A[3]</a>), what is accidental to the nature of the object of a power, does not differentiate that power; for it is accidental to a
|
|
|
3258 thing colored to be man, or to be great or small; hence all such things are apprehended by the same power of sight. Now, to
|
|
|
3259 a thing apprehended by the intellect, it is accidental
|
|
|
3260 whether it be directed to operation or not, and according to this the speculative and practical intellects differ. For it
|
|
|
3261 is the speculative intellect which directs what it apprehends, not to operation, but to the consideration of truth; while
|
|
|
3262 the practical intellect is that which directs what it apprehends to operation. And this is what the Philosopher says (De Anima
|
|
|
3263 iii, 10); that "the speculative differs from the practical in its end." Whence each is named from its end: the one speculative,
|
|
|
3264 the other practical---i.e. operative.
|
|
|
3265 </p>
|
|
|
3266 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p7">
|
|
|
3267 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The practical intellect is a motive power, not as executing movement, but as directing towards it; and this belongs to it
|
|
|
3268 according to its mode of apprehension.
|
|
|
3269 </p>
|
|
|
3270 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p8">
|
|
|
3271 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Truth and good include one another; for truth is something good, otherwise it would not be desirable; and good is something
|
|
|
3272 true, otherwise it would not be intelligible. Therefore as the object of the appetite may be something true, as having the
|
|
|
3273 aspect of good, for example, when some one desires to know the truth; so the object of the practical intellect is good directed
|
|
|
3274 to the operation, and under the aspect of truth. For the practical intellect
|
|
|
3275 knows truth, just as the speculative, but it directs the known truth to operation.
|
|
|
3276 </p>
|
|
|
3277 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p9">
|
|
|
3278 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Many differences differentiate the sensitive powers, which do not differentiate the intellectual powers, as we have said
|
|
|
3279 above (A[7] , ad 2;
|
|
|
3280 <a id="FP_Q79_A11-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html">Q[77], A[3]</a>, ad 4).
|
|
|
3281 </p>
|
|
|
3282 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3283 <p id="FP_Q79_A11-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3284 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
3285 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A12.html"></a>
|
|
|
3286 </div>
|
|
|
3287 <div id="FP_Q79_A12" class="div4">
|
|
|
3288 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A11.html"></a>
|
|
|
3289 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A13.html"></a>
|
|
|
3290 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A12-p0.1">Whether synderesis is a special power of the soul distinct from the others?</h4>
|
|
|
3291 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3292 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p2">
|
|
|
3293 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that "synderesis" is a special power, distinct from the others. For those things which fall under one division,
|
|
|
3294 seem to be of the same genus. But in the gloss of Jerome on
|
|
|
3295 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A12-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.1.6" target="asv"> Ezech. 1:6, </a> "synderesis" is divided against the irascible, the concupiscible, and the rational, which are powers. Therefore "synderesis"
|
|
|
3296 is a power.
|
|
|
3297 </p>
|
|
|
3298 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p3">
|
|
|
3299 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, opposite things are of the same genus. But "synderesis" and sensuality seem to be opposed to one another because
|
|
|
3300 "synderesis" always incites to good; while sensuality always incites to evil: whence it is signified by the serpent, as is
|
|
|
3301 clear from Augustine (De Trin. xii, 12,13). It seems, therefore, that 'synderesis' is a power just as sensuality is.
|
|
|
3302 </p>
|
|
|
3303 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p4">
|
|
|
3304 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Lib. Arb. ii, 10) that in the natural power of judgment there are certain "rules and seeds of
|
|
|
3305 virtue, both true and unchangeable." And this is what we call synderesis. Since, therefore, the unchangeable rules which guide
|
|
|
3306 our judgment belong to the reason as to its higher part, as Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 2), it seems that "synderesis" is
|
|
|
3307 the same as reason: and thus it is a power.
|
|
|
3308 </p>
|
|
|
3309 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p5">
|
|
|
3310 <b>On the contrary,</b> According to the Philosopher (Metaph. viii, 2), "rational powers regard opposite things." But "synderesis" does not regard
|
|
|
3311 opposites, but inclines to good only. Therefore "synderesis" is not a power. For if it were a power it would be a rational
|
|
|
3312 power, since it is not found in brute animals.
|
|
|
3313 </p>
|
|
|
3314 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p6">
|
|
|
3315 <b>I answer that,</b> "Synderesis" is not a power but a habit; though some held that it is a power higher than reason; while others [*Cf. Alexander
|
|
|
3316 of Hales, Sum. Theol. II, Q[73]] said that it is reason itself, not as reason, but as a nature. In order to make this clear
|
|
|
3317 we must observe that, as we have said above
|
|
|
3318 <a id="FP_Q79_A12-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html">(A[8])</a>, man's act of reasoning, since it is a kind of movement, proceeds from the understanding of certain things---namely, those
|
|
|
3319 which are
|
|
|
3320 naturally known without any investigation on the part of reason, as from an immovable principle---and ends also at the understanding,
|
|
|
3321 inasmuch as by means of those principles naturally known, we judge of those things which we have discovered by reasoning.
|
|
|
3322 Now it is clear that, as the speculative reason argues about speculative things, so that practical reason argues about practical
|
|
|
3323 things. Therefore we must have, bestowed on us by nature, not only speculative principles, but also practical
|
|
|
3324 principles. Now the first speculative principles bestowed on us by nature do not belong to a special power, but to a special
|
|
|
3325 habit, which is called "the understanding of principles," as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. vi, 6). Wherefore the first
|
|
|
3326 practical principles, bestowed on us by nature, do not belong to a special power, but to a special natural habit, which we
|
|
|
3327 call "synderesis." Whence "synderesis" is said to incite to good, and to murmur at evil, inasmuch as through first principles
|
|
|
3328 we
|
|
|
3329 proceed to discover, and judge of what we have discovered. It is therefore clear that "synderesis" is not a power, but a natural
|
|
|
3330 habit.
|
|
|
3331 </p>
|
|
|
3332 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p7">
|
|
|
3333 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The division given by Jerome is taken from the variety of acts, and not from the variety of powers; and various acts can
|
|
|
3334 belong to one power.
|
|
|
3335 </p>
|
|
|
3336 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p8">
|
|
|
3337 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In like manner, the opposition of sensuality to "syneresis" is an opposition of acts, and not of the different species of
|
|
|
3338 one genus.
|
|
|
3339 </p>
|
|
|
3340 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p9">
|
|
|
3341 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Those unchangeable notions are the first practical principles, concerning which no one errs; and they are attributed to reason
|
|
|
3342 as to a power, and to "synderesis" as to a habit. Wherefore we judge naturally both by our reason and by "synderesis."
|
|
|
3343 </p>
|
|
|
3344 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3345 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3346 <p id="FP_Q79_A12-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3347 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A11.html"></a>
|
|
|
3348 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A13.html"></a>
|
|
|
3349 </div>
|
|
|
3350 <div id="FP_Q79_A13" class="div4">
|
|
|
3351 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A12.html"></a>
|
|
|
3352 <a href="summa.FP_Q80.html"></a>
|
|
|
3353 <h4 id="FP_Q79_A13-p0.1">Whether conscience be a power?</h4>
|
|
|
3354 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3355 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p2">
|
|
|
3356 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that conscience is a power; for Origen says [*Commentary on
|
|
|
3357 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A13-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.2.15" target="asv"> Rom. 2:15</a>] that "conscience is a correcting and guiding spirit accompanying the soul, by which it is led away from evil and made to
|
|
|
3358 cling to good." But in the soul, spirit designates a power---either the mind itself, according to the text (
|
|
|
3359 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A13-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.13" target="asv">Eph. 4:13</a>), "Be ye renewed in the spirit of your mind"---or the imagination, whence imaginary vision is
|
|
|
3360 called spiritual, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 7,24). Therefore conscience is a power.
|
|
|
3361 </p>
|
|
|
3362 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p3">
|
|
|
3363 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing is a subject of sin, except a power of the soul. But conscience is a subject of sin; for it is said of some
|
|
|
3364 that "their mind and conscience are defiled" (
|
|
|
3365 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A13-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Titus.1.15" target="asv">Titus 1:15</a>). Therefore it seems that conscience is a power.
|
|
|
3366 </p>
|
|
|
3367 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p4">
|
|
|
3368 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, conscience must of necessity be either an act, a habit, or a power. But it is not an act; for thus it would not
|
|
|
3369 always exist in man. Nor is it a habit; for conscience is not one thing but many, since we are directed in our actions by
|
|
|
3370 many habits of knowledge. Therefore conscience is a power.
|
|
|
3371 </p>
|
|
|
3372 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p5">
|
|
|
3373 <b>On the contrary,</b> Conscience can be laid aside. But a power cannot be laid aside. Therefore conscience is not a power.
|
|
|
3374 </p>
|
|
|
3375 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p6">
|
|
|
3376 <b>I answer that,</b> Properly speaking, conscience is not a power, but an act. This is evident both from the very name and from those things which
|
|
|
3377 in the common way of speaking are attributed to conscience. For conscience, according to the very nature of the word, implies
|
|
|
3378 the relation of knowledge to something: for conscience may be resolved into "cum alio scientia," i.e. knowledge applied to
|
|
|
3379 an individual case. But the application of knowledge to something is done by some act.
|
|
|
3380 Wherefore from this explanation of the name it is clear that conscience is an act.
|
|
|
3381 </p>
|
|
|
3382 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p7"> The same is manifest from those things which are attributed to conscience. For conscience is said to witness, to bind, or
|
|
|
3383 incite, and also to accuse, torment, or rebuke. And all these follow the application of knowledge or science to what we do:
|
|
|
3384 which application is made in three ways. One way in so far as we recognize that we have done or not done something; "Thy conscience
|
|
|
3385 knoweth that thou hast often spoken evil of others" (
|
|
|
3386 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A13-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.23" target="asv">Eccles. 7:23</a>), and according to
|
|
|
3387 this, conscience is said to witness. In another way, so far as through the conscience we judge that something should be done
|
|
|
3388 or not done; and in this sense, conscience is said to incite or to bind. In the third way, so far as by conscience we judge
|
|
|
3389 that something done is well done or ill done, and in this sense conscience is said to excuse, accuse, or torment. Now, it
|
|
|
3390 is clear that all these things follow the actual application of knowledge to what we do. Wherefore, properly speaking,
|
|
|
3391 conscience denominates an act. But since habit is a principle of act, sometimes the name conscience is given to the first
|
|
|
3392 natural habit---namely, 'synderesis': thus Jerome calls 'synderesis' conscience (Gloss.
|
|
|
3393 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q79_A13-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Ezek.1.6" target="asv"> Ezech. 1:6</a>); Basil [*Hom. in princ. Proverb.], the "natural power of judgment," and Damascene [*De Fide Orth. iv. 22] says that it is
|
|
|
3394 the "law of our intellect." For it is customary for causes and effects to be called after one another.
|
|
|
3395 </p>
|
|
|
3396 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p8">
|
|
|
3397 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Conscience is called a spirit, so far as spirit is the same as mind; because conscience is a certain pronouncement of the
|
|
|
3398 mind.
|
|
|
3399 </p>
|
|
|
3400 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p9">
|
|
|
3401 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The conscience is said to be defiled, not as a subject, but as the thing known is in knowledge; so far as someone knows he
|
|
|
3402 is defiled.
|
|
|
3403 </p>
|
|
|
3404 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p10">
|
|
|
3405 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although an act does not always remain in itself, yet it always remains in its cause, which is power and habit. Now all the
|
|
|
3406 habits by which conscience is formed, although many, nevertheless have their efficacy from one first habit, the habit of first
|
|
|
3407 principles, which is called "synderesis." And for this special reason, this habit is sometimes called conscience, as we have
|
|
|
3408 said above.
|
|
|
3409 </p>
|
|
|
3410 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3411 <p id="FP_Q79_A13-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3412 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A12.html"></a>
|
|
|
3413 <a href="summa.FP_Q80.html"></a>
|
|
|
3414 </div>
|
|
|
3415 <a href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3416 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3417 </div>
|
|
|
3418 <div id="FP_Q80" class="div3">
|
|
|
3419 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A13.html"></a>
|
|
|
3420 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3421 <h3 id="FP_Q80-p0.1">OF THE APPETITIVE POWERS IN GENERAL (TWO ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
3422 <p id="FP_Q80-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3423 <p id="FP_Q80-p2"> Next we consider the appetitive powers, concerning which there are four heads of consideration: first, the appetitive powers
|
|
|
3424 in general; second, sensuality; third, the will; fourth, the free-will. Under the first there are two points of inquiry:
|
|
|
3425 </p>
|
|
|
3426 <p id="FP_Q80-p3"> (1) Whether the appetite should be considered a special power of the soul?</p>
|
|
|
3427 <p id="FP_Q80-p4"> (2) Whether the appetite should be divided into intellectual and sensitive as distinct powers?</p>
|
|
|
3428 <p id="FP_Q80-p5"></p>
|
|
|
3429 <div id="FP_Q80_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
3430 <a href="summa.FP_Q80.html"></a>
|
|
|
3431 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3432 <h4 id="FP_Q80_A1-p0.1">Whether the appetite is a special power of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
3433 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3434 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3435 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the appetite is not a special power of the soul. For no power of the soul is to be assigned for those
|
|
|
3436 things which are common to animate and to inanimate things. But appetite is common to animate and inanimate things: since
|
|
|
3437 "all desire good," as the Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 1). Therefore the appetite is not a special power of the soul.
|
|
|
3438 </p>
|
|
|
3439 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3440 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, powers are differentiated by their objects. But what we desire is the same as what we know. Therefore the appetitive
|
|
|
3441 power is not distinct from the apprehensive power.
|
|
|
3442 </p>
|
|
|
3443 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3444 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the common is not divided from the proper. But each power of the soul desires some particular desirable thing---namely
|
|
|
3445 its own suitable object. Therefore, with regard to this object which is the desirable in general, we should not assign some
|
|
|
3446 particular power distinct from the others, called the appetitive power.
|
|
|
3447 </p>
|
|
|
3448 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3449 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher distinguishes (De Anima ii, 3) the appetitive from the other powers. Damascene also (De Fide Orth. ii, 22)
|
|
|
3450 distinguishes the appetitive from the cognitive powers.
|
|
|
3451 </p>
|
|
|
3452 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3453 <b>I answer that,</b> It is necessary to assign an appetitive power to the soul. To make this evident, we must observe that some inclination follows
|
|
|
3454 every form: for example, fire, by its form, is inclined to rise, and to generate its like. Now, the form is found to have
|
|
|
3455 a more perfect existence in those things which participate knowledge than in those which lack knowledge. For in those which
|
|
|
3456 lack knowledge, the form is found to determine each thing only to its own being---that
|
|
|
3457 is, to its nature. Therefore this natural form is followed by a natural inclination, which is called the natural appetite.
|
|
|
3458 But in those things which have knowledge, each one is determined to its own natural being by its natural form, in such a manner
|
|
|
3459 that it is nevertheless receptive of the species of other things: for example, sense receives the species of all things sensible,
|
|
|
3460 and the intellect, of all things intelligible, so that the soul of man is, in a way, all things by sense and
|
|
|
3461 intellect: and thereby, those things that have knowledge, in a way, approach to a likeness to God, "in Whom all things pre-exist,"
|
|
|
3462 as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. v).
|
|
|
3463 </p>
|
|
|
3464 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p7"> Therefore, as forms exist in those things that have knowledge in a higher manner and above the manner of natural forms; so
|
|
|
3465 must there be in them an inclination surpassing the natural inclination, which is called the natural appetite. And this superior
|
|
|
3466 inclination belongs to the appetitive power of the soul, through which the animal is able to desire what it apprehends, and
|
|
|
3467 not only that to which it is inclined by its natural form. And so it is necessary to assign an appetitive
|
|
|
3468 power to the soul.
|
|
|
3469 </p>
|
|
|
3470 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p8">
|
|
|
3471 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Appetite is found in things which have knowledge, above the common manner in which it is found in all things, as we have
|
|
|
3472 said above. Therefore it is necessary to assign to the soul a particular power.
|
|
|
3473 </p>
|
|
|
3474 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p9">
|
|
|
3475 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> What is apprehended and what is desired are the same in reality, but differ in aspect: for a thing is apprehended as something
|
|
|
3476 sensible or intelligible, whereas it is desired as suitable or good. Now, it is diversity of aspect in the objects, and not
|
|
|
3477 material diversity, which demands a diversity of powers.
|
|
|
3478 </p>
|
|
|
3479 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p10">
|
|
|
3480 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Each power of the soul is a form or nature, and has a natural inclination to something. Wherefore each power desires by the
|
|
|
3481 natural appetite that object which is suitable to itself. Above which natural appetite is the animal appetite, which follows
|
|
|
3482 the apprehension, and by which something is desired not as suitable to this or that power, such as sight for seeing, or sound
|
|
|
3483 for hearing; but simply as suitable to the animal.
|
|
|
3484 </p>
|
|
|
3485 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3486 <p id="FP_Q80_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3487 <a href="summa.FP_Q80.html"></a>
|
|
|
3488 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3489 </div>
|
|
|
3490 <div id="FP_Q80_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
3491 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3492 <a href="summa.FP_Q81.html"></a>
|
|
|
3493 <h4 id="FP_Q80_A2-p0.1">Whether the sensitive and intellectual appetites are distinct powers?</h4>
|
|
|
3494 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3495 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p2">
|
|
|
3496 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sensitive and intellectual appetites are not distinct powers. For powers are not differentiated by
|
|
|
3497 accidental differences, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
3498 <a id="FP_Q80_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A3.html">Q[77], A[3]</a>). But it is accidental to the appetible object whether it be apprehended by the sense or by the intellect. Therefore the
|
|
|
3499 sensitive and intellectual appetites are not distinct powers.
|
|
|
3500 </p>
|
|
|
3501 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p3">
|
|
|
3502 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, intellectual knowledge is of universals; and so it is distinct from sensitive knowledge, which is of individual
|
|
|
3503 things. But there is no place for this distinction in the appetitive part: for since the appetite is a movement of the soul
|
|
|
3504 to individual things, seemingly every act of the appetite regards an individual thing. Therefore the intellectual appetite
|
|
|
3505 is not distinguished from the sensitive.
|
|
|
3506 </p>
|
|
|
3507 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p4">
|
|
|
3508 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as under the apprehensive power, the appetitive is subordinate as a lower power, so also is the motive power. But
|
|
|
3509 the motive power which in man follows the intellect is not distinct from the motive power which in animals follows sense.
|
|
|
3510 Therefore, for a like reason, neither is there distinction in the appetitive part.
|
|
|
3511 </p>
|
|
|
3512 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p5">
|
|
|
3513 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher (De Anima iii, 9) distinguishes a double appetite, and says (De Anima iii, 11) that the higher appetite moves
|
|
|
3514 the lower.
|
|
|
3515 </p>
|
|
|
3516 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p6">
|
|
|
3517 <b>I answer that,</b> We must needs say that the intellectual appetite is a distinct power from the sensitive appetite. For the appetitive power
|
|
|
3518 is a passive power, which is naturally moved by the thing apprehended: wherefore the apprehended appetible is a mover which
|
|
|
3519 is not moved, while the appetite is a mover moved, as the Philosopher says in De Anima iii, 10 and Metaph. xii (Did. xi, 7).
|
|
|
3520 Now things passive and movable are differentiated according to the distinction of the
|
|
|
3521 corresponding active and motive principles; because the motive must be proportionate to the movable, and the active to the
|
|
|
3522 passive: indeed, the passive power itself has its very nature from its relation to its active principle. Therefore, since
|
|
|
3523 what is apprehended by the intellect and what is apprehended by sense are generically different; consequently, the intellectual
|
|
|
3524 appetite is distinct from the sensitive.
|
|
|
3525 </p>
|
|
|
3526 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3527 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is not accidental to the thing desired to be apprehended by the sense or the intellect; on the contrary, this belongs
|
|
|
3528 to it by its nature; for the appetible does not move the appetite except as it is apprehended. Wherefore differences in the
|
|
|
3529 thing apprehended are of themselves differences of the appetible. And so the appetitive powers are distinct according to the
|
|
|
3530 distinction of the things apprehended, as their proper objects.
|
|
|
3531 </p>
|
|
|
3532 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p8">
|
|
|
3533 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The intellectual appetite, though it tends to individual things which exist outside the soul, yet tends to them as standing
|
|
|
3534 under the universal; as when it desires something because it is good. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Rhetoric. ii, 4) that
|
|
|
3535 hatred can regard a universal, as when "we hate every kind of thief." In the same way by the intellectual appetite we may
|
|
|
3536 desire the immaterial good, which is not apprehended by sense, such as knowledge,
|
|
|
3537 virtue, and suchlike.
|
|
|
3538 </p>
|
|
84
|
3539 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p9"><!-- Added by HST, missing
|
|
|
3540 in original, copied from
|
|
|
3541 http://www.nd.edu/~afreddos/summa-translation/Part%201/st1-ques80.pdf --><b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As is explained in De Anima 3, a general opinion (opinio universalis) does
|
|
|
3542 not effect movement except by the mediation of a particular case (mediante particulari). Similarly, a
|
|
|
3543 higher appetite effects movement by the mediation of a lower appetite. This is why the power to effect
|
|
|
3544 movement that follows upon the intellect is not distinct from the power to effect movement that follows
|
|
|
3545 upon the sensory power.</p>
|
|
64
|
3546 <p id="FP_Q80_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3547 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3548 <a href="summa.FP_Q81.html"></a>
|
|
|
3549 </div>
|
|
|
3550 <a href="summa.FP_Q79_A13.html"></a>
|
|
|
3551 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3552 </div>
|
|
|
3553 <div id="FP_Q81" class="div3">
|
|
|
3554 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3555 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3556 <h3 id="FP_Q81-p0.1">OF THE POWER OF SENSUALITY (THREE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
3557 <p id="FP_Q81-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3558 <p id="FP_Q81-p2"> Next we have to consider the power of sensuality, concerning which there are three points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
3559 <p id="FP_Q81-p3"> (1) Whether sensuality is only an appetitive power?</p>
|
|
|
3560 <p id="FP_Q81-p4"> (2) Whether it is divided into irascible and concupiscible as distinct powers?</p>
|
|
|
3561 <p id="FP_Q81-p5"> (3) Whether the irascible and concupiscible powers obey reason?</p>
|
|
|
3562 <div id="FP_Q81_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
3563 <a href="summa.FP_Q81.html"></a>
|
|
|
3564 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3565 <h4 id="FP_Q81_A1-p0.1">Whether sensuality is only appetitive?</h4>
|
|
|
3566 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3567 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3568 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sensuality is not only appetitive, but also cognitive. For Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 12) that "the
|
|
|
3569 sensual movement of the soul which is directed to the bodily senses is common to us and beasts." But the bodily senses belong
|
|
|
3570 to the apprehensive powers. Therefore sensuality is a cognitive power.
|
|
|
3571 </p>
|
|
|
3572 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3573 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, things which come under one division seem to be of one genus. But Augustine (De Trin. xii, 12) divides sensuality
|
|
|
3574 against the higher and lower reason, which belong to knowledge. Therefore sensuality also is apprehensive.
|
|
|
3575 </p>
|
|
|
3576 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3577 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in man's temptations sensuality stands in the place of the "serpent." But in the temptation of our first parents,
|
|
|
3578 the serpent presented himself as one giving information and proposing sin, which belong to the cognitive power. Therefore
|
|
|
3579 sensuality is a cognitive power.
|
|
|
3580 </p>
|
|
|
3581 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3582 <b>On the contrary,</b> Sensuality is defined as "the appetite of things belonging to the body."
|
|
|
3583 </p>
|
|
|
3584 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3585 <b>I answer that,</b> The name sensuality seems to be taken from the sensual movement, of which Augustine speaks (De Trin. xii, 12, 13), just as
|
|
|
3586 the name of a power is taken from its act; for instance, sight from seeing. Now the sensual movement is an appetite following
|
|
|
3587 sensitive apprehension. For the act of the apprehensive power is not so properly called a movement as the act of the appetite:
|
|
|
3588 since the operation of the apprehensive power is completed in the very fact that the
|
|
|
3589 thing apprehended is in the one that apprehends: while the operation of the appetitive power is completed in the fact that
|
|
|
3590 he who desires is borne towards the thing desirable. Therefore the operation of the apprehensive power is likened to rest:
|
|
|
3591 whereas the operation of the appetitive power is rather likened to movement. Wherefore by sensual movement we understand the
|
|
|
3592 operation of the appetitive power: so that sensuality is the name of the sensitive appetite.
|
|
|
3593 </p>
|
|
|
3594 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p7">
|
|
|
3595 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By saying that the sensual movement of the soul is directed to the bodily senses, Augustine does not give us to understand
|
|
|
3596 that the bodily senses are included in sensuality, but rather that the movement of sensuality is a certain inclination to
|
|
|
3597 the bodily senses, since we desire things which are apprehended through the bodily senses. And thus the bodily senses appertain
|
|
|
3598 to sensuality as a preamble.
|
|
|
3599 </p>
|
|
|
3600 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p8">
|
|
|
3601 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Sensuality is divided against higher and lower reason, as having in common with them the act of movement: for the apprehensive
|
|
|
3602 power, to which belong the higher and lower reason, is a motive power; as is appetite, to which appertains sensuality.
|
|
|
3603 </p>
|
|
|
3604 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p9">
|
|
|
3605 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The serpent not only showed and proposed sin, but also incited to the commission of sin. And in this, sensuality is signified
|
|
|
3606 by the serpent.
|
|
|
3607 </p>
|
|
|
3608 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3609 <p id="FP_Q81_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3610 <a href="summa.FP_Q81.html"></a>
|
|
|
3611 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3612 </div>
|
|
|
3613 <div id="FP_Q81_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
3614 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3615 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3616 <h4 id="FP_Q81_A2-p0.1">Whether the sensitive appetite is divided into the irascible and concupiscible as distinct powers?</h4>
|
|
|
3617 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3618 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p2">
|
|
|
3619 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sensitive appetite is not divided into the irascible and concupiscible as distinct powers. For the
|
|
|
3620 same power of the soul regards both sides of a contrariety, as sight regards both black and white, according to the Philosopher
|
|
|
3621 (De Anima ii, 11). But suitable and harmful are contraries. Since, then, the concupiscible power regards what is suitable,
|
|
|
3622 while the irascible is concerned with what is harmful, it seems that irascible and
|
|
|
3623 concupiscible are the same power in the soul.
|
|
|
3624 </p>
|
|
|
3625 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p3">
|
|
|
3626 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the sensitive appetite regards only what is suitable according to the senses. But such is the object of the concupiscible
|
|
|
3627 power. Therefore there is no sensitive appetite differing from the concupiscible.
|
|
|
3628 </p>
|
|
|
3629 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p4">
|
|
|
3630 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hatred is in the irascible part: for Jerome says on
|
|
|
3631 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q81_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.13.33" target="asv">Mat. 13:33</a>: "We ought to have the hatred of vice in the irascible power." But hatred is contrary to love, and is in the concupiscible
|
|
|
3632 part. Therefore the concupiscible and irascible are the same powers.
|
|
|
3633 </p>
|
|
|
3634 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p5">
|
|
|
3635 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa (Nemesius, De Natura Hominis) and Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 12) assign two parts to the sensitive appetite,
|
|
|
3636 the irascible and the concupiscible.
|
|
|
3637 </p>
|
|
|
3638 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p6">
|
|
|
3639 <b>I answer that,</b> The sensitive appetite is one generic power, and is called sensuality; but it is divided into two powers, which are species
|
|
|
3640 of the sensitive appetite---the irascible and the concupiscible. In order to make this clear, we must observe that in natural
|
|
|
3641 corruptible things there is needed an inclination not only to the acquisition of what is suitable and to the avoiding of what
|
|
|
3642 is harmful, but also to resistance against corruptive and contrary agencies which are
|
|
|
3643 a hindrance to the acquisition of what is suitable, and are productive of harm. For example, fire has a natural inclination,
|
|
|
3644 not only to rise from a lower position, which is unsuitable to it, towards a higher position which is suitable, but also to
|
|
|
3645 resist whatever destroys or hinders its action. Therefore, since the sensitive appetite is an inclination following sensitive
|
|
|
3646 apprehension, as natural appetite is an inclination following the natural form, there must needs be in the sensitive part
|
|
|
3647 two appetitive powers---one through which the soul is simply inclined to seek what is suitable, according to the senses, and
|
|
|
3648 to fly from what is hurtful, and this is called the concupiscible: and another, whereby an animal resists these attacks that
|
|
|
3649 hinder what is suitable, and inflict harm, and this is called the irascible. Whence we say that its object is something arduous,
|
|
|
3650 because its tendency is to overcome and rise above obstacles. Now these two are not to be reduced to one principle: for
|
|
|
3651 sometimes the soul busies itself with unpleasant things, against the inclination of the concupiscible appetite, in order that,
|
|
|
3652 following the impulse of the irascible appetite, it may fight against obstacles. Wherefore also the passions of the irascible
|
|
|
3653 appetite counteract the passions of the concupiscible appetite: since the concupiscence, on being aroused, diminishes anger;
|
|
|
3654 and anger being roused, diminishes concupiscence in many cases. This is clear also from the fact that the irascible is,
|
|
|
3655 as it were, the champion and defender of the concupiscible when it rises up against what hinders the acquisition of the suitable
|
|
|
3656 things which the concupiscible desires, or against what inflicts harm, from which the concupiscible flies. And for this reason
|
|
|
3657 all the passions of the irascible appetite rise from the passions of the concupiscible appetite and terminate in them; for
|
|
|
3658 instance, anger rises from sadness, and having wrought vengeance, terminates in joy. For this reason also the quarrels
|
|
|
3659 of animals are about things concupiscible---namely, food and sex, as the Philosopher says [*De Animal. Histor. viii.].
|
|
|
3660 </p>
|
|
|
3661 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3662 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The concupiscible power regards both what is suitable and what is unsuitable. But the object of the irascible power is to
|
|
|
3663 resist the onslaught of the unsuitable.
|
|
|
3664 </p>
|
|
|
3665 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p8">
|
|
|
3666 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As in the apprehensive powers of the sensitive part there is an estimative power, which perceives those things which do not
|
|
|
3667 impress the senses, as we have said above (
|
|
|
3668 <a id="FP_Q81_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A2.html">Q[78], A[2]</a>); so also in the sensitive appetite there is a certain appetitive power which regards something as suitable, not because
|
|
|
3669 it pleases the senses, but because it is useful to the animal for self-defense: and this is the irascible power.
|
|
|
3670 </p>
|
|
|
3671 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p9">
|
|
|
3672 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hatred belongs simply to the concupiscible appetite: but by reason of the strife which arises from hatred, it may belong
|
|
|
3673 to the irascible appetite.
|
|
|
3674 </p>
|
|
|
3675 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3676 <p id="FP_Q81_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3677 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3678 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3679 </div>
|
|
|
3680 <div id="FP_Q81_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
3681 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3682 <a href="summa.FP_Q82.html"></a>
|
|
|
3683 <h4 id="FP_Q81_A3-p0.1">Whether the irascible and concupiscible appetites obey reason?</h4>
|
|
|
3684 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3685 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p2">
|
|
|
3686 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the irascible and concupiscible appetites do not obey reason. For irascible and concupiscible are parts
|
|
|
3687 of sensuality. But sensuality does not obey reason, wherefore it is signified by the serpent, as Augustine says (De Trin.
|
|
|
3688 xii, 12,13). Therefore the irascible and concupiscible appetites do not obey reason.
|
|
|
3689 </p>
|
|
|
3690 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p3">
|
|
|
3691 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, what obeys a certain thing does not resist it. But the irascible and concupiscible appetites resist reason: according
|
|
|
3692 to the Apostle (
|
|
|
3693 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q81_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.23" target="asv">Rom. 7:23</a>): "I see another law in my members fighting against the law of my mind." Therefore the irascible and concupiscible appetites
|
|
|
3694 do not obey reason.
|
|
|
3695 </p>
|
|
|
3696 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p4">
|
|
|
3697 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as the appetitive power is inferior to the rational part of the soul, so also is the sensitive power. But the sensitive
|
|
|
3698 part of the soul does not obey reason: for we neither hear nor see just when we wish. Therefore, in like manner, neither do
|
|
|
3699 the powers of the sensitive appetite, the irascible and concupscible, obey reason.
|
|
|
3700 </p>
|
|
|
3701 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p5">
|
|
|
3702 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 12) that "the part of the soul which is obedient and amenable to reason is divided into
|
|
|
3703 concupiscence and anger."
|
|
|
3704 </p>
|
|
|
3705 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p6">
|
|
|
3706 <b>I answer that,</b> In two ways the irascible and concupiscible powers obey the higher part, in which are the intellect or reason, and the will;
|
|
|
3707 first, as to reason, secondly as to the will. They obey the reason in their own acts, because in other animals the sensitive
|
|
|
3708 appetite is naturally moved by the estimative power; for instance, a sheep, esteeming the wolf as an enemy, is afraid. In
|
|
|
3709 man the estimative power, as we have said above (
|
|
|
3710 <a id="FP_Q81_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">Q[78], A[4]</a>), is
|
|
|
3711 replaced by the cogitative power, which is called by some 'the particular reason,' because it compares individual intentions.
|
|
|
3712 Wherefore in man the sensitive appetite is naturally moved by this particular reason. But this same particular reason is naturally
|
|
|
3713 guided and moved according to the universal reason: wherefore in syllogistic matters particular conclusions are drawn from
|
|
|
3714 universal propositions. Therefore it is clear that the universal reason directs the sensitive appetite, which is
|
|
|
3715 divided into concupiscible and irascible; and this appetite obeys it. But because to draw particular conclusions from universal
|
|
|
3716 principles is not the work of the intellect, as such, but of the reason: hence it is that the irascible and concupiscible
|
|
|
3717 are said to obey the reason rather than to obey the intellect. Anyone can experience this in himself: for by applying certain
|
|
|
3718 universal considerations, anger or fear or the like may be modified or excited.
|
|
|
3719 </p>
|
|
|
3720 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p7"> To the will also is the sensitive appetite subject in execution, which is accomplished by the motive power. For in other
|
|
|
3721 animals movement follows at once the concupiscible and irascible appetites: for instance, the sheep, fearing the wolf, flees
|
|
|
3722 at once, because it has no superior counteracting appetite. On the contrary, man is not moved at once, according to the irascible
|
|
|
3723 and concupiscible appetites: but he awaits the command of the will, which is the superior appetite. For
|
|
|
3724 wherever there is order among a number of motive powers, the second only moves by virtue of the first: wherefore the lower
|
|
|
3725 appetite is not sufficient to cause movement, unless the higher appetite consents. And this is what the Philosopher says (De
|
|
|
3726 Anima iii, 11), that "the higher appetite moves the lower appetite, as the higher sphere moves the lower." In this way, therefore,
|
|
|
3727 the irascible and concupiscible are subject to reason.
|
|
|
3728 </p>
|
|
|
3729 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p8">
|
|
|
3730 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Sensuality is signified by the serpent, in what is proper to it as a sensitive power. But the irascible and concupiscible
|
|
|
3731 powers denominate the sensitive appetite rather on the part of the act, to which they are led by the reason, as we have said.
|
|
|
3732 </p>
|
|
|
3733 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p9">
|
|
|
3734 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 2): "We observe in an animal a despotic and a politic principle: for the soul dominates
|
|
|
3735 the body by a despotic power; but the intellect dominates the appetite by a politic and royal power." For a power is called
|
|
|
3736 despotic whereby a man rules his slaves, who have not the right to resist in any way the orders of the one that commands them,
|
|
|
3737 since they have nothing of their own. But that power is called politic and royal
|
|
|
3738 by which a man rules over free subjects, who, though subject to the government of the ruler, have nevertheless something of
|
|
|
3739 their own, by reason of which they can resist the orders of him who commands. And so, the soul is said to rule the body by
|
|
|
3740 a despotic power, because the members of the body cannot in any way resist the sway of the soul, but at the soul's command
|
|
|
3741 both hand and foot, and whatever member is naturally moved by voluntary movement, are moved at once. But the intellect or
|
|
|
3742 reason
|
|
|
3743 is said to rule the irascible and concupiscible by a politic power: because the sensitive appetite has something of its own,
|
|
|
3744 by virtue whereof it can resist the commands of reason. For the sensitive appetite is naturally moved, not only by the estimative
|
|
|
3745 power in other animals, and in man by the cogitative power which the universal reason guides, but also by the imagination
|
|
|
3746 and sense. Whence it is that we experience that the irascible and concupiscible powers do resist reason, inasmuch as we
|
|
|
3747 sense or imagine something pleasant, which reason forbids, or unpleasant, which reason commands. And so from the fact that
|
|
|
3748 the irascible and concupiscible resist reason in something, we must not conclude that they do not obey.
|
|
|
3749 </p>
|
|
|
3750 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p10">
|
|
|
3751 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The exterior senses require for action exterior sensible things, whereby they are affected, and the presence of which is
|
|
|
3752 not ruled by reason. But the interior powers, both appetitive and apprehensive, do not require exterior things. Therefore
|
|
|
3753 they are subject to the command of reason, which can not only incite or modify the affections of the appetitive power, but
|
|
|
3754 can also form the phantasms of the imagination.
|
|
|
3755 </p>
|
|
|
3756 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3757 <p id="FP_Q81_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3758 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3759 <a href="summa.FP_Q82.html"></a>
|
|
|
3760 </div>
|
|
|
3761 <a href="summa.FP_Q80_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3762 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3763 </div>
|
|
|
3764 <div id="FP_Q82" class="div3">
|
|
|
3765 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3766 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3767 <h3 id="FP_Q82-p0.1">OF THE WILL (FIVE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
3768 <p id="FP_Q82-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3769 <p id="FP_Q82-p2"> We next consider the will. Under this head there are five points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
3770 <p id="FP_Q82-p3"> (1) Whether the will desires something of necessity?</p>
|
|
|
3771 <p id="FP_Q82-p4"> (2) Whether it desires anything of necessity?</p>
|
|
|
3772 <p id="FP_Q82-p5"> (3) Whether it is a higher power than the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
3773 <p id="FP_Q82-p6"> (4) Whether the will moves the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
3774 <p id="FP_Q82-p7"> (5) Whether the will is divided into irascible and concupiscible?</p>
|
|
|
3775 <div id="FP_Q82_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
3776 <a href="summa.FP_Q82.html"></a>
|
|
|
3777 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3778 <h4 id="FP_Q82_A1-p0.1">Whether the will desires something of necessity?</h4>
|
|
|
3779 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3780 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3781 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will desires nothing. For Augustine says (De Civ. Dei v, 10) that it anything is necessary, it is
|
|
|
3782 not voluntary. But whatever the will desires is voluntary. Therefore nothing that the will desires is desired of necessity.
|
|
|
3783 </p>
|
|
|
3784 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3785 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the rational powers, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. viii, 2), extend to opposite things. But the will is
|
|
|
3786 a rational power, because, as he says (De Anima iii, 9), "the will is in the reason." Therefore the will extends to opposite
|
|
|
3787 things, and therefore it is determined to nothing of necessity.
|
|
|
3788 </p>
|
|
|
3789 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3790 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by the will we are masters of our own actions. But we are not masters of that which is of necessity. Therefore the
|
|
|
3791 act of the will cannot be necessitated.
|
|
|
3792 </p>
|
|
|
3793 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3794 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xiii, 4) that "all desire happiness with one will." Now if this were not necessary, but contingent,
|
|
|
3795 there would at least be a few exceptions. Therefore the will desires something of necessity.
|
|
|
3796 </p>
|
|
|
3797 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3798 <b>I answer that,</b> The word "necessity" is employed in many ways. For that which must be is necessary. Now that a thing must be may belong to
|
|
|
3799 it by an intrinsic principle---either material, as when we say that everything composed of contraries is of necessity corruptible---or
|
|
|
3800 formal, as when we say that it is necessary for the three angles of a triangle to be equal to two right angles. And this is
|
|
|
3801 "natural" and "absolute necessity." In another way, that a thing must be,
|
|
|
3802 belongs to it by reason of something extrinsic, which is either the end or the agent. On the part of the end, as when without
|
|
|
3803 it the end is not to be attained or so well attained: for instance, food is said to be necessary for life, and a horse is
|
|
|
3804 necessary for a journey. This is called "necessity of end," and sometimes also "utility." On the part of the agent, a thing
|
|
|
3805 must be, when someone is forced by some agent, so that he is not able to do the contrary. This is called "necessity of
|
|
|
3806 coercion."
|
|
|
3807 </p>
|
|
|
3808 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p7"> Now this necessity of coercion is altogether repugnant to the will. For we call that violent which is against the inclination
|
|
|
3809 of a thing. But the very movement of the will is an inclination to something. Therefore, as a thing is called natural because
|
|
|
3810 it is according to the inclination of nature, so a thing is called voluntary because it is according to the inclination of
|
|
|
3811 the will. Therefore, just as it is impossible for a thing to be at the same time violent and natural, so it
|
|
|
3812 is impossible for a thing to be absolutely coerced or violent, and voluntary.
|
|
|
3813 </p>
|
|
|
3814 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p8"> But necessity of end is not repugnant to the will, when the end cannot be attained except in one way: thus from the will
|
|
|
3815 to cross the sea, arises in the will the necessity to wish for a ship.
|
|
|
3816 </p>
|
|
|
3817 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p9"> In like manner neither is natural necessity repugnant to the will. Indeed, more than this, for as the intellect of necessity
|
|
|
3818 adheres to the first principles, the will must of necessity adhere to the last end, which is happiness: since the end is in
|
|
|
3819 practical matters what the principle is in speculative matters. For what befits a thing naturally and immovably must be the
|
|
|
3820 root and principle of all else appertaining thereto, since the nature of a thing is the first in everything,
|
|
|
3821 and every movement arises from something immovable.
|
|
|
3822 </p>
|
|
|
3823 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p10">
|
|
|
3824 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The words of Augustine are to be understood of the necessity of coercion. But natural necessity "does not take away the liberty
|
|
|
3825 of the will," as he says himself (De Civ. Dei v, 10).
|
|
|
3826 </p>
|
|
|
3827 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p11">
|
|
|
3828 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The will, so far as it desires a thing naturally, corresponds rather to the intellect as regards natural principles than
|
|
|
3829 to the reason, which extends to opposite things. Wherefore in this respect it is rather an intellectual than a rational power.
|
|
|
3830 </p>
|
|
|
3831 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p12">
|
|
|
3832 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> We are masters of our own actions by reason of our being able to choose this or that. But choice regards not the end, but
|
|
|
3833 "the means to the end," as the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 9). Wherefore the desire of the ultimate end does not regard
|
|
|
3834 those actions of which we are masters.
|
|
|
3835 </p>
|
|
|
3836 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
3837 <p id="FP_Q82_A1-p14"></p>
|
|
|
3838 <a href="summa.FP_Q82.html"></a>
|
|
|
3839 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3840 </div>
|
|
|
3841 <div id="FP_Q82_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
3842 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3843 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3844 <h4 id="FP_Q82_A2-p0.1">Whether the will desires of necessity, whatever it desires?</h4>
|
|
|
3845 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3846 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p2">
|
|
|
3847 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will desires all things of necessity, whatever it desires. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that
|
|
|
3848 "evil is outside the scope of the will." Therefore the will tends of necessity to the good which is proposed to it.
|
|
|
3849 </p>
|
|
|
3850 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p3">
|
|
|
3851 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the object of the will is compared to the will as the mover to the thing movable. But the movement of the movable
|
|
|
3852 necessarily follows the mover. Therefore it seems that the will's object moves it of necessity.
|
|
|
3853 </p>
|
|
|
3854 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p4">
|
|
|
3855 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as the thing apprehended by sense is the object of the sensitive appetite, so the thing apprehended by the intellect
|
|
|
3856 is the object of the intellectual appetite, which is called the will. But what is apprehended by the sense moves the sensitive
|
|
|
3857 appetite of necessity: for Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ix, 14) that "animals are moved by things seen." Therefore it seems
|
|
|
3858 that whatever is apprehended by the intellect moves the will of necessity.
|
|
|
3859 </p>
|
|
|
3860 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p5">
|
|
|
3861 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Retract. i, 9) that "it is the will by which we sin and live well," and so the will extends to opposite things.
|
|
|
3862 Therefore it does not desire of necessity all things whatsoever it desires.
|
|
|
3863 </p>
|
|
|
3864 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p6">
|
|
|
3865 <b>I answer that,</b> The will does not desire of necessity whatsoever it desires. In order to make this evident we must observe that as the intellect
|
|
|
3866 naturally and of necessity adheres to the first principles, so the will adheres to the last end, as we have said already
|
|
|
3867 <a id="FP_Q82_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Now there are some things intelligible which have not a necessary connection with the first principles; such as contingent
|
|
|
3868 propositions, the denial of which does not involve a
|
|
|
3869 denial of the first principles. And to such the intellect does not assent of necessity. But there are some propositions which
|
|
|
3870 have a necessary connection with the first principles: such as demonstrable conclusions, a denial of which involves a denial
|
|
|
3871 of the first principles. And to these the intellect assents of necessity, when once it is aware of the necessary connection
|
|
|
3872 of these conclusions with the principles; but it does not assent of necessity until through the demonstration it recognizes
|
|
|
3873 the necessity of such connection. It is the same with the will. For there are certain individual goods which have not a necessary
|
|
|
3874 connection with happiness, because without them a man can be happy: and to such the will does not adhere of necessity. But
|
|
|
3875 there are some things which have a necessary connection with happiness, by means of which things man adheres to God, in Whom
|
|
|
3876 alone true happiness consists. Nevertheless, until through the certitude of the Divine Vision the necessity of such
|
|
|
3877 connection be shown, the will does not adhere to God of necessity, nor to those things which are of God. But the will of the
|
|
|
3878 man who sees God in His essence of necessity adheres to God, just as now we desire of necessity to be happy. It is therefore
|
|
|
3879 clear that the will does not desire of necessity whatever it desires.
|
|
|
3880 </p>
|
|
|
3881 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3882 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The will can tend to nothing except under the aspect of good. But because good is of many kinds, for this reason the will
|
|
|
3883 is not of necessity determined to one.
|
|
|
3884 </p>
|
|
|
3885 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p8">
|
|
|
3886 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The mover, then, of necessity causes movement in the thing movable, when the power of the mover exceeds the thing movable,
|
|
|
3887 so that its entire capacity is subject to the mover. But as the capacity of the will regards the universal and perfect good,
|
|
|
3888 its capacity is not subjected to any individual good. And therefore it is not of necessity moved by it.
|
|
|
3889 </p>
|
|
|
3890 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p9">
|
|
|
3891 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The sensitive power does not compare different things with each other, as reason does: but it simply apprehends some one
|
|
|
3892 thing. Therefore, according to that one thing, it moves the sensitive appetite in a determinate way. But the reason is a power
|
|
|
3893 that compares several things together: therefore from several things the intellectual appetite---that is, the will---may be
|
|
|
3894 moved; but not of necessity from one thing.
|
|
|
3895 </p>
|
|
|
3896 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3897 <p id="FP_Q82_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3898 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3899 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3900 </div>
|
|
|
3901 <div id="FP_Q82_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
3902 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3903 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3904 <h4 id="FP_Q82_A3-p0.1">Whether the will is a higher power than the intellect? </h4>
|
|
|
3905 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3906 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p2">
|
|
|
3907 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is a higher power than the intellect. For the object of the will is good and the end. But the
|
|
|
3908 end is the first and highest cause. Therefore the will is the first and highest power.
|
|
|
3909 </p>
|
|
|
3910 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p3">
|
|
|
3911 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in the order of natural things we observe a progress from imperfect things to perfect. And this also appears in
|
|
|
3912 the powers of the soul: for sense precedes the intellect, which is more noble. Now the act of the will, in the natural order,
|
|
|
3913 follows the act of the intellect. Therefore the will is a more noble and perfect power than the intellect.
|
|
|
3914 </p>
|
|
|
3915 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p4">
|
|
|
3916 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, habits are proportioned to their powers, as perfections to what they make perfect. But the habit which perfects
|
|
|
3917 the will---namely, charity---is more noble than the habits which perfect the intellect: for it is written (
|
|
|
3918 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q82_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.2" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:2</a>): "If I should know all mysteries, and if I should have all faith, and have not charity, I am nothing." Therefore the will
|
|
|
3919 is a higher power than the intellect.
|
|
|
3920 </p>
|
|
|
3921 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p5">
|
|
|
3922 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher holds the intellect to be the higher power than the intellect.
|
|
|
3923 </p>
|
|
|
3924 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p6">
|
|
|
3925 <b>I answer that,</b> The superiority of one thing over another can be considered in two ways: "absolutely" and "relatively." Now a thing is considered
|
|
|
3926 to be such absolutely which is considered such in itself: but relatively as it is such with regard to something else. If therefore
|
|
|
3927 the intellect and will be considered with regard to themselves, then the intellect is the higher power. And this is clear
|
|
|
3928 if we compare their respective objects to one another. For the object of the
|
|
|
3929 intellect is more simple and more absolute than the object of the will; since the object of the intellect is the very idea
|
|
|
3930 of appetible good; and the appetible good, the idea of which is in the intellect, is the object of the will. Now the more
|
|
|
3931 simple and the more abstract a thing is, the nobler and higher it is in itself; and therefore the object of the intellect
|
|
|
3932 is higher than the object of the will. Therefore, since the proper nature of a power is in its order to its object, it follows
|
|
|
3933 that
|
|
|
3934 the intellect in itself and absolutely is higher and nobler than the will. But relatively and by comparison with something
|
|
|
3935 else, we find that the will is sometimes higher than the intellect, from the fact that the object of the will occurs in something
|
|
|
3936 higher than that in which occurs the object of the intellect. Thus, for instance, I might say that hearing is relatively nobler
|
|
|
3937 than sight, inasmuch as something in which there is sound is nobler than something in which there is color, though
|
|
|
3938 color is nobler and simpler than sound. For as we have said above (
|
|
|
3939 <a id="FP_Q82_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q16_A1.html">Q[16], A[1]</a>;
|
|
|
3940 <a id="FP_Q82_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q27_A4.html">Q[27], A[4]</a>), the action of the intellect consists in this---that the idea of the thing understood is in the one who understands; while
|
|
|
3941 the act of the will consists in this---that the will is inclined to the thing itself as existing in itself. And therefore
|
|
|
3942 the Philosopher says in Metaph. vi (Did. v, 2) that "good and evil," which are objects of the will, "are in
|
|
|
3943 things," but "truth and error," which are objects of the intellect, "are in the mind." When, therefore, the thing in which
|
|
|
3944 there is good is nobler than the soul itself, in which is the idea understood; by comparison with such a thing, the will is
|
|
|
3945 higher than the intellect. But when the thing which is good is less noble than the soul, then even in comparison with that
|
|
|
3946 thing the intellect is higher than the will. Wherefore the love of God is better than the knowledge of God; but, on the contrary,
|
|
|
3947 the knowledge of corporeal things is better than the love thereof. Absolutely, however, the intellect is nobler than the will.
|
|
|
3948 </p>
|
|
|
3949 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p7">
|
|
|
3950 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The aspect of causality is perceived by comparing one thing to another, and in such a comparison the idea of good is found
|
|
|
3951 to be nobler: but truth signifies something more absolute, and extends to the idea of good itself: wherefore even good is
|
|
|
3952 something true. But, again, truth is something good: forasmuch as the intellect is a thing, and truth its end. And among other
|
|
|
3953 ends this is the most excellent: as also is the intellect among the other
|
|
|
3954 powers.
|
|
|
3955 </p>
|
|
|
3956 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p8">
|
|
|
3957 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> What precedes in order of generation and time is less perfect: for in one and in the same thing potentiality precedes act,
|
|
|
3958 and imperfection precedes perfection. But what precedes absolutely and in the order of nature is more perfect: for thus act
|
|
|
3959 precedes potentiality. And in this way the intellect precedes the will, as the motive power precedes the thing movable, and
|
|
|
3960 as the active precedes the passive; for good which is understood moves the will.
|
|
|
3961 </p>
|
|
|
3962 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p9">
|
|
|
3963 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This reason is verified of the will as compared with what is above the soul. For charity is the virtue by which we love God.
|
|
|
3964 </p>
|
|
|
3965 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3966 <p id="FP_Q82_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3967 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3968 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3969 </div>
|
|
|
3970 <div id="FP_Q82_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
3971 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3972 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
3973 <h4 id="FP_Q82_A4-p0.1">Whether the will moves the intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
3974 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3975 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p2">
|
|
|
3976 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will does not move the intellect. For what moves excels and precedes what is moved, because what moves
|
|
|
3977 is an agent, and "the agent is nobler than the patient," as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 16), and the Philosopher (De
|
|
|
3978 Anima iii, 5). But the intellect excels and precedes the will, as we have said above
|
|
|
3979 <a id="FP_Q82_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore the will does not move the intellect.
|
|
|
3980 </p>
|
|
|
3981 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p3">
|
|
|
3982 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, what moves is not moved by what is moved, except perhaps accidentally. But the intellect moves the will, because
|
|
|
3983 the good apprehended by the intellect moves without being moved; whereas the appetite moves and is moved. Therefore the intellect
|
|
|
3984 is not moved by the will.
|
|
|
3985 </p>
|
|
|
3986 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p4">
|
|
|
3987 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, we can will nothing but what we understand. If, therefore, in order to understand, the will moves by willing to
|
|
|
3988 understand, that act of the will must be preceded by another act of the intellect, and this act of the intellect by another
|
|
|
3989 act of the will, and so on indefinitely, which is impossible. Therefore the will does not move the intellect.
|
|
|
3990 </p>
|
|
|
3991 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p5">
|
|
|
3992 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 26): "It is in our power to learn an art or not, as we list." But a thing is in our power
|
|
|
3993 by the will, and we learn art by the intellect. Therefore the will moves the intellect.
|
|
|
3994 </p>
|
|
|
3995 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p6">
|
|
|
3996 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing is said to move in two ways: First, as an end; for instance, when we say that the end moves the agent. In this way
|
|
|
3997 the intellect moves the will, because the good understood is the object of the will, and moves it as an end. Secondly, a thing
|
|
|
3998 is said to move as an agent, as what alters moves what is altered, and what impels moves what is impelled. In this way the
|
|
|
3999 will moves the intellect and all the powers of the soul, as Anselm says (Eadmer, De
|
|
|
4000 Similitudinibus). The reason is, because wherever we have order among a number of active powers, that power which regards
|
|
|
4001 the universal end moves the powers which regard particular ends. And we may observe this both in nature and in things politic.
|
|
|
4002 For the heaven, which aims at the universal preservation of things subject to generation and corruption, moves all inferior
|
|
|
4003 bodies, each of which aims at the preservation of its own species or of the individual. The king also, who aims at the common
|
|
|
4004 good of the whole kingdom, by his rule moves all the governors of cities, each of whom rules over his own particular city.
|
|
|
4005 Now the object of the will is good and the end in general, and each power is directed to some suitable good proper to it,
|
|
|
4006 as sight is directed to the perception of color, and the intellect to the knowledge of truth. Therefore the will as agent
|
|
|
4007 moves all the powers of the soul to their respective acts, except the natural powers of the vegetative part, which are not
|
|
|
4008 subject
|
|
|
4009 to our will.
|
|
|
4010 </p>
|
|
|
4011 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p7">
|
|
|
4012 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intellect may be considered in two ways: as apprehensive of universal being and truth, and as a thing and a particular
|
|
|
4013 power having a determinate act. In like manner also the will may be considered in two ways: according to the common nature
|
|
|
4014 of its object---that is to say, as appetitive of universal good---and as a determinate power of the soul having a determinate
|
|
|
4015 act. If, therefore, the intellect and the will be compared with one another
|
|
|
4016 according to the universality of their respective objects, then, as we have said above
|
|
|
4017 <a id="FP_Q82_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, the intellect is simply higher and nobler than the will. If, however, we take the intellect as regards the common nature
|
|
|
4018 of its object and the will as a determinate power, then again the intellect is higher and nobler than the will, because under
|
|
|
4019 the notion of being and truth is contained both the will itself, and its act, and its object. Wherefore the intellect understands
|
|
|
4020 the will, and its act, and its object, just as it understands other species of things, as stone or wood, which are contained
|
|
|
4021 in the common notion of being and truth. But if we consider the will as regards the common nature of its object, which is
|
|
|
4022 good, and the intellect as a thing and a special power; then the intellect itself, and its act, and its object, which is truth,
|
|
|
4023 each of which is some species of good, are contained under the common notion of good. And in this way the will is higher
|
|
|
4024 than the intellect, and can move it. From this we can easily understand why these powers include one another in their acts,
|
|
|
4025 because the intellect understands that the will wills, and the will wills the intellect to understand. In the same way good
|
|
|
4026 is contained in truth, inasmuch as it is an understood truth, and truth in good, inasmuch as it is a desired good.
|
|
|
4027 </p>
|
|
|
4028 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p8">
|
|
|
4029 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The intellect moves the will in one sense, and the will moves the intellect in another, as we have said above.
|
|
|
4030 </p>
|
|
|
4031 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p9">
|
|
|
4032 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There is no need to go on indefinitely, but we must stop at the intellect as preceding all the rest. For every movement of
|
|
|
4033 the will must be preceded by apprehension, whereas every apprehension is not preceded by an act of the will; but the principle
|
|
|
4034 of counselling and understanding is an intellectual principle higher than our intellect ---namely, God---as also Aristotle
|
|
|
4035 says (Eth. Eudemic. vii, 14), and in this way he explains that there is no need to
|
|
|
4036 proceed indefinitely.
|
|
|
4037 </p>
|
|
|
4038 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4039 <p id="FP_Q82_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4040 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4041 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4042 </div>
|
|
|
4043 <div id="FP_Q82_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
4044 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4045 <a href="summa.FP_Q83.html"></a>
|
|
|
4046 <h4 id="FP_Q82_A5-p0.1">Whether we should distinguish irascible and concupiscible parts in the superior appetite?</h4>
|
|
|
4047 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4048 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p2">
|
|
|
4049 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought to distinguish irascible and concupiscible parts in the superior appetite, which is the will.
|
|
|
4050 For the concupiscible power is so called from "concupiscere" [to desire], and the irascible part from "irasci" [to be angry].
|
|
|
4051 But there is a concupiscence which cannot belong to the sensitive appetite, but only to the intellectual, which is the will;
|
|
|
4052 as the concupiscence of wisdom, of which it is said (
|
|
|
4053 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q82_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.6.21" target="asv">Wis. 6:21</a>): "The
|
|
|
4054 concupiscence of wisdom bringeth to the eternal kingdom." There is also a certain anger which cannot belong to the sensitive
|
|
|
4055 appetite, but only to the intellectual; as when our anger is directed against vice. Wherefore Jerome commenting on
|
|
|
4056 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q82_A5-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.13.33" target="asv"> Mat. 13:33 </a>warns us "to have the hatred of vice in the irascible part." Therefore we should distinguish irascible and concupiscible parts
|
|
|
4057 of the intellectual soul as well as in the sensitive.
|
|
|
4058 </p>
|
|
|
4059 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p3">
|
|
|
4060 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as is commonly said, charity is in the concupiscible, and hope in the irascible part. But they cannot be in the
|
|
|
4061 sensitive appetite, because their objects are not sensible, but intellectual. Therefore we must assign an irascible and concupiscible
|
|
|
4062 power to the intellectual part.
|
|
|
4063 </p>
|
|
|
4064 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p4">
|
|
|
4065 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is said (De Spiritu et Anima) that "the soul has these powers"---namely, the irascible, concupiscible, and rational---"before
|
|
|
4066 it is united to the body." But no power of the sensitive part belongs to the soul alone, but to the soul and body united,
|
|
|
4067 as we have said above (
|
|
|
4068 <a id="FP_Q82_A5-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A5.html">Q[78], AA[5]</a>,8). Therefore the irascible and concupiscible powers are in the will, which is the intellectual appetite.
|
|
|
4069 </p>
|
|
|
4070 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p5">
|
|
|
4071 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa (Nemesius, De Nat. Hom.) says "that the irrational" part of the soul is divided into the desiderative and
|
|
|
4072 irascible, and Damascene says the same (De Fide Orth. ii, 12). And the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 9) "that the will is
|
|
|
4073 in reason, while in the irrational part of the soul are concupiscence and anger," or "desire and animus."
|
|
|
4074 </p>
|
|
|
4075 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p6">
|
|
|
4076 <b>I answer that,</b> The irascible and concupiscible are not parts of the intellectual appetite, which is called the will. Because, as was said
|
|
|
4077 above (
|
|
|
4078 <a id="FP_Q82_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q59_A4.html">Q[59], A[4]</a>;
|
|
|
4079 <a id="FP_Q82_A5-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html">Q[79], A[7]</a>), a power which is directed to an object according to some common notion is not differentiated by special differences which
|
|
|
4080 are contained under that common notion. For instance, because sight regards the visible thing under the common notion of something
|
|
|
4081 colored, the visual power is not multiplied according to the different kinds of color: but if there were a power regarding
|
|
|
4082 white as white, and not as something colored, it would be distinct from a power regarding black as black.
|
|
|
4083 </p>
|
|
|
4084 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p7"> Now the sensitive appetite does not consider the common notion of good, because neither do the senses apprehend the universal.
|
|
|
4085 And therefore the parts of the sensitive appetite are differentiated by the different notions of particular good: for the
|
|
|
4086 concupiscible regards as proper to it the notion of good, as something pleasant to the senses and suitable to nature: whereas
|
|
|
4087 the irascible regards the notion of good as something that wards off and repels what is hurtful. But the
|
|
|
4088 will regards good according to the common notion of good, and therefore in the will, which is the intellectual appetite, there
|
|
|
4089 is no differentiation of appetitive powers, so that there be in the intellectual appetite an irascible power distinct from
|
|
|
4090 a concupiscible power: just as neither on the part of the intellect are the apprehensive powers multiplied, although they
|
|
|
4091 are on the part of the senses.
|
|
|
4092 </p>
|
|
|
4093 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p8">
|
|
|
4094 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Love, concupiscence, and the like can be understood in two ways. Sometimes they are taken as passions---arising, that is,
|
|
|
4095 with a certain commotion of the soul. And thus they are commonly understood, and in this sense they are only in the sensitive
|
|
|
4096 appetite. They may, however, be taken in another way, as far as they are simple affections without passion or commotion of
|
|
|
4097 the soul, and thus they are acts of the will. And in this sense, too, they are
|
|
|
4098 attributed to the angels and to God. But if taken in this sense, they do not belong to different powers, but only to one power,
|
|
|
4099 which is called the will.
|
|
|
4100 </p>
|
|
|
4101 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p9">
|
|
|
4102 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The will itself may be said to irascible, as far as it wills to repel evil, not from any sudden movement of a passion, but
|
|
|
4103 from a judgment of the reason. And in the same way the will may be said to be concupiscible on account of its desire for good.
|
|
|
4104 And thus in the irascible and concupiscible are charity and hope---that is, in the will as ordered to such acts. And in this
|
|
|
4105 way, too, we may understand the words quoted (De Spiritu et Anima); that the
|
|
|
4106 irascible and concupiscible powers are in the soul before it is united to the body (as long as we understand priority of nature,
|
|
84
|
4107 and not of time), although there is no need to have faith in what that book says.</p>
|
|
|
4108 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p10"><b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whence the answer to the third objection
|
|
|
4109 is clear.</p>
|
|
64
|
4110 <p id="FP_Q82_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4111 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4112 <a href="summa.FP_Q83.html"></a>
|
|
|
4113 </div>
|
|
|
4114 <a href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4115 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4116 </div>
|
|
|
4117 <div id="FP_Q83" class="div3">
|
|
|
4118 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4119 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4120 <h3 id="FP_Q83-p0.1">OF FREE-WILL (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
4121 <p id="FP_Q83-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4122 <p id="FP_Q83-p2"> We now inquire concerning free-will. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
4123 <p id="FP_Q83-p3"> (1) Whether man has free-will?</p>
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4124 <p id="FP_Q83-p4"> (2) What is free-will---a power, an act, or a habit?</p>
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4125 <p id="FP_Q83-p5"> (3) If it is a power, is it appetitive or cognitive?</p>
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4126 <p id="FP_Q83-p6"> (4) If it is appetitive, is it the same power as the will, or distinct?</p>
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4127 <p id="FP_Q83-p7"></p>
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4128 <div id="FP_Q83_A1" class="div4">
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4129 <a href="summa.FP_Q83.html"></a>
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4130 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A2.html"></a>
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4131 <h4 id="FP_Q83_A1-p0.1">Whether man has free-will?</h4>
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4132 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p1"></p>
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4133 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p2">
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4134 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man has not free-will. For whoever has free-will does what he wills. But man does not what he wills; for
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4135 it is written (
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4136 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.19" target="asv">Rom. 7:19</a>): "For the good which I will I do not, but the evil which I will not, that I do." Therefore man has not free-will.
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4137 </p>
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4138 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p3">
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4139 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whoever has free-will has in his power to will or not to will, to do or not to do. But this is not in man's power:
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4140 for it is written (
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4141 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.9.16" target="asv">Rom. 9:16</a>): "It is not of him that willeth"---namely, to will---"nor of him that runneth"---namely, to run. Therefore man has not free-will.
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4142 </p>
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4143 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p4">
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4144 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what is "free is cause of itself," as the Philosopher says (Metaph. i, 2). Therefore what is moved by another is
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4145 not free. But God moves the will, for it is written (
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4146 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.21.1" target="asv">Prov. 21:1</a>): "The heart of the king is in the hand of the Lord; whithersoever He will He shall turn it" and (
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4147 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Phil.2.13" target="asv">Phil. 2:13</a>): "It is God Who worketh in you both to will and to accomplish." Therefore man has not free-will.
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4148 </p>
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4149 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p5">
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4150 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, whoever has free-will is master of his own actions. But man is not master of his own actions: for it is written
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4151 (
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4152 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.10.23" target="asv">Jer. 10:23</a>): "The way of a man is not his: neither is it in a man to walk." Therefore man has not free-will.
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4153 </p>
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4154 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p6">
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4155 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 5): "According as each one is, such does the end seem to him." But it is not in
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4156 our power to be of one quality or another; for this comes to us from nature. Therefore it is natural to us to follow some
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4157 particular end, and therefore we are not free in so doing.
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4158 </p>
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4159 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p7">
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4160 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
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4161 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q83_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.15.14" target="asv">Ecclus. 15:14</a>): "God made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his own counsel"; and the gloss adds: "That is of his free-will."
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4162 </p>
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4163 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p8">
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4164 <b>I answer that,</b> Man has free-will: otherwise counsels, exhortations, commands, prohibitions, rewards, and punishments would be in vain. In
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4165 order to make this evident, we must observe that some things act without judgment; as a stone moves downwards; and in like
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4166 manner all things which lack knowledge. And some act from judgment, but not a free judgment; as brute animals. For the sheep,
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4167 seeing the wolf, judges it a thing to be shunned, from a natural and not a free judgment,
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4168 because it judges, not from reason, but from natural instinct. And the same thing is to be said of any judgment of brute animals.
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4169 But man acts from judgment, because by his apprehensive power he judges that something should be avoided or sought. But because
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4170 this judgment, in the case of some particular act, is not from a natural instinct, but from some act of comparison in the
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4171 reason, therefore he acts from free judgment and retains the power of being inclined to various things. For reason in
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4172 contingent matters may follow opposite courses, as we see in dialectic syllogisms and rhetorical arguments. Now particular
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4173 operations are contingent, and therefore in such matters the judgment of reason may follow opposite courses, and is not determinate
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4174 to one. And forasmuch as man is rational is it necessary that man have a free-will.
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4175 </p>
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4176 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p9">
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4177 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As we have said above (
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4178 <a id="FP_Q83_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html">Q[81], A[3]</a>, ad 2), the sensitive appetite, though it obeys the reason, yet in a given case can resist by desiring what the reason forbids.
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4179 This is therefore the good which man does not when he wishes---namely, "not to desire against reason," as Augustine says.
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4180 </p>
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4181 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p10">
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4182 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Those words of the Apostle are not to be taken as though man does not wish or does not run of his free-will, but because
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4183 the free-will is not sufficient thereto unless it be moved and helped by God.
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4184 </p>
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4185 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p11">
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4186 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Free-will is the cause of its own movement, because by his free-will man moves himself to act. But it does not of necessity
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4187 belong to liberty that what is free should be the first cause of itself, as neither for one thing to be cause of another need
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4188 it be the first cause. God, therefore, is the first cause, Who moves causes both natural and voluntary. And just as by moving
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4189 natural causes He does not prevent their acts being natural, so by moving
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4190 voluntary causes He does not deprive their actions of being voluntary: but rather is He the cause of this very thing in them;
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4191 for He operates in each thing according to its own nature.
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4192 </p>
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4193 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p12">
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4194 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> "Man's way" is said "not to be his" in the execution of his choice, wherein he may be impeded, whether he will or not. The
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4195 choice itself, however, is in us, but presupposes the help of God.
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4196 </p>
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4197 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p13">
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4198 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Quality in man is of two kinds: natural and adventitious. Now the natural quality may be in the intellectual part, or in
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4199 the body and its powers. From the very fact, therefore, that man is such by virtue of a natural quality which is in the intellectual
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4200 part, he naturally desires his last end, which is happiness. Which desire, indeed, is a natural desire, and is not subject
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4201 to free-will, as is clear from what we have said above (
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4202 <a id="FP_Q83_A1-p13.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html">Q[82], AA[1]</a>,2). But on the part of the body and its powers man may be such by virtue of a natural quality, inasmuch as he is of such
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4203 a temperament or disposition due to any impression whatever produced by corporeal causes, which cannot affect the intellectual
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4204 part, since it is not the act of a corporeal organ. And such as a man is by virtue of a corporeal quality, such also does
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4205 his end seem to him, because from such a disposition a man is inclined to choose or reject
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4206 something. But these inclinations are subject to the judgment of reason, which the lower appetite obeys, as we have said (
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4207 <a id="FP_Q83_A1-p13.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q81_A3.html">Q[81], A[3]</a>). Wherefore this is in no way prejudicial to free-will.
|
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4208 </p>
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4209 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p14"> The adventitious qualities are habits and passions, by virtue of which a man is inclined to one thing rather than to another.
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4210 And yet even these inclinations are subject to the judgment of reason. Such qualities, too, are subject to reason, as it is
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4211 in our power either to acquire them, whether by causing them or disposing ourselves to them, or to reject them. And so there
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4212 is nothing in this that is repugnant to free-will.
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4213 </p>
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4214 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p15"></p>
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4215 <p id="FP_Q83_A1-p16"></p>
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4216 <a href="summa.FP_Q83.html"></a>
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4217 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A2.html"></a>
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4218 </div>
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4219 <div id="FP_Q83_A2" class="div4">
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4220 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A1.html"></a>
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4221 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A3.html"></a>
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4222 <h4 id="FP_Q83_A2-p0.1">Whether free-will is a power?</h4>
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4223 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p1"></p>
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4224 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p2">
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4225 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that free-will is not a power. For free-will is nothing but a free judgment. But judgment denominates an act,
|
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4226 not a power. Therefore free-will is not a power.
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4227 </p>
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4228 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p3">
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4229 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, free-will is defined as "the faculty of the will and reason." But faculty denominates a facility of power, which
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4230 is due to a habit. Therefore free-will is a habit. Moreover Bernard says (De Gratia et Lib. Arb. 1,2) that free-will is "the
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4231 soul's habit of disposing of itself." Therefore it is not a power.
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4232 </p>
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4233 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p4">
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4234 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no natural power is forfeited through sin. But free-will is forfeited through sin; for Augustine says that "man,
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4235 by abusing free-will, loses both it and himself." Therefore free-will is not a power.
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4236 </p>
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4237 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p5">
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4238 <b>On the contrary,</b> Nothing but a power, seemingly, is the subject of a habit. But free-will is the subject of grace, by the help of which it
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4239 chooses what is good. Therefore free-will is a power.
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4240 </p>
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4241 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p6">
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4242 <b>I answer that,</b> Although free-will [*Liberum arbitrium---i.e. free judgment] in its strict sense denotes an act, in the common manner of
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4243 speaking we call free-will, that which is the principle of the act by which man judges freely. Now in us the principle of
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4244 an act is both power and habit; for we say that we know something both by knowledge and by the intellectual power. Therefore
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4245 free-will must be either a power or a habit, or a power with a habit. That it is neither a
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4246 habit nor a power together with a habit, can be clearly proved in two ways. First of all, because, if it is a habit, it must
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4247 be a natural habit; for it is natural to man to have a free-will. But there is not natural habit in us with respect to those
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4248 things which come under free-will: for we are naturally inclined to those things of which we have natural habits---for instance,
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4249 to assent to first principles: while those things which we are naturally inclined are not subject to free-will, as we
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4250 have said of the desire of happiness (
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4251 <a id="FP_Q83_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A1.html">Q[82], AA[1]</a>,2). Wherefore it is against the very notion of free-will that it should be a natural habit. And that it should be a non-natural
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4252 habit is against its nature. Therefore in no sense is it a habit.
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4253 </p>
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4254 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p7"> Secondly, this is clear because habits are defined as that "by reason of which we are well or ill disposed with regard to
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4255 actions and passions" (Ethic. ii, 5); for by temperance we are well-disposed as regards concupiscences, and by intemperance
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4256 ill-disposed: and by knowledge we are well-disposed to the act of the intellect when we know the truth, and by the contrary
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4257 ill-disposed. But the free-will is indifferent to good and evil choice: wherefore it is impossible for free-will
|
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4258 to be a habit. Therefore it is a power.
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4259 </p>
|
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4260 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p8">
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4261 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is not unusual for a power to be named from its act. And so from this act, which is a free judgment, is named the power
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4262 which is the principle of this act. Otherwise, if free-will denominated an act, it would not always remain in man.
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4263 </p>
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4264 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p9">
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4265 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faculty sometimes denominates a power ready for operation, and in this sense faculty is used in the definition of free-will.
|
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4266 But Bernard takes habit, not as divided against power, but as signifying a certain aptitude by which a man has some sort of
|
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4267 relation to an act. And this may be both by a power and by a habit: for by a power man is, as it were, empowered to do the
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4268 action, and by the habit he is apt to act well or ill.
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4269 </p>
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4270 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p10">
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4271 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Man is said to have lost free-will by falling into sin, not as to natural liberty, which is freedom from coercion, but as
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4272 regards freedom from fault and unhappiness. Of this we shall treat later in the treatise on Morals in the second part of this
|
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4273 work (FS, Q[85], seqq.;
|
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4274 <a id="FP_Q83_A2-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q109.html">Q[109])</a>.
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4275 </p>
|
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4276 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p11"></p>
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4277 <p id="FP_Q83_A2-p12"></p>
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4278 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A1.html"></a>
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4279 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A3.html"></a>
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4280 </div>
|
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4281 <div id="FP_Q83_A3" class="div4">
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4282 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A2.html"></a>
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4283 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A4.html"></a>
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4284 <h4 id="FP_Q83_A3-p0.1">Whether free-will is an appetitive power?</h4>
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4285 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p1"></p>
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4286 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p2">
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4287 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that free-will is not an appetitive, but a cognitive power. For Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 27) says that
|
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4288 "free-will straightway accompanies the rational nature." But reason is a cognitive power. Therefore free-will is a cognitive
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4289 power.
|
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4290 </p>
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4291 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p3">
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4292 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, free-will is so called as though it were a free judgment. But to judge is an act of a cognitive power. Therefore
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4293 free-will is a cognitive power.
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4294 </p>
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4295 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p4">
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4296 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the principal function of free-will is to choose. But choice seems to belong to knowledge, because it implies a
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4297 certain comparison of one thing to another, which belongs to the cognitive power. Therefore free-will is a cognitive power.
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4298 </p>
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4299 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p5">
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4300 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 3) that choice is "the desire of those things which are in us." But desire is an act of
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4301 the appetitive power: therefore choice is also. But free-will is that by which we choose. Therefore free-will is an appetitive
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4302 power.
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4303 </p>
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4304 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p6">
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4305 <b>I answer that,</b> The proper act of free-will is choice: for we say that we have a free-will because we can take one thing while refusing another;
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4306 and this is to choose. Therefore we must consider the nature of free-will, by considering the nature of choice. Now two things
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4307 concur in choice: one on the part of the cognitive power, the other on the part of the appetitive power. On the part of the
|
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4308 cognitive power, counsel is required, by which we judge one thing to be preferred
|
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4309 to another: and on the part of the appetitive power, it is required that the appetite should accept the judgment of counsel.
|
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4310 Therefore Aristotle (Ethic. vi, 2) leaves it in doubt whether choice belongs principally to the appetitive or the cognitive
|
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4311 power: since he says that choice is either "an appetitive intellect or an intellectual appetite." But (Ethic. iii, 3) he inclines
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4312 to its being an intellectual appetite when he describes choice as "a desire proceeding from counsel." And the reason of
|
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4313 this is because the proper object of choice is the means to the end: and this, as such, is in the nature of that good which
|
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4314 is called useful: wherefore since good, as such, is the object of the appetite, it follows that choice is principally an act
|
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4315 of the appetitive power. And thus free-will is an appetitive power.
|
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4316 </p>
|
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4317 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p7">
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4318 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The appetitive powers accompany the apprehensive, and in this sense Damascene says that free-will straightway accompanies
|
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4319 the rational power.
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4320 </p>
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4321 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p8">
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|
4322 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Judgment, as it were, concludes and terminates counsel. Now counsel is terminated, first, by the judgment of reason; secondly,
|
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4323 by the acceptation of the appetite: whence the Philosopher (Ethic. iii, 3) says that, "having formed a judgment by counsel,
|
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4324 we desire in accordance with that counsel." And in this sense choice itself is a judgment from which free-will takes its name.
|
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|
4325 </p>
|
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4326 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p9">
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|
4327 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This comparison which is implied in the choice belongs to the preceding counsel, which is an act of reason. For though the
|
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4328 appetite does not make comparisons, yet forasmuch as it is moved by the apprehensive power which does compare, it has some
|
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4329 likeness of comparison by choosing one in preference to another.
|
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4330 </p>
|
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4331 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p10"></p>
|
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4332 <p id="FP_Q83_A3-p11"></p>
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4333 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A2.html"></a>
|
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4334 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A4.html"></a>
|
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4335 </div>
|
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4336 <div id="FP_Q83_A4" class="div4">
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4337 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A3.html"></a>
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4338 <a href="summa.FP_Q84.html"></a>
|
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4339 <h4 id="FP_Q83_A4-p0.1">Whether free-will is a power distinct from the will?</h4>
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4340 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p1"></p>
|
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4341 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p2">
|
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|
4342 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that free-will is a power distinct from the will. For Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that {thelesis}
|
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4343 is one thing and {boulesis} another. But {thelesis} is the will, while {boulesis} seems to be the free-will, because {boulesis},
|
|
|
4344 according to him, is will as concerning an object by way of comparison between two things. Therefore it seems that free-will
|
|
|
4345 is a distinct power from the will.
|
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|
4346 </p>
|
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|
4347 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p3">
|
|
|
4348 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, powers are known by their acts. But choice, which is the act of free-will, is distinct from the act of willing,
|
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|
4349 because "the act of the will regards the end, whereas choice regards the means to the end" (Ethic. iii, 2). Therefore free-will
|
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4350 is a distinct power from the will.
|
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|
4351 </p>
|
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4352 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p4">
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|
|
4353 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the will is the intellectual appetite. But in the intellect there are two powers---the active and the passive. Therefore,
|
|
|
4354 also on the part of the intellectual appetite, there must be another power besides the will. And this, seemingly, can only
|
|
|
4355 be free-will. Therefore free-will is a distinct power from the will.
|
|
|
4356 </p>
|
|
|
4357 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p5">
|
|
|
4358 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. iii, 14) free-will is nothing else than the will.
|
|
|
4359 </p>
|
|
|
4360 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p6">
|
|
|
4361 <b>I answer that,</b> The appetitive powers must be proportionate to the apprehensive powers, as we have said above (
|
|
|
4362 <a id="FP_Q83_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q64_A2.html">Q[64], A[2]</a>). Now, as on the part of the intellectual apprehension we have intellect and reason, so on the part of the intellectual appetite
|
|
|
4363 we have will, and free-will which is nothing else but the power of choice. And this is clear from their relations to their
|
|
|
4364 respective objects and acts. For the act of "understanding" implies the simple
|
|
|
4365 acceptation of something; whence we say that we understand first principles, which are known of themselves without any comparison.
|
|
|
4366 But to "reason," properly speaking, is to come from one thing to the knowledge of another: wherefore, properly speaking, we
|
|
|
4367 reason about conclusions, which are known from the principles. In like manner on the part of the appetite to "will" implies
|
|
|
4368 the simple appetite for something: wherefore the will is said to regard the end, which is desired for itself. But to
|
|
|
4369 "choose" is to desire something for the sake of obtaining something else: wherefore, properly speaking, it regards the means
|
|
|
4370 to the end. Now, in matters of knowledge, the principles are related to the conclusion to which we assent on account of the
|
|
|
4371 principles: just as, in appetitive matters, the end is related to the means, which is desired on account of the end. Wherefore
|
|
|
4372 it is evident that as the intellect is to reason, so is the will to the power of choice, which is free-will. But it has
|
|
|
4373 been shown above (
|
|
|
4374 <a id="FP_Q83_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html">Q[79], A[8]</a>) that it belongs to the same power both to understand and to reason, even as it belongs to the same power to be at rest and
|
|
|
4375 to be in movement. Wherefore it belongs also to the same power to will and to choose: and on this account the will and the
|
|
|
4376 free-will are not two powers, but one.
|
|
|
4377 </p>
|
|
|
4378 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p7">
|
|
|
4379 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> {Boulesis} is distinct from {thelesis} on account of a distinction, not of powers, but of acts.
|
|
|
4380 </p>
|
|
|
4381 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p8">
|
|
|
4382 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Choice and will---that is, the act of willing ---are different acts: yet they belong to the same power, as also to understand
|
|
|
4383 and to reason, as we have said.
|
|
|
4384 </p>
|
|
|
4385 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p9">
|
|
|
4386 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The intellect is compared to the will as moving the will. And therefore there is no need to distinguish in the will an active
|
|
|
4387 and a passive will.
|
|
|
4388 </p>
|
|
|
4389 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4390 <p id="FP_Q83_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4391 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4392 <a href="summa.FP_Q84.html"></a>
|
|
|
4393 </div>
|
|
|
4394 <a href="summa.FP_Q82_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4395 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4396 </div>
|
|
|
4397 <div id="FP_Q84" class="div3">
|
|
|
4398 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4399 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4400 <h3 id="FP_Q84-p0.1">HOW THE SOUL WHILE UNITED TO THE BODY UNDERSTANDS CORPOREAL THINGS BENEATH IT (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
4401 <p id="FP_Q84-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4402 <p id="FP_Q84-p2"> We now have to consider the acts of the soul in regard to the intellectual and the appetitive powers: for the other powers
|
|
|
4403 of the soul do not come directly under the consideration of the theologian. Furthermore, the acts of the appetitive part of
|
|
|
4404 the soul come under the consideration of the science of morals; wherefore we shall treat of them in the second part of this
|
|
|
4405 work, to which the consideration of moral matters belongs. But of the acts of the intellectual part we shall treat
|
|
|
4406 now.
|
|
|
4407 </p>
|
|
|
4408 <p id="FP_Q84-p3"> In treating of these acts we shall proceed in the following order: First, we shall inquire how the soul understands when
|
|
|
4409 united to the body; secondly, how it understands when separated therefrom.
|
|
|
4410 </p>
|
|
|
4411 <p id="FP_Q84-p4"> The former of these inquiries will be threefold: (1) How the soul understands bodies which are beneath it; (2) How it understands
|
|
|
4412 itself and things contained in itself; (3) How it understands immaterial substances, which are above it.
|
|
|
4413 </p>
|
|
|
4414 <p id="FP_Q84-p5"> In treating of the knowledge of corporeal things there are three points to be considered: (1) Through what does the soul
|
|
|
4415 know them? (2) How and in what order does it know them? (3) What does it know in them?
|
|
|
4416 </p>
|
|
|
4417 <p id="FP_Q84-p6"> Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
4418 <p id="FP_Q84-p7"> (1) Whether the soul knows bodies through the intellect?</p>
|
|
|
4419 <p id="FP_Q84-p8"> (2) Whether it understands them through its essence, or through any species?</p>
|
|
|
4420 <p id="FP_Q84-p9"> (3) If through some species, whether the species of all things intelligible are naturally innate in the soul?</p>
|
|
|
4421 <p id="FP_Q84-p10"> (4) Whether these species are derived by the soul from certain separate immaterial forms?</p>
|
|
|
4422 <p id="FP_Q84-p11"> (5) Whether our soul sees in the eternal ideas all that it understands?</p>
|
|
|
4423 <p id="FP_Q84-p12"> (6) Whether it acquires intellectual knowledge from the senses?</p>
|
|
|
4424 <p id="FP_Q84-p13"> (7) Whether the intellect can, through the species of which it is possessed, actually understand, without turning to the
|
|
|
4425 phantasms?
|
|
|
4426 </p>
|
|
|
4427 <p id="FP_Q84-p14"> (8) Whether the judgment of the intellect is hindered by an obstacle in the sensitive powers?</p>
|
|
|
4428 <div id="FP_Q84_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
4429 <a href="summa.FP_Q84.html"></a>
|
|
|
4430 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4431 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A1-p0.1">Whether the soul knows bodies through the intellect?</h4>
|
|
|
4432 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4433 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p2">
|
|
|
4434 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul does not know bodies through the intellect. For Augustine says (Soliloq. ii, 4) that "bodies
|
|
|
4435 cannot be understood by the intellect; nor indeed anything corporeal unless it can be perceived by the senses." He says also
|
|
|
4436 (Gen. ad lit. xii, 24) that intellectual vision is of those things that are in the soul by their essence. But such are not
|
|
|
4437 bodies. Therefore the soul cannot know bodies through the intellect.
|
|
|
4438 </p>
|
|
|
4439 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p3">
|
|
|
4440 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as sense is to the intelligible, so is the intellect to the sensible. But the soul can by no means, through the
|
|
|
4441 senses, understand spiritual things, which are intelligible. Therefore by no means can it, through the intellect, know bodies,
|
|
|
4442 which are sensible.
|
|
|
4443 </p>
|
|
|
4444 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p4">
|
|
|
4445 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect is concerned with things that are necessary and unchangeable. But all bodies are mobile and changeable.
|
|
|
4446 Therefore the soul cannot know bodies through the intellect.
|
|
|
4447 </p>
|
|
|
4448 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p5">
|
|
|
4449 <b>On the contrary,</b> Science is in the intellect. If, therefore, the intellect does not know bodies, it follows that there is no science of bodies;
|
|
|
4450 and thus perishes natural science, which treats of mobile bodies.
|
|
|
4451 </p>
|
|
|
4452 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p6">
|
|
|
4453 <b>I answer that,</b> It should be said in order to elucidate this question, that the early philosophers, who inquired into the natures of things,
|
|
|
4454 thought there was nothing in the world save bodies. And because they observed that all bodies are mobile, and considered them
|
|
|
4455 to be ever in a state of flux, they were of opinion that we can have no certain knowledge of the true nature of things. For
|
|
|
4456 what is in a continual state of flux, cannot be grasped with any degree of certitude,
|
|
|
4457 for it passes away ere the mind can form a judgment thereon: according to the saying of Heraclitus, that "it is not possible
|
|
|
4458 twice to touch a drop of water in a passing torrent," as the Philosopher relates (Metaph. iv, Did. iii, 5).
|
|
|
4459 </p>
|
|
|
4460 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p7"> After these came Plato, who, wishing to save the certitude of our knowledge of truth through the intellect, maintained that,
|
|
|
4461 besides these things corporeal, there is another genus of beings, separate from matter and movement, which beings he called
|
|
|
4462 "species" or "ideas," by participation of which each one of these singular and sensible things is said to be either a man,
|
|
|
4463 or a horse, or the like. Wherefore he said that sciences and definitions, and whatever appertains to the act of
|
|
|
4464 the intellect, are not referred to these sensible bodies, but to those beings immaterial and separate: so that according to
|
|
|
4465 this the soul does not understand these corporeal things, but the separate species thereof.
|
|
|
4466 </p>
|
|
|
4467 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p8"> Now this may be shown to be false for two reasons. First, because, since those species are immaterial and immovable, knowledge
|
|
|
4468 of movement and matter would be excluded from science (which knowledge is proper to natural science), and likewise all demonstration
|
|
|
4469 through moving and material causes. Secondly, because it seems ridiculous, when we seek for knowledge of things which are
|
|
|
4470 to us manifest, to introduce other beings, which cannot be the substance of those others, since they
|
|
|
4471 differ from them essentially: so that granted that we have a knowledge of those separate substances, we cannot for that reason
|
|
|
4472 claim to form a judgment concerning these sensible things.
|
|
|
4473 </p>
|
|
|
4474 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p9"> Now it seems that Plato strayed from the truth because, having observed that all knowledge takes place through some kind
|
|
|
4475 of similitude, he thought that the form of the thing known must of necessity be in the knower in the same manner as in the
|
|
|
4476 thing known. Then he observed that the form of the thing understood is in the intellect under conditions of universality,
|
|
|
4477 immateriality, and immobility: which is apparent from the very operation of the intellect, whose act of understanding
|
|
|
4478 has a universal extension, and is subject to a certain amount of necessity: for the mode of action corresponds to the mode
|
|
|
4479 of the agent's form. Wherefore he concluded that the things which we understand must have in themselves an existence under
|
|
|
4480 the same conditions of immateriality and immobility.
|
|
|
4481 </p>
|
|
|
4482 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p10"> But there is no necessity for this. For even in sensible things it is to be observed that the form is otherwise in one sensible
|
|
|
4483 than in another: for instance, whiteness may be of great intensity in one, and of a less intensity in another: in one we find
|
|
|
4484 whiteness with sweetness, in another without sweetness. In the same way the sensible form is conditioned differently in the
|
|
|
4485 thing which is external to the soul, and in the senses which receive the forms of sensible things without
|
|
|
4486 receiving matter, such as the color of gold without receiving gold. So also the intellect, according to its own mode, receives
|
|
|
4487 under conditions of immateriality and immobility, the species of material and mobile bodies: for the received is in the receiver
|
|
|
4488 according to the mode of the receiver. We must conclude, therefore, that through the intellect the soul knows bodies by a
|
|
|
4489 knowledge which is immaterial, universal, and necessary.
|
|
|
4490 </p>
|
|
|
4491 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p11">
|
|
|
4492 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> These words of Augustine are to be understood as referring to the medium of intellectual knowledge, and not to its object.
|
|
|
4493 For the intellect knows bodies by understanding them, not indeed through bodies, nor through material and corporeal species;
|
|
|
4494 but through immaterial and intelligible species, which can be in the soul by their own essence.
|
|
|
4495 </p>
|
|
|
4496 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p12">
|
|
|
4497 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xxii, 29), it is not correct to say that as the sense knows only bodies so the intellect knows
|
|
|
4498 only spiritual things; for it follows that God and the angels would not know corporeal things. The reason of this diversity
|
|
|
4499 is that the lower power does not extend to those things that belong to the higher power; whereas the higher power operates
|
|
|
4500 in a more excellent manner those things which belong to the lower power.
|
|
|
4501 </p>
|
|
|
4502 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p13">
|
|
|
4503 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Every movement presupposes something immovable: for when a change of quality occurs, the substance remains unmoved; and when
|
|
|
4504 there is a change of substantial form, matter remains unmoved. Moreover the various conditions of mutable things are themselves
|
|
|
4505 immovable; for instance, though Socrates be not always sitting, yet it is an immovable truth that whenever he does sit he
|
|
|
4506 remains in one place. For this reason there is nothing to hinder our having an
|
|
|
4507 immovable science of movable things.
|
|
|
4508 </p>
|
|
|
4509 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p14"></p>
|
|
|
4510 <p id="FP_Q84_A1-p15"></p>
|
|
|
4511 <a href="summa.FP_Q84.html"></a>
|
|
|
4512 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4513 </div>
|
|
|
4514 <div id="FP_Q84_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
4515 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4516 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4517 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A2-p0.1">Whether the soul understands corporeal things through its essence?</h4>
|
|
|
4518 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4519 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p2">
|
|
|
4520 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul understands corporeal things through its essence. For Augustine says (De Trin. x, 5) that the
|
|
|
4521 soul "collects and lays hold of the images of bodies which are formed in the soul and of the soul: for in forming them it
|
|
|
4522 gives them something of its own substance." But the soul understands bodies by images of bodies. Therefore the soul knows
|
|
|
4523 bodies through its essence, which it employs for the formation of such images, and from which it
|
|
|
4524 forms them.
|
|
|
4525 </p>
|
|
|
4526 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p3">
|
|
|
4527 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 8) that "the soul, after a fashion, is everything." Since, therefore, like is
|
|
|
4528 known by like, it seems that the soul knows corporeal things through itself.
|
|
|
4529 </p>
|
|
|
4530 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p4">
|
|
|
4531 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the soul is superior to corporeal creatures. Now lower things are in higher things in a more eminent way than in
|
|
|
4532 themselves, as Dionysius says (Coel. Hier. xii). Therefore all corporeal creatures exist in a more excellent way in the soul
|
|
|
4533 than in themselves. Therefore the soul can know corporeal creatures through its essence.
|
|
|
4534 </p>
|
|
|
4535 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p5">
|
|
|
4536 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 3) that "the mind gathers knowledge of corporeal things through the bodily senses." But the
|
|
|
4537 soul itself cannot be known through the bodily senses. Therefore it does not know corporeal things through itself.
|
|
|
4538 </p>
|
|
|
4539 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p6">
|
|
|
4540 <b>I answer that,</b> The ancient philosophers held that the soul knows bodies through its essence. For it was universally admitted that "like
|
|
|
4541 is known by like." But they thought that the form of the thing known is in the knower in the same mode as in the thing known.
|
|
|
4542 The Platonists however were of a contrary opinion. For Plato, having observed that the intellectual soul has an immaterial
|
|
|
4543 nature, and an immaterial mode of knowledge, held that the forms of things known subsist
|
|
|
4544 immaterially. While the earlier natural philosophers, observing that things known are corporeal and material, held that things
|
|
|
4545 known must exist materially even in the soul that knows them. And therefore, in order to ascribe to the soul a knowledge of
|
|
|
4546 all things, they held that it has the same nature in common with all. And because the nature of a result is determined by
|
|
|
4547 its principles, they ascribed to the soul the nature of a principle; so that those who thought fire to be the principle of
|
|
|
4548 all, held that the soul had the nature of fire; and in like manner as to air and water. Lastly, Empedocles, who held the existence
|
|
|
4549 of our four material elements and two principles of movement, said that the soul was composed of these. Consequently, since
|
|
|
4550 they held that things exist in the soul materially, they maintained that all the soul's knowledge is material, thus failing
|
|
|
4551 to discern intellect from sense.
|
|
|
4552 </p>
|
|
|
4553 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p7"> But this opinion will not hold. First, because in the material principle of which they spoke, the various results do not
|
|
|
4554 exist save in potentiality. But a thing is not known according as it is in potentiality, but only according as it is in act,
|
|
|
4555 as is shown Metaph. ix (Did. viii, 9): wherefore neither is a power known except through its act. It is therefore insufficient
|
|
|
4556 to ascribe to the soul the nature of the principles in order to explain the fact that it knows all, unless we
|
|
|
4557 further admit in the soul natures and forms of each individual result, for instance, of bone, flesh, and the like; thus does
|
|
|
4558 Aristotle argue against Empedocles (De Anima i, 5). Secondly, because if it were necessary for the thing known to exist materially
|
|
|
4559 in the knower, there would be no reason why things which have a material existence outside the soul should be devoid of knowledge;
|
|
|
4560 why, for instance, if by fire the soul knows fire, that fire also which is outside the soul should not have
|
|
|
4561 knowledge of fire.
|
|
|
4562 </p>
|
|
|
4563 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p8"> We must conclude, therefore, that material things known must needs exist in the knower, not materially, but immaterially.
|
|
|
4564 The reason of this is, because the act of knowledge extends to things outside the knower: for we know things even that are
|
|
|
4565 external to us. Now by matter the form of a thing is determined to some one thing. Wherefore it is clear that knowledge is
|
|
|
4566 in inverse ratio of materiality. And consequently things that are not receptive of forms save materially, have no
|
|
|
4567 power of knowledge whatever---such as plants, as the Philosopher says (De Anima ii, 12). But the more immaterially a thing
|
|
|
4568 receives the form of the thing known, the more perfect is its knowledge. Therefore the intellect which abstracts the species
|
|
|
4569 not only from matter, but also from the individuating conditions of matter, has more perfect knowledge than the senses, which
|
|
|
4570 receive the form of the thing known, without matter indeed, but subject to material conditions. Moreover, among the senses,
|
|
|
4571 sight has the most perfect knowledge, because it is the least material, as we have remarked above (
|
|
|
4572 <a id="FP_Q84_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A3.html">Q[78], A[3]</a>): while among intellects the more perfect is the more immaterial.
|
|
|
4573 </p>
|
|
|
4574 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p9"> It is therefore clear from the foregoing, that if there be an intellect which knows all things by its essence, then its essence
|
|
|
4575 must needs have all things in itself immaterially; thus the early philosophers held that the essence of the soul, that it
|
|
|
4576 may know all things, must be actually composed of the principles of all material things. Now this is proper to God, that His
|
|
|
4577 Essence comprise all things immaterially as effects pre-exist virtually in their cause. God alone,
|
|
|
4578 therefore, understands all things through His Essence: but neither the human soul nor the angels can do so.
|
|
|
4579 </p>
|
|
|
4580 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p10">
|
|
|
4581 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine in that passage is speaking of an imaginary vision, which takes place through the image of bodies. To the formation
|
|
|
4582 of such images the soul gives part of its substance, just as a subject is given in order to be informed by some form. In this
|
|
|
4583 way the soul makes such images from itself; not that the soul or some part of the soul be turned into this or that image;
|
|
|
4584 but just as we say that a body is made into something colored because of its
|
|
|
4585 being informed with color. That this is the sense, is clear from what follows. For he says that the soul "keeps something"---namely,
|
|
|
4586 not informed with such image---"which is able freely to judge of the species of these images": and that this is the "mind"
|
|
|
4587 or "intellect." And he says that the part which is informed with these images---namely, the imagination---is "common to us
|
|
|
4588 and beasts."
|
|
|
4589 </p>
|
|
|
4590 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p11">
|
|
|
4591 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Aristotle did not hold that the soul is actually composed of all things, as did the earlier philosophers; he said that the
|
|
|
4592 soul is all things, "after a fashion," forasmuch as it is in potentiality to all---through the senses, to all things sensible---through
|
|
|
4593 the intellect, to all things intelligible.
|
|
|
4594 </p>
|
|
|
4595 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p12">
|
|
|
4596 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Every creature has a finite and determinate essence. Wherefore although the essence of the higher creature has a certain
|
|
|
4597 likeness to the lower creature, forasmuch as they have something in common generically, yet it has not a complete likeness
|
|
|
4598 thereof, because it is determined to a certain species other than the species of the lower creature. But the Divine Essence
|
|
|
4599 is a perfect likeness of all, whatsoever may be found to exist in things created, being
|
|
|
4600 the universal principle of all.
|
|
|
4601 </p>
|
|
|
4602 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
4603 <p id="FP_Q84_A2-p14"></p>
|
|
|
4604 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4605 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4606 </div>
|
|
|
4607 <div id="FP_Q84_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
4608 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4609 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4610 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A3-p0.1">Whether the soul understands all things through innate species?</h4>
|
|
|
4611 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4612 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p2">
|
|
|
4613 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul understands all things through innate species. For Gregory says, in a homily for the Ascension
|
|
|
4614 (xxix in Ev.), that "man has understanding in common with the angels." But angels understand all things through innate species:
|
|
|
4615 wherefore in the book De Causis it is said that "every intelligence is full of forms." Therefore the soul also has innate
|
|
|
4616 species of things, by means of which it understands corporeal things.
|
|
|
4617 </p>
|
|
|
4618 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p3">
|
|
|
4619 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellectual soul is more excellent than corporeal primary matter. But primary matter was created by God under
|
|
|
4620 the forms to which it has potentiality. Therefore much more is the intellectual soul created by God under intelligible species.
|
|
|
4621 And so the soul understands corporeal things through innate species.
|
|
|
4622 </p>
|
|
|
4623 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p4">
|
|
|
4624 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no one can answer the truth except concerning what he knows. But even a person untaught and devoid of acquired knowledge,
|
|
|
4625 answers the truth to every question if put to him in orderly fashion, as we find related in the Meno (xv seqq.) of Plato,
|
|
|
4626 concerning a certain individual. Therefore we have some knowledge of things even before we acquire knowledge; which would
|
|
|
4627 not be the case unless we had innate species. Therefore the soul understands corporeal
|
|
|
4628 things through innate species.
|
|
|
4629 </p>
|
|
|
4630 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p5">
|
|
|
4631 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher, speaking of the intellect, says (De Anima iii, 4) that it is like "a tablet on which nothing is written."
|
|
|
4632 </p>
|
|
|
4633 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p6">
|
|
|
4634 <b>I answer that,</b> Since form is the principle of action, a thing must be related to the form which is the principle of an action, as it is
|
|
|
4635 to that action: for instance, if upward motion is from lightness, then that which only potentially moves upwards must needs
|
|
|
4636 be only potentially light, but that which actually moves upwards must needs be actually light. Now we observe that man sometimes
|
|
|
4637 is only a potential knower, both as to sense and as to intellect. And he is reduced from
|
|
|
4638 such potentiality to act---through the action of sensible objects on his senses, to the act of sensation---by instruction
|
|
|
4639 or discovery, to the act of understanding. Wherefore we must say that the cognitive soul is in potentiality both to the images
|
|
|
4640 which are the principles of sensing, and to those which are the principles of understanding. For this reason Aristotle (De
|
|
|
4641 Anima iii, 4) held that the intellect by which the soul understands has no innate species, but is at first in potentiality
|
|
|
4642 to
|
|
|
4643 all such species.
|
|
|
4644 </p>
|
|
|
4645 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p7"> But since that which has a form actually, is sometimes unable to act according to that form on account of some hindrance,
|
|
|
4646 as a light thing may be hindered from moving upwards; for this reason did Plato hold that naturally man's intellect is filled
|
|
|
4647 with all intelligible species, but that, by being united to the body, it is hindered from the realization of its act. But
|
|
|
4648 this seems to be unreasonable. First, because, if the soul has a natural knowledge of all things, it seems
|
|
|
4649 impossible for the soul so far to forget the existence of such knowledge as not to know itself to be possessed thereof: for
|
|
|
4650 no man forgets what he knows naturally; that, for instance, the whole is larger than the part, and such like. And especially
|
|
|
4651 unreasonable does this seem if we suppose that it is natural to the soul to be united to the body, as we have established
|
|
|
4652 above (
|
|
|
4653 <a id="FP_Q84_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76] , A[1]</a>): for it is unreasonable that the natural operation of a thing be totally hindered
|
|
|
4654 by that which belongs to it naturally. Secondly, the falseness of this opinion is clearly proved from the fact that if a sense
|
|
|
4655 be wanting, the knowledge of what is apprehended through that sense is wanting also: for instance, a man who is born blind
|
|
|
4656 can have no knowledge of colors. This would not be the case if the soul had innate images of all intelligible things. We must
|
|
|
4657 therefore conclude that the soul does not know corporeal things through innate species.
|
|
|
4658 </p>
|
|
|
4659 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p8">
|
|
|
4660 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Man indeed has intelligence in common with the angels, but not in the same degree of perfection: just as the lower grades
|
|
|
4661 of bodies, which merely exist, according to Gregory (Homily on Ascension, xxix In Ev.), have not the same degree of perfection
|
|
|
4662 as the higher bodies. For the matter of the lower bodies is not totally completed by its form, but is in potentiality to forms
|
|
|
4663 which it has not: whereas the matter of heavenly bodies is totally completed by
|
|
|
4664 its form, so that it is not in potentiality to any other form, as we have said above (
|
|
|
4665 <a id="FP_Q84_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q66_A2.html">Q[66], A[2]</a>). In the same way the angelic intellect is perfected by intelligible species, in accordance with its nature; whereas the
|
|
|
4666 human intellect is in potentiality to such species.
|
|
|
4667 </p>
|
|
|
4668 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p9">
|
|
|
4669 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Primary matter has substantial being through its form, consequently it had need to be created under some form: else it would
|
|
|
4670 not be in act. But when once it exists under one form it is in potentiality to others. On the other hand, the intellect does
|
|
|
4671 not receive substantial being through the intelligible species; and therefore there is no comparison.
|
|
|
4672 </p>
|
|
|
4673 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p10">
|
|
|
4674 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If questions be put in an orderly fashion they proceed from universal self-evident principles to what is particular. Now
|
|
|
4675 by such a process knowledge is produced in the mind of the learner. Wherefore when he answers the truth to a subsequent question,
|
|
|
4676 this is not because he had knowledge previously, but because he thus learns for the first time. For it matters not whether
|
|
|
4677 the teacher proceed from universal principles to conclusions by questioning or by
|
|
|
4678 asserting; for in either case the mind of the listener is assured of what follows by that which preceded.
|
|
|
4679 </p>
|
|
|
4680 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4681 <p id="FP_Q84_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4682 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4683 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4684 </div>
|
|
|
4685 <div id="FP_Q84_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
4686 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4687 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4688 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A4-p0.1">Whether the intelligible species are derived by the soul from certain separate forms?</h4>
|
|
|
4689 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4690 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p2">
|
|
|
4691 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intelligible species are derived by the soul from some separate forms. For whatever is such by participation
|
|
|
4692 is caused by what is such essentially; for instance, that which is on fire is reduced to fire as the cause thereof. But the
|
|
|
4693 intellectual soul forasmuch as it is actually understanding, participates the thing understood: for, in a way, the intellect
|
|
|
4694 in act is the thing understood in act. Therefore what in itself and in its essence
|
|
|
4695 is understood in act, is the cause that the intellectual soul actually understands. Now that which in its essence is actually
|
|
|
4696 understood is a form existing without matter. Therefore the intelligible species, by which the soul understands, are caused
|
|
|
4697 by some separate forms.
|
|
|
4698 </p>
|
|
|
4699 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p3">
|
|
|
4700 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intelligible is to the intellect, as the sensible is to the sense. But the sensible species which are in the
|
|
|
4701 senses, and by which we sense, are caused by the sensible object which exists actually outside the soul. Therefore the intelligible
|
|
|
4702 species, by which our intellect understands, are caused by some things actually intelligible, existing outside the soul. But
|
|
|
4703 these can be nothing else than forms separate from matter. Therefore the intelligible
|
|
|
4704 forms of our intellect are derived from some separate substances.
|
|
|
4705 </p>
|
|
|
4706 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p4">
|
|
|
4707 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever is in potentiality is reduced to act by something actual. If, therefore, our intellect, previously in potentiality,
|
|
|
4708 afterwards actually understands, this must needs be caused by some intellect which is always in act. But this is a separate
|
|
|
4709 intellect. Therefore the intelligible species, by which we actually understand, are caused by some separate substances.
|
|
|
4710 </p>
|
|
|
4711 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p5">
|
|
|
4712 <b>On the contrary,</b> If this were true we should not need the senses in order to understand. And this is proved to be false especially from the
|
|
|
4713 fact that if a man be wanting in a sense, he cannot have any knowledge of the sensibles corresponding to that sense.
|
|
|
4714 </p>
|
|
|
4715 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p6">
|
|
|
4716 <b>I answer that,</b> Some have held that the intelligible species of our intellect are derived from certain separate forms or substances. And
|
|
|
4717 this in two ways. For Plato, as we have said
|
|
|
4718 <a id="FP_Q84_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, held that the forms of sensible things subsist by themselves without matter; for instance, the form of a man which he called
|
|
|
4719 "per se" man, and the form or idea of a horse which is called "per se" horse, and so forth. He said therefore that these forms
|
|
|
4720 are
|
|
|
4721 participated both by our soul and by corporeal matter; by our soul, to the effect of knowledge thereof, and by corporeal matter
|
|
|
4722 to the effect of existence: so that, just as corporeal matter by participating the idea of a stone, becomes an individuating
|
|
|
4723 stone, so our intellect, by participating the idea of a stone, is made to understand a stone. Now participation of an idea
|
|
|
4724 takes place by some image of the idea in the participator, just as a model is participated by a copy. So just as he held
|
|
|
4725 that the sensible forms, which are in corporeal matter, are derived from the ideas as certain images thereof: so he held that
|
|
|
4726 the intelligible species of our intellect are images of the ideas, derived therefrom. And for this reason, as we have said
|
|
|
4727 above
|
|
|
4728 <a id="FP_Q84_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, he referred sciences and definitions to those ideas.
|
|
|
4729 </p>
|
|
|
4730 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p7"> But since it is contrary to the nature of sensible things that their forms should subsist without matter, as Aristotle proves
|
|
|
4731 in many ways (Metaph. vi), Avicenna (De Anima v) setting this opinion aside, held that the intelligible species of all sensible
|
|
|
4732 things, instead of subsisting in themselves without matter, pre-exist immaterially in the separate intellects: from the first
|
|
|
4733 of which, said he, such species are derived by a second, and so on to the last separate intellect which
|
|
|
4734 he called the "active intelligence," from which, according to him, intelligible species flow into our souls, and sensible
|
|
|
4735 species into corporeal matter. And so Avicenna agrees with Plato in this, that the intelligible species of our intellect are
|
|
|
4736 derived from certain separate forms; but these Plato held to subsist of themselves, while Avicenna placed them in the "active
|
|
|
4737 intelligence." They differ, too, in this respect, that Avicenna held that the intelligible species do not remain in our
|
|
|
4738 intellect after it has ceased actually to understand, and that it needs to turn (to the active intellect) in order to receive
|
|
|
4739 them anew. Consequently he does not hold that the soul has innate knowledge, as Plato, who held that the participated ideas
|
|
|
4740 remain immovably in the soul.
|
|
|
4741 </p>
|
|
|
4742 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p8"> But in this opinion no sufficient reason can be assigned for the soul being united to the body. For it cannot be said that
|
|
|
4743 the intellectual soul is united to the body for the sake of the body: for neither is form for the sake of matter, nor is the
|
|
|
4744 mover for the sake of the moved, but rather the reverse. Especially does the body seem necessary to the intellectual soul,
|
|
|
4745 for the latter's proper operation which is to understand: since as to its being the soul does not depend on the
|
|
|
4746 body. But if the soul by its very nature had an inborn aptitude for receiving intelligible species through the influence of
|
|
|
4747 only certain separate principles, and were not to receive them from the senses, it would not need the body in order to understand:
|
|
|
4748 wherefore to no purpose would it be united to the body.
|
|
|
4749 </p>
|
|
|
4750 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p9"> But if it be said that our soul needs the senses in order to understand, through being in some way awakened by them to the
|
|
|
4751 consideration of those things, the intelligible species of which it receives from the separate principles: even this seems
|
|
|
4752 an insufficient explanation. For this awakening does not seem necessary to the soul, except in as far as it is overcome by
|
|
|
4753 sluggishness, as the Platonists expressed it, and by forgetfulness, through its union with the body: and thus the
|
|
|
4754 senses would be of no use to the intellectual soul except for the purpose of removing the obstacle which the soul encounters
|
|
|
4755 through its union with the body. Consequently the reason of the union of the soul with the body still remains to be sought.
|
|
|
4756 </p>
|
|
|
4757 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p10"> And if it be said with Avicenna, that the senses are necessary to the soul, because by them it is aroused to turn to the
|
|
|
4758 "active intelligence" from which it receives the species: neither is this a sufficient explanation. Because if it is natural
|
|
|
4759 for the soul to understand through species derived from the "active intelligence," it follows that at times the soul of an
|
|
|
4760 individual wanting in one of the senses can turn to the active intelligence, either from the inclination of its
|
|
|
4761 very nature, or through being roused by another sense, to the effect of receiving the intelligible species of which the corresponding
|
|
|
4762 sensible species are wanting. And thus a man born blind could have knowledge of colors; which is clearly untrue. We must therefore
|
|
|
4763 conclude that the intelligible species, by which our soul understands, are not derived from separate forms.
|
|
|
4764 </p>
|
|
|
4765 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p11">
|
|
|
4766 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intelligible species which are participated by our intellect are reduced, as to their first cause, to a first principle
|
|
|
4767 which is by its essence intelligible---namely, God. But they proceed from that principle by means of the sensible forms and
|
|
|
4768 material things, from which we gather knowledge, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii).
|
|
|
4769 </p>
|
|
|
4770 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p12">
|
|
|
4771 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Material things, as to the being which they have outside the soul, may be actually sensible, but not actually intelligible.
|
|
|
4772 Wherefore there is no comparison between sense and intellect.
|
|
|
4773 </p>
|
|
|
4774 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p13">
|
|
|
4775 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Our passive intellect is reduced from potentiality to act by some being in act, that is, by the active intellect, which is
|
|
|
4776 a power of the soul, as we have said (
|
|
|
4777 <a id="FP_Q84_A4-p13.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html">Q[79], A[4]</a>); and not by a separate intelligence, as proximate cause, although perchance as remote cause.
|
|
|
4778 </p>
|
|
|
4779 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p14"></p>
|
|
|
4780 <p id="FP_Q84_A4-p15"></p>
|
|
|
4781 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4782 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4783 </div>
|
|
|
4784 <div id="FP_Q84_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
4785 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4786 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4787 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A5-p0.1">Whether the intellectual soul knows material things in the eternal types?</h4>
|
|
|
4788 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4789 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p2">
|
|
|
4790 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual soul does not know material things in the eternal types. For that in which anything is
|
|
|
4791 known must itself be known more and previously. But the intellectual soul of man, in the present state of life, does not know
|
|
|
4792 the eternal types: for it does not know God in Whom the eternal types exist, but is "united to God as to the unknown," as
|
|
|
4793 Dionysius says (Myst. Theolog. i). Therefore the soul does not know all in the eternal
|
|
|
4794 types.
|
|
|
4795 </p>
|
|
|
4796 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p3">
|
|
|
4797 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written (
|
|
|
4798 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q84_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv">Rom. 1:20</a>) that "the invisible things of God are clearly seen . . . by the things that are made." But among the invisible things of
|
|
|
4799 God are the eternal types. Therefore the eternal types are known through creatures and not the converse.
|
|
|
4800 </p>
|
|
|
4801 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p4">
|
|
|
4802 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the eternal types are nothing else but ideas, for Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 46) that "ideas are permanent types
|
|
|
4803 existing in the Divine mind." If therefore we say that the intellectual soul knows all things in the eternal types, we come
|
|
|
4804 back to the opinion of Plato who said that all knowledge is derived from them.
|
|
|
4805 </p>
|
|
|
4806 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p5">
|
|
|
4807 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Confess. xii, 25): "If we both see that what you say is true, and if we both see that what I say is true,
|
|
|
4808 where do we see this, I pray? Neither do I see it in you, nor do you see it in me: but we both see it in the unchangeable
|
|
|
4809 truth which is above our minds." Now the unchangeable truth is contained in the eternal types. Therefore the intellectual
|
|
|
4810 soul knows all true things in the eternal types.
|
|
|
4811 </p>
|
|
|
4812 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p6">
|
|
|
4813 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. ii, 11): "If those who are called philosophers said by chance anything that was true
|
|
|
4814 and consistent with our faith, we must claim it from them as from unjust possessors. For some of the doctrines of the heathens
|
|
|
4815 are spurious imitations or superstitious inventions, which we must be careful to avoid when we renounce the society of the
|
|
|
4816 heathens." Consequently whenever Augustine, who was imbued with the doctrines of the
|
|
|
4817 Platonists, found in their teaching anything consistent with faith, he adopted it: and those thing which he found contrary
|
|
|
4818 to faith he amended. Now Plato held, as we have said above
|
|
|
4819 <a id="FP_Q84_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, that the forms of things subsist of themselves apart from matter; and these he called ideas, by participation of which he
|
|
|
4820 said that our intellect knows all things: so that just as corporeal matter by participating the idea of a stone becomes a
|
|
|
4821 stone, so our intellect, by
|
|
|
4822 participating the same idea, has knowledge of a stone. But since it seems contrary to faith that forms of things themselves,
|
|
|
4823 outside the things themselves and apart from matter, as the Platonists held, asserting that "per se" life or "per se" wisdom
|
|
|
4824 are creative substances, as Dionysius relates (Div. Nom. xi); therefore Augustine (QQ. 83, qu. 46), for the ideas defended
|
|
|
4825 by Plato, substituted the types of all creatures existing in the Divine mind, according to which types all things are made
|
|
|
4826 in
|
|
|
4827 themselves, and are known to the human soul.
|
|
|
4828 </p>
|
|
|
4829 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p7"> When, therefore, the question is asked: Does the human soul know all things in the eternal types? we must reply that one
|
|
|
4830 thing is said to be known in another in two ways. First, as in an object itself known; as one may see in a mirror the images
|
|
|
4831 of things reflected therein. In this way the soul, in the present state of life, cannot see all things in the eternal types;
|
|
|
4832 but the blessed who see God, and all things in Him, thus know all things in the eternal types. Secondly, on
|
|
|
4833 thing is said to be known in another as in a principle of knowledge: thus we might say that we see in the sun what we see
|
|
|
4834 by the sun. And thus we must needs say that the human soul knows all things in the eternal types, since by participation of
|
|
|
4835 these types we know all things. For the intellectual light itself which is in us, is nothing else than a participated likeness
|
|
|
4836 of the uncreated light, in which are contained the eternal types. Whence it is written (
|
|
|
4837 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q84_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.4.6" target="asv">Ps. 4:6,7</a>), "Many
|
|
|
4838 say: Who showeth us good things?" which question the Psalmist answers, "The light of Thy countenance, O Lord, is signed upon
|
|
|
4839 us," as though he were to say: By the seal of the Divine light in us, all things are made known to us.
|
|
|
4840 </p>
|
|
|
4841 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p8"> But since besides the intellectual light which is in us, intelligible species, which are derived from things, are required
|
|
|
4842 in order for us to have knowledge of material things; therefore this same knowledge is not due merely to a participation of
|
|
|
4843 the eternal types, as the Platonists held, maintaining that the mere participation of ideas sufficed for knowledge. Wherefore
|
|
|
4844 Augustine says (De Trin. iv, 16): "Although the philosophers prove by convincing arguments that all things
|
|
|
4845 occur in time according to the eternal types, were they able to see in the eternal types, or to find out from them how many
|
|
|
4846 kinds of animals there are and the origin of each? Did they not seek for this information from the story of times and places?"
|
|
|
4847 </p>
|
|
|
4848 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p9"> But that Augustine did not understand all things to be known in their "eternal types" or in the "unchangeable truth," as
|
|
|
4849 though the eternal types themselves were seen, is clear from what he says (QQ. 83, qu. 46)---viz. that "not each and every
|
|
|
4850 rational soul can be said to be worthy of that vision," namely, of the eternal types, "but only those that are holy and pure,"
|
|
|
4851 such as the souls of the blessed.
|
|
|
4852 </p>
|
|
|
4853 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p10"> From what has been said the objections are easily solved.</p>
|
|
|
4854 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4855 <p id="FP_Q84_A5-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4856 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4857 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4858 </div>
|
|
|
4859 <div id="FP_Q84_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
4860 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4861 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4862 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A6-p0.1">Whether intellectual knowledge is derived from sensible things?</h4>
|
|
|
4863 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4864 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p2">
|
|
|
4865 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that intellectual knowledge is not derived from sensible things. For Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 9) that "we
|
|
|
4866 cannot expect to learn the fulness of truth from the senses of the body." This he proves in two ways. First, because "whatever
|
|
|
4867 the bodily senses reach, is continually being changed; and what is never the same cannot be perceived." Secondly, because,
|
|
|
4868 "whatever we perceive by the body, even when not present to the senses, may be present to
|
|
|
4869 the imagination, as when we are asleep or angry: yet we cannot discern by the senses, whether what we perceive be the sensible
|
|
|
4870 object or the deceptive image thereof. Now nothing can be perceived which cannot be distinguished from its counterfeit." And
|
|
|
4871 so he concludes that we cannot expect to learn the truth from the senses. But intellectual knowledge apprehends the truth.
|
|
|
4872 Therefore intellectual knowledge cannot be conveyed by the senses.
|
|
|
4873 </p>
|
|
|
4874 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p3">
|
|
|
4875 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 16): "We must not thing that the body can make any impression on the spirit, as
|
|
|
4876 though the spirit were to supply the place of matter in regard to the body's action; for that which acts is in every way more
|
|
|
4877 excellent than that which it acts on." Whence he concludes that "the body does not cause its image in the spirit, but the
|
|
|
4878 spirit causes it in itself." Therefore intellectual knowledge is not derived from sensible
|
|
|
4879 things.
|
|
|
4880 </p>
|
|
|
4881 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p4">
|
|
|
4882 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an effect does not surpass the power of its cause. But intellectual knowledge extends beyond sensible things: for
|
|
|
4883 we understand some things which cannot be perceived by the senses. Therefore intellectual knowledge is not derived from sensible
|
|
|
4884 things.
|
|
|
4885 </p>
|
|
|
4886 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p5">
|
|
|
4887 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Metaph. i, 1; Poster. ii, 15) that the principle of knowledge is in the senses.
|
|
|
4888 </p>
|
|
|
4889 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p6">
|
|
|
4890 <b>I answer that,</b> On this point the philosophers held three opinions. For Democritus held that "all knowledge is caused by images issuing from
|
|
|
4891 the bodies we think of and entering into our souls," as Augustine says in his letter to Dioscorus (cxviii, 4). And Aristotle
|
|
|
4892 says (De Somn. et Vigil.) that Democritus held that knowledge is cause by a "discharge of images." And the reason for this
|
|
|
4893 opinion was that both Democritus and the other early philosophers did not distinguish
|
|
|
4894 between intellect and sense, as Aristotle relates (De Anima iii, 3). Consequently, since the sense is affected by the sensible,
|
|
|
4895 they thought that all our knowledge is affected by this mere impression brought about by sensible things. Which impression
|
|
|
4896 Democritus held to be caused by a discharge of images.
|
|
|
4897 </p>
|
|
|
4898 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p7"> Plato, on the other hand, held that the intellect is distinct from the senses: and that it is an immaterial power not making
|
|
|
4899 use of a corporeal organ for its action. And since the incorporeal cannot be affected by the corporeal, he held that intellectual
|
|
|
4900 knowledge is not brought about by sensible things affecting the intellect, but by separate intelligible forms being participated
|
|
|
4901 by the intellect, as we have said above (
|
|
|
4902 <a id="FP_Q84_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A4.html">AA[4]</a> ,5). Moreover he held that
|
|
|
4903 sense is a power operating of itself. Consequently neither is sense, since it is a spiritual power, affected by the sensible:
|
|
|
4904 but the sensible organs are affected by the sensible, the result being that the soul is in a way roused to form within itself
|
|
|
4905 the species of the sensible. Augustine seems to touch on this opinion (Gen. ad lit. xii, 24) where he says that the "body
|
|
|
4906 feels not, but the soul through the body, which it makes use of as a kind of messenger, for reproducing within itself what
|
|
|
4907 is
|
|
|
4908 announced from without." Thus according to Plato, neither does intellectual knowledge proceed from sensible knowledge, nor
|
|
|
4909 sensible knowledge exclusively from sensible things; but these rouse the sensible soul to the sentient act, while the senses
|
|
|
4910 rouse the intellect to the act of understanding.
|
|
|
4911 </p>
|
|
|
4912 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p8"> Aristotle chose a middle course. For with Plato he agreed that intellect and sense are different. But he held that the sense
|
|
|
4913 has not its proper operation without the cooperation of the body; so that to feel is not an act of the soul alone, but of
|
|
|
4914 the "composite." And he held the same in regard to all the operations of the sensitive part. Since, therefore, it is not unreasonable
|
|
|
4915 that the sensible objects which are outside the soul should produce some effect in the "composite,"
|
|
|
4916 Aristotle agreed with Democritus in this, that the operations of the sensitive part are caused by the impression of the sensible
|
|
|
4917 on the sense: not by a discharge, as Democritus said, but by some kind of operation. For Democritus maintained that every
|
|
|
4918 operation is by way of a discharge of atoms, as we gather from De Gener. i, 8. But Aristotle held that the intellect has an
|
|
|
4919 operation which is independent of the body's cooperation. Now nothing corporeal can make an impression on the incorporeal.
|
|
|
4920 And therefore in order to cause the intellectual operation according to Aristotle, the impression caused by the sensible does
|
|
|
4921 not suffice, but something more noble is required, for "the agent is more noble than the patient," as he says (De Gener. i,
|
|
|
4922 5). Not, indeed, in the sense that the intellectual operation is effected in us by the mere intellectual operation is effected
|
|
|
4923 in us by the mere impression of some superior beings, as Plato held; but that the higher and more noble agent which he
|
|
|
4924 calls the active intellect, of which we have spoken above (
|
|
|
4925 <a id="FP_Q84_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A3.html">Q[79], AA[3]</a>,4) causes the phantasms received from the senses to be actually intelligible, by a process of abstraction.
|
|
|
4926 </p>
|
|
|
4927 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p9"> According to this opinion, then, on the part of the phantasms, intellectual knowledge is caused by the senses. But since
|
|
|
4928 the phantasms cannot of themselves affect the passive intellect, and require to be made actually intelligible by the active
|
|
|
4929 intellect, it cannot be said that sensible knowledge is the total and perfect cause of intellectual knowledge, but rather
|
|
|
4930 that it is in a way the material cause.
|
|
|
4931 </p>
|
|
|
4932 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p10">
|
|
|
4933 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Those words of Augustine mean that we must not expect the entire truth from the senses. For the light of the active intellect
|
|
|
4934 is needed, through which we achieve the unchangeable truth of changeable things, and discern things themselves from their
|
|
|
4935 likeness.
|
|
|
4936 </p>
|
|
|
4937 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p11">
|
|
|
4938 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In this passage Augustine speaks not of intellectual but of imaginary knowledge. And since, according to the opinion of Plato,
|
|
|
4939 the imagination has an operation which belongs to the soul only, Augustine, in order to show that corporeal images are impressed
|
|
|
4940 on the imagination, not by bodies but by the soul, uses the same argument as Aristotle does in proving that the active intellect
|
|
|
4941 must be separate, namely, because "the agent is more noble than the
|
|
|
4942 patient." And without doubt, according to the above opinion, in the imagination there must needs be not only a passive but
|
|
|
4943 also an active power. But if we hold, according to the opinion of Aristotle, that the action of the imagination, is an action
|
|
|
4944 of the "composite," there is no difficulty; because the sensible body is more noble than the organ of the animal, in so far
|
|
|
4945 as it is compared to it as a being in act to a being in potentiality; even as the object actually colored is compared to the
|
|
|
4946 pupil which is potentially colored. It may, however, be said, although the first impression of the imagination is through
|
|
|
4947 the agency of the sensible, since "fancy is movement produced in accordance with sensation" (De Anima iii, 3), that nevertheless
|
|
|
4948 there is in man an operation which by synthesis and analysis forms images of various things, even of things not perceived
|
|
|
4949 by the senses. And Augustine's words may be taken in this sense.
|
|
|
4950 </p>
|
|
|
4951 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p12">
|
|
|
4952 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Sensitive knowledge is not the entire cause of intellectual knowledge. And therefore it is not strange that intellectual
|
|
|
4953 knowledge should extend further than sensitive knowledge.
|
|
|
4954 </p>
|
|
|
4955 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p13"></p>
|
|
|
4956 <p id="FP_Q84_A6-p14"></p>
|
|
|
4957 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4958 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4959 </div>
|
|
|
4960 <div id="FP_Q84_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
4961 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4962 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
4963 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A7-p0.1">Whether the intellect can actually understand through the intelligible species of which it is possessed, without turning to
|
|
|
4964 the phantasms?
|
|
|
4965 </h4>
|
|
|
4966 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4967 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p2">
|
|
|
4968 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect can actually understand through the intelligible species of which it is possessed, without
|
|
|
4969 turning to the phantasms. For the intellect is made actual by the intelligible species by which it is informed. But if the
|
|
|
4970 intellect is in act, it understands. Therefore the intelligible species suffices for the intellect to understand actually,
|
|
|
4971 without turning to the phantasms.
|
|
|
4972 </p>
|
|
|
4973 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p3">
|
|
|
4974 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the imagination is more dependent on the senses than the intellect on the imagination. But the imagination can actually
|
|
|
4975 imagine in the absence of the sensible. Therefore much more can the intellect understand without turning to the phantasms.
|
|
|
4976 </p>
|
|
|
4977 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p4">
|
|
|
4978 <b>Objection 3:</b> There are no phantasms of incorporeal things: for the imagination does not transcend time and space. If, therefore, our intellect
|
|
|
4979 cannot understand anything actually without turning to the phantasms, it follows that it cannot understand anything incorporeal.
|
|
|
4980 Which is clearly false: for we understand truth, and God, and the angels.
|
|
|
4981 </p>
|
|
|
4982 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p5">
|
|
|
4983 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 7) that "the soul understands nothing without a phantasm."
|
|
|
4984 </p>
|
|
|
4985 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p6">
|
|
|
4986 <b>I answer that,</b> In the present state of life in which the soul is united to a passible body, it is impossible for our intellect to understand
|
|
|
4987 anything actually, except by turning to the phantasms. First of all because the intellect, being a power that does not make
|
|
|
4988 use of a corporeal organ, would in no way be hindered in its act through the lesion of a corporeal organ, if for its act there
|
|
|
4989 were not required the act of some power that does make use of a corporeal organ. Now
|
|
|
4990 sense, imagination and the other powers belonging to the sensitive part, make use of a corporeal organ. Wherefore it is clear
|
|
|
4991 that for the intellect to understand actually, not only when it acquires fresh knowledge, but also when it applies knowledge
|
|
|
4992 already acquired, there is need for the act of the imagination and of the other powers. For when the act of the imagination
|
|
|
4993 is hindered by a lesion of the corporeal organ, for instance in a case of frenzy; or when the act of the memory is hindered,
|
|
|
4994 as in the case of lethargy, we see that a man is hindered from actually understanding things of which he had a previous knowledge.
|
|
|
4995 Secondly, anyone can experience this of himself, that when he tries to understand something, he forms certain phantasms to
|
|
|
4996 serve him by way of examples, in which as it were he examines what he is desirous of understanding. For this reason it is
|
|
|
4997 that when we wish to help someone to understand something, we lay examples before him, from which he forms phantasms for
|
|
|
4998 the purpose of understanding.
|
|
|
4999 </p>
|
|
|
5000 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p7"> Now the reason of this is that the power of knowledge is proportioned to the thing known. Wherefore the proper object of
|
|
|
5001 the angelic intellect, which is entirely separate from a body, is an intelligible substance separate from a body. Whereas
|
|
|
5002 the proper object of the human intellect, which is united to a body, is a quiddity or nature existing in corporeal matter;
|
|
|
5003 and through such natures of visible things it rises to a certain knowledge of things invisible. Now it belongs to
|
|
|
5004 such a nature to exist in an individual, and this cannot be apart from corporeal matter: for instance, it belongs to the nature
|
|
|
5005 of a stone to be in an individual stone, and to the nature of a horse to be in an individual horse, and so forth. Wherefore
|
|
|
5006 the nature of a stone or any material thing cannot be known completely and truly, except in as much as it is known as existing
|
|
|
5007 in the individual. Now we apprehend the individual through the senses and the imagination. And, therefore, for the
|
|
|
5008 intellect to understand actually its proper object, it must of necessity turn to the phantasms in order to perceive the universal
|
|
|
5009 nature existing in the individual. But if the proper object of our intellect were a separate form; or if, as the Platonists
|
|
|
5010 say, the natures of sensible things subsisted apart from the individual; there would be no need for the intellect to turn
|
|
|
5011 to the phantasms whenever it understands.
|
|
|
5012 </p>
|
|
|
5013 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p8">
|
|
|
5014 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The species preserved in the passive intellect exist there habitually when it does not understand them actually, as we have
|
|
|
5015 said above (
|
|
|
5016 <a id="FP_Q84_A7-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html">Q[79], A[6]</a>). Wherefore for us to understand actually, the fact that the species are preserved does not suffice; we need further to make
|
|
|
5017 use of them in a manner befitting the things of which they are the species, which things are natures existing in individuals.
|
|
|
5018 </p>
|
|
|
5019 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p9">
|
|
|
5020 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even the phantasm is the likeness of an individual thing; wherefore the imagination does not need any further likeness of
|
|
|
5021 the individual, whereas the intellect does.
|
|
|
5022 </p>
|
|
|
5023 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p10">
|
|
|
5024 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Incorporeal things, of which there are no phantasms, are known to us by comparison with sensible bodies of which there are
|
|
|
5025 phantasms. Thus we understand truth by considering a thing of which we possess the truth; and God, as Dionysius says (Div.
|
|
|
5026 Nom. i), we know as cause, by way of excess and by way of remotion. Other incorporeal substances we know, in the present state
|
|
|
5027 of life, only by way of remotion or by some comparison to corporeal things. And,
|
|
|
5028 therefore, when we understand something about these things, we need to turn to phantasms of bodies, although there are no
|
|
|
5029 phantasms of the things themselves.
|
|
|
5030 </p>
|
|
|
5031 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5032 <p id="FP_Q84_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5033 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5034 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5035 </div>
|
|
|
5036 <div id="FP_Q84_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
5037 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5038 <a href="summa.FP_Q85.html"></a>
|
|
|
5039 <h4 id="FP_Q84_A8-p0.1">Whether the judgment of the intellect is hindered through suspension of the sensitive powers?</h4>
|
|
|
5040 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5041 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p2">
|
|
|
5042 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the judgment of the intellect is not hindered by suspension of the sensitive powers. For the superior
|
|
|
5043 does not depend on the inferior. But the judgment of the intellect is higher than the senses. Therefore the judgment of the
|
|
|
5044 intellect is not hindered through suspension of the senses.
|
|
|
5045 </p>
|
|
|
5046 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p3">
|
|
|
5047 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to syllogize is an act of the intellect. But during sleep the senses are suspended, as is said in De Somn. et Vigil.
|
|
|
5048 i and yet it sometimes happens to us to syllogize while asleep. Therefore the judgment of the intellect is not hindered through
|
|
|
5049 suspension of the senses.
|
|
|
5050 </p>
|
|
|
5051 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p4">
|
|
|
5052 <b>On the contrary,</b> What a man does while asleep, against the moral law, is not imputed to him as a sin; as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii,
|
|
|
5053 15). But this would not be the case if man, while asleep, had free use of his reason and intellect. Therefore the judgment
|
|
|
5054 of the intellect is hindered by suspension of the senses.
|
|
|
5055 </p>
|
|
|
5056 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p5">
|
|
|
5057 <b>I answer that,</b> As we have said above
|
|
|
5058 <a id="FP_Q84_A8-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">(A[7])</a>, our intellect's proper and proportionate object is the nature of a sensible thing. Now a perfect judgment concerning anything
|
|
|
5059 cannot be formed, unless all that pertains to that thing's nature be known; especially if that be ignored which is the term
|
|
|
5060 and end of judgment. Now the Philosopher says (De Coel. iii), that "as the end of a practical science is action, so the end
|
|
|
5061 of natural science is that which
|
|
|
5062 is perceived principally through the senses"; for the smith does not seek knowledge of a knife except for the purpose of action,
|
|
|
5063 in order that he may produce a certain individual knife; and in like manner the natural philosopher does not seek to know
|
|
|
5064 the nature of a stone and of a horse, save for the purpose of knowing the essential properties of those things which he perceives
|
|
|
5065 with his senses. Now it is clear that a smith cannot judge perfectly of a knife unless he knows the action of the
|
|
|
5066 knife: and in like manner the natural philosopher cannot judge perfectly of natural things, unless he knows sensible things.
|
|
|
5067 But in the present state of life whatever we understand, we know by comparison to natural sensible things. Consequently it
|
|
|
5068 is not possible for our intellect to form a perfect judgment, while the senses are suspended, through which sensible things
|
|
|
5069 are known to us.
|
|
|
5070 </p>
|
|
|
5071 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p6">
|
|
|
5072 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the intellect is superior to the senses, nevertheless in a manner it receives from the senses, and its first and
|
|
|
5073 principal objects are founded in sensible things. And therefore suspension of the senses necessarily involves a hindrance
|
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|
5074 to the judgment of the intellect.
|
|
|
5075 </p>
|
|
|
5076 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p7">
|
|
|
5077 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The senses are suspended in the sleeper through certain evaporations and the escape of certain exhalations, as we read in
|
|
|
5078 De Somn. et Vigil. iii. And, therefore, according to the amount of such evaporation, the senses are more or less suspended.
|
|
|
5079 For when the amount is considerable, not only are the senses suspended, but also the imagination, so that there are no phantasms;
|
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|
5080 thus does it happen, especially when a man falls asleep after eating and
|
|
|
5081 drinking copiously. If, however, the evaporation be somewhat less, phantasms appear, but distorted and without sequence; thus
|
|
|
5082 it happens in a case of fever. And if the evaporation be still more attenuated, the phantasms will have a certain sequence:
|
|
|
5083 thus especially does it happen towards the end of sleep in sober men and those who are gifted with a strong imagination. If
|
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|
5084 the evaporation be very slight, not only does the imagination retain its freedom, but also the common sense is partly freed;
|
|
|
5085 so that sometimes while asleep a man may judge that what he sees is a dream, discerning, as it were, between things, and their
|
|
|
5086 images. Nevertheless, the common sense remains partly suspended; and therefore, although it discriminates some images from
|
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|
5087 the reality, yet is it always deceived in some particular. Therefore, while man is asleep, according as sense and imagination
|
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|
5088 are free, so is the judgment of his intellect unfettered, though not entirely. Consequently, if a man syllogizes while
|
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5089 asleep, when he wakes up he invariably recognizes a flaw in some respect.
|
|
|
5090 </p>
|
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5091 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p8"></p>
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5092 <p id="FP_Q84_A8-p9"></p>
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5093 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html"></a>
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5094 <a href="summa.FP_Q85.html"></a>
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5095 </div>
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5096 <a href="summa.FP_Q83_A4.html"></a>
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5097 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html"></a>
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5098 </div>
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5099 <div id="FP_Q85" class="div3">
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5100 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A8.html"></a>
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5101 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html"></a>
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5102 <h3 id="FP_Q85-p0.1">OF THE MODE AND ORDER OF UNDERSTANDING (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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5103 <p id="FP_Q85-p1"></p>
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5104 <p id="FP_Q85-p2"> We come now to consider the mode and order of understanding. Under this head there are eight points of inquiry:</p>
|
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5105 <p id="FP_Q85-p3"> (1) Whether our intellect understands by abstracting the species from the phantasms?</p>
|
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5106 <p id="FP_Q85-p4"> (2) Whether the intelligible species abstracted from the phantasms are what our intellect understands, or that whereby it
|
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5107 understands?
|
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5108 </p>
|
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5109 <p id="FP_Q85-p5"> (3) Whether our intellect naturally first understands the more universal?</p>
|
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5110 <p id="FP_Q85-p6"> (4) Whether our intellect can know many things at the same time?</p>
|
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5111 <p id="FP_Q85-p7"> (5) Whether our intellect understands by the process of composition and division?</p>
|
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5112 <p id="FP_Q85-p8"> (6) Whether the intellect can err?</p>
|
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5113 <p id="FP_Q85-p9"> (7) Whether one intellect can understand better than another?</p>
|
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5114 <p id="FP_Q85-p10"> (8) Whether our intellect understands the indivisible before the divisible?</p>
|
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5115 <p id="FP_Q85-p11"></p>
|
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5116 <div id="FP_Q85_A1" class="div4">
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5117 <a href="summa.FP_Q85.html"></a>
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5118 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A2.html"></a>
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5119 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A1-p0.1">Whether our intellect understands corporeal and material things by abstraction from phantasms?</h4>
|
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5120 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p1"></p>
|
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5121 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p2">
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5122 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect does not understand corporeal and material things by abstraction from the phantasms. For
|
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5123 the intellect is false if it understands an object otherwise than as it really is. Now the forms of material things do not
|
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5124 exist as abstracted from the particular things represented by the phantasms. Therefore, if we understand material things by
|
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5125 abstraction of the species from the phantasm, there will be error in the intellect.
|
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|
5126 </p>
|
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5127 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p3">
|
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|
5128 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, material things are those natural things which include matter in their definition. But nothing can be understood
|
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5129 apart from that which enters into its definition. Therefore material things cannot be understood apart from matter. Now matter
|
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|
5130 is the principle of individualization. Therefore material things cannot be understood by abstraction of the universal from
|
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5131 the particular, which is the process whereby the intelligible species is abstracted from the
|
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5132 phantasm.
|
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|
5133 </p>
|
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5134 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p4">
|
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|
5135 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 7) that the phantasm is to the intellectual soul what color is to the sight.
|
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|
5136 But seeing is not caused by abstraction of species from color, but by color impressing itself on the sight. Therefore neither
|
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5137 does the act of understanding take place by abstraction of something from the phantasm, but by the phantasm impressing itself
|
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5138 on the intellect.
|
|
|
5139 </p>
|
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5140 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p5">
|
|
|
5141 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 5) there are two things in the intellectual soul---the passive intellect and
|
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5142 the active intellect. But it does not belong to the passive intellect to abstract the intelligible species from the phantasm,
|
|
|
5143 but to receive them when abstracted. Neither does it seem to be the function of the active intellect, which is related to
|
|
|
5144 the phantasm, as light is to color; since light does not abstract anything from color, but
|
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|
5145 rather streams on to it. Therefore in no way do we understand by abstraction from phantasms.
|
|
|
5146 </p>
|
|
|
5147 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p6">
|
|
|
5148 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the Philosopher (De Anima iii, 7) says that "the intellect understands the species in the phantasm"; and not, therefore,
|
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|
5149 by abstraction.
|
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|
5150 </p>
|
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5151 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p7">
|
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5152 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4) that "things are intelligible in proportion as they are separate from matter." Therefore
|
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5153 material things must needs be understood according as they are abstracted from matter and from material images, namely, phantasms.
|
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5154 </p>
|
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5155 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p8">
|
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5156 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
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|
5157 <a id="FP_Q85_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>), the object of knowledge is proportionate to the power of knowledge. Now there are three grades of the cognitive powers.
|
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5158 For one cognitive power, namely, the sense, is the act of a corporeal organ. And therefore the object of every sensitive power
|
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5159 is a form as existing in corporeal matter. And since such matter is the principle of individuality, therefore every power
|
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5160 of the sensitive part can only have
|
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5161 knowledge of the individual. There is another grade of cognitive power which is neither the act of a corporeal organ, nor
|
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5162 in any way connected with corporeal matter; such is the angelic intellect, the object of whose cognitive power is therefore
|
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5163 a form existing apart from matter: for though angels know material things, yet they do not know them save in something immaterial,
|
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5164 namely, either in themselves or in God. But the human intellect holds a middle place: for it is not the act of an organ;
|
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|
5165 yet it is a power of the soul which is the form the body, as is clear from what we have said above (
|
|
|
5166 <a id="FP_Q85_A1-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>). And therefore it is proper to it to know a form existing individually in corporeal matter, but not as existing in this
|
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5167 individual matter. But to know what is in individual matter, not as existing in such matter, is to abstract the form from
|
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5168 individual matter which is represented by the phantasms. Therefore we must needs say that our intellect understands
|
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5169 material things by abstracting from the phantasms; and through material things thus considered we acquire some knowledge of
|
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5170 immaterial things, just as, on the contrary, angels know material things through the immaterial.
|
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5171 </p>
|
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5172 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p9"> But Plato, considering only the immateriality of the human intellect, and not its being in a way united to the body, held
|
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5173 that the objects of the intellect are separate ideas; and that we understand not by abstraction, but by participating things
|
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|
5174 abstract, as stated above (
|
|
|
5175 <a id="FP_Q85_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html">Q[84] , A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
5176 </p>
|
|
|
5177 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p10">
|
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|
5178 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Abstraction may occur in two ways: First, by way of composition and division; thus we may understand that one thing does
|
|
|
5179 not exist in some other, or that it is separate therefrom. Secondly, by way of simple and absolute consideration; thus we
|
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5180 understand one thing without considering the other. Thus for the intellect to abstract one from another things which are not
|
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|
5181 really abstract from one another, does, in the first mode of abstraction, imply
|
|
|
5182 falsehood. But, in the second mode of abstraction, for the intellect to abstract things which are not really abstract from
|
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|
5183 one another, does not involve falsehood, as clearly appears in the case of the senses. For if we understood or said that color
|
|
|
5184 is not in a colored body, or that it is separate from it, there would be error in this opinion or assertion. But if we consider
|
|
|
5185 color and its properties, without reference to the apple which is colored; or if we express in word what we thus
|
|
|
5186 understand, there is no error in such an opinion or assertion, because an apple is not essential to color, and therefore color
|
|
|
5187 can be understood independently of the apple. Likewise, the things which belong to the species of a material thing, such as
|
|
|
5188 a stone, or a man, or a horse, can be thought of apart from the individualizing principles which do not belong to the notion
|
|
|
5189 of the species. This is what we mean by abstracting the universal from the particular, or the intelligible species from the
|
|
|
5190 phantasm; that is, by considering the nature of the species apart from its individual qualities represented by the phantasms.
|
|
|
5191 If, therefore, the intellect is said to be false when it understands a thing otherwise than as it is, that is so, if the word
|
|
|
5192 "otherwise" refers to the thing understood; for the intellect is false when it understands a thing otherwise than as it is;
|
|
|
5193 and so the intellect would be false if it abstracted the species of a stone from its matter in such a way as to regard the
|
|
|
5194 species as not existing in matter, as Plato held. But it is not so, if the word "otherwise" be taken as referring to the one
|
|
|
5195 who understands. For it is quite true that the mode of understanding, in one who understands, is not the same as the mode
|
|
|
5196 of a thing in existing: since the thing understood is immaterially in the one who understands, according to the mode of the
|
|
|
5197 intellect, and not materially, according to the mode of a material thing.
|
|
|
5198 </p>
|
|
|
5199 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p11">
|
|
|
5200 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Some have thought that the species of a natural thing is a form only, and that matter is not part of the species. If that
|
|
|
5201 were so, matter would not enter into the definition of natural things. Therefore it must be said otherwise, that matter is
|
|
|
5202 twofold, common, and "signate" or individual; common, such as flesh and bone; and individual, as this flesh and these bones.
|
|
|
5203 The intellect therefore abstracts the species of a natural thing from the individual
|
|
|
5204 sensible matter, but not from the common sensible matter; for example, it abstracts the species of man from "this flesh and
|
|
|
5205 these bones," which do not belong to the species as such, but to the individual (Metaph. vii, Did. vi, 10), and need not be
|
|
|
5206 considered in the species: whereas the species of man cannot be abstracted by the intellect form "flesh and bones."
|
|
|
5207 </p>
|
|
|
5208 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p12"> Mathematical species, however, can be abstracted by the intellect from sensible matter, not only from individual, but also
|
|
|
5209 from common matter; not from common intelligible matter, but only from individual matter. For sensible matter is corporeal
|
|
|
5210 matter as subject to sensible qualities, such as being cold or hot, hard or soft, and the like: while intelligible matter
|
|
|
5211 is substance as subject to quantity. Now it is manifest that quantity is in substance before other sensible
|
|
|
5212 qualities are. Hence quantities, such as number, dimension, and figures, which are the terminations of quantity, can be considered
|
|
|
5213 apart from sensible qualities; and this is to abstract them from sensible matter; but they cannot be considered without understanding
|
|
|
5214 the substance which is subject to the quantity; for that would be to abstract them from common intelligible matter. Yet they
|
|
|
5215 can be considered apart from this or that substance; for that is to abstract them from individual
|
|
|
5216 intelligible matter. But some things can be abstracted even from common intelligible matter, such as "being," "unity," "power,"
|
|
|
5217 "act," and the like; all these can exist without matter, as is plain regarding immaterial things. Because Plato failed to
|
|
|
5218 consider the twofold kind of abstraction, as above explained (ad 1), he held that all those things which we have stated to
|
|
|
5219 be abstracted by the intellect, are abstract in reality.
|
|
|
5220 </p>
|
|
|
5221 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p13">
|
|
|
5222 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Colors, as being in individual corporeal matter, have the same mode of existence as the power of sight: therefore they can
|
|
|
5223 impress their own image on the eye. But phantasms, since they are images of individuals, and exist in corporeal organs, have
|
|
|
5224 not the same mode of existence as the human intellect, and therefore have not the power of themselves to make an impression
|
|
|
5225 on the passive intellect. This is done by the power of the active intellect which
|
|
|
5226 by turning towards the phantasm produces in the passive intellect a certain likeness which represents, as to its specific
|
|
|
5227 conditions only, the thing reflected in the phantasm. It is thus that the intelligible species is said to be abstracted from
|
|
|
5228 the phantasm; not that the identical form which previously was in the phantasm is subsequently in the passive intellect, as
|
|
|
5229 a body transferred from one place to another.
|
|
|
5230 </p>
|
|
|
5231 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p14">
|
|
|
5232 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Not only does the active intellect throw light on the phantasm: it does more; by its own power it abstracts the intelligible
|
|
|
5233 species from the phantasm. It throws light on the phantasm, because, just as the sensitive part acquires a greater power by
|
|
|
5234 its conjunction with the intellectual part, so by the power of the active intellect the phantasms are made more fit for the
|
|
|
5235 abstraction therefrom of intelligible intentions. Furthermore, the active
|
|
|
5236 intellect abstracts the intelligible species from the phantasm, forasmuch as by the power of the active intellect we are able
|
|
|
5237 to disregard the conditions of individuality, and to take into our consideration the specific nature, the image of which informs
|
|
|
5238 the passive intellect.
|
|
|
5239 </p>
|
|
|
5240 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p15">
|
|
|
5241 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Our intellect both abstracts the intelligible species from the phantasms, inasmuch as it considers the natures of things
|
|
|
5242 in universal, and, nevertheless, understands these natures in the phantasms since it cannot understand even the things of
|
|
|
5243 which it abstracts the species, without turning to the phantasms, as we have said above (
|
|
|
5244 <a id="FP_Q85_A1-p15.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>).
|
|
|
5245 </p>
|
|
|
5246 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p16"></p>
|
|
|
5247 <p id="FP_Q85_A1-p17"></p>
|
|
|
5248 <a href="summa.FP_Q85.html"></a>
|
|
|
5249 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5250 </div>
|
|
|
5251 <div id="FP_Q85_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
5252 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5253 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5254 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A2-p0.1">Whether the intelligible species abstracted from the phantasm is related to our intellect as that which is understood?</h4>
|
|
|
5255 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5256 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p2">
|
|
|
5257 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intelligible species abstracted from the phantasm is related to our intellect as that which is understood.
|
|
|
5258 For the understood in act is in the one who understands: since the understood in act is the intellect itself in act. But nothing
|
|
|
5259 of what is understood is in the intellect actually understanding, save the abstracted intelligible species. Therefore this
|
|
|
5260 species is what is actually understood.
|
|
|
5261 </p>
|
|
|
5262 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p3">
|
|
|
5263 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, what is actually understood must be in something; else it would be nothing. But it is not in something outside the
|
|
|
5264 soul: for, since what is outside the soul is material, nothing therein can be actually understood. Therefore what is actually
|
|
|
5265 understood is in the intellect. Consequently it can be nothing else than the aforesaid intelligible species.
|
|
|
5266 </p>
|
|
|
5267 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p4">
|
|
|
5268 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (1 Peri Herm. i) that "words are signs of the passions in the soul." But words signify the
|
|
|
5269 things understood, for we express by word what we understand. Therefore these passions of the soul---viz. the intelligible
|
|
|
5270 species, are what is actually understood.
|
|
|
5271 </p>
|
|
|
5272 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p5">
|
|
|
5273 <b>On the contrary,</b> The intelligible species is to the intellect what the sensible image is to the sense. But the sensible image is not what
|
|
|
5274 is perceived, but rather that by which sense perceives. Therefore the intelligible species is not what is actually understood,
|
|
|
5275 but that by which the intellect understands.
|
|
|
5276 </p>
|
|
|
5277 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p6">
|
|
|
5278 <b>I answer that,</b> Some have asserted that our intellectual faculties know only the impression made on them; as, for example, that sense is
|
|
|
5279 cognizant only of the impression made on its own organ. According to this theory, the intellect understands only its own impression,
|
|
|
5280 namely, the intelligible species which it has received, so that this species is what is understood.
|
|
|
5281 </p>
|
|
|
5282 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p7"> This is, however, manifestly false for two reasons. First, because the things we understand are the objects of science; therefore
|
|
|
5283 if what we understand is merely the intelligible species in the soul, it would follow that every science would not be concerned
|
|
|
5284 with objects outside the soul, but only with the intelligible species within the soul; thus, according to the teaching of
|
|
|
5285 the Platonists all science is about ideas, which they held to be actually understood [*
|
|
|
5286 <a id="FP_Q85_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A1.html">Q[84], A[1]</a>]. Secondly, it is untrue, because it would lead to the opinion of the ancients who maintained that "whatever seems, is true"
|
|
|
5287 [*Aristotle, Metaph. iii. 5], and that consequently contradictories are true simultaneously. For if the faculty knows its
|
|
|
5288 own impression only, it can judge of that only. Now a thing seems according to the impression made on the cognitive faculty.
|
|
|
5289 Consequently the cognitive faculty will always judge of its own impression as such; and so
|
|
|
5290 every judgment will be true: for instance, if taste perceived only its own impression, when anyone with a healthy taste perceives
|
|
|
5291 that honey is sweet, he would judge truly; and if anyone with a corrupt taste perceives that honey is bitter, this would be
|
|
|
5292 equally true; for each would judge according to the impression on his taste. Thus every opinion would be equally true; in
|
|
|
5293 fact, every sort of apprehension.
|
|
|
5294 </p>
|
|
|
5295 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p8"> Therefore it must be said that the intelligible species is related to the intellect as that by which it understands: which
|
|
|
5296 is proved thus. There is a twofold action (Metaph. ix, Did. viii, 8), one which remains in the agent; for instance, to see
|
|
|
5297 and to understand; and another which passes into an external object; for instance, to heat and to cut; and each of these actions
|
|
|
5298 proceeds in virtue of some form. And as the form from which proceeds an act tending to something external is
|
|
|
5299 the likeness of the object of the action, as heat in the heater is a likeness of the thing heated; so the form from which
|
|
|
5300 proceeds an action remaining in the agent is the likeness of the object. Hence that by which the sight sees is the likeness
|
|
|
5301 of the visible thing; and the likeness of the thing understood, that is, the intelligible species, is the form by which the
|
|
|
5302 intellect understands. But since the intellect reflects upon itself, by such reflection it understands both its own act of
|
|
|
5303 intelligence, and the species by which it understands. Thus the intelligible species is that which is understood secondarily;
|
|
|
5304 but that which is primarily understood is the object, of which the species is the likeness. This also appears from the opinion
|
|
|
5305 of the ancient philosophers, who said that "like is known by like." For they said that the soul knows the earth outside itself,
|
|
|
5306 by the earth within itself; and so of the rest. If, therefore, we take the species of the earth instead of the earth,
|
|
|
5307 according to Aristotle (De Anima iii, 8), who says "that a stone is not in the soul, but only the likeness of the stone";
|
|
|
5308 it follows that the soul knows external things by means of its intelligible species.
|
|
|
5309 </p>
|
|
|
5310 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p9">
|
|
|
5311 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The thing understood is in the intellect by its own likeness; and it is in this sense that we say that the thing actually
|
|
|
5312 understood is the intellect in act, because the likeness of the thing understood is the form of the intellect, as the likeness
|
|
|
5313 of a sensible thing is the form of the sense in act. Hence it does not follow that the intelligible species abstracted is
|
|
|
5314 what is actually understood; but rather that it is the likeness thereof.
|
|
|
5315 </p>
|
|
|
5316 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p10">
|
|
|
5317 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In these words "the thing actually understood" there is a double implication---the thing which is understood, and the fact
|
|
|
5318 that it is understood. In like manner the words "abstract universal" imply two things, the nature of a thing and its abstraction
|
|
|
5319 or universality. Therefore the nature itself to which it occurs to be understood, abstracted or considered as universal is
|
|
|
5320 only in individuals; but that it is understood, abstracted or considered as
|
|
|
5321 universal is in the intellect. We see something similar to this is in the senses. For the sight sees the color of the apple
|
|
|
5322 apart from its smell. If therefore it be asked where is the color which is seen apart from the smell, it is quite clear that
|
|
|
5323 the color which is seen is only in the apple: but that it be perceived apart from the smell, this is owing to the sight, forasmuch
|
|
|
5324 as the faculty of sight receives the likeness of color and not of smell. In like manner humanity understood is only in
|
|
|
5325 this or that man; but that humanity be apprehended without conditions of individuality, that is, that it be abstracted and
|
|
|
5326 consequently considered as universal, occurs to humanity inasmuch as it is brought under the consideration of the intellect,
|
|
|
5327 in which there is a likeness of the specific nature, but not of the principles of individuality.
|
|
|
5328 </p>
|
|
|
5329 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p11">
|
|
|
5330 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There are two operations in the sensitive part. One, in regard of impression only, and thus the operation of the senses takes
|
|
|
5331 place by the senses being impressed by the sensible. The other is formation, inasmuch as the imagination forms for itself
|
|
|
5332 an image of an absent thing, or even of something never seen. Both of these operations are found in the intellect. For in
|
|
|
5333 the first place there is the passion of the passive intellect as informed by the
|
|
|
5334 intelligible species; and then the passive intellect thus informed forms a definition, or a division, or a composition, expressed
|
|
|
5335 by a word. Wherefore the concept conveyed by a word is its definition; and a proposition conveys the intellect's division
|
|
|
5336 or composition. Words do not therefore signify the intelligible species themselves; but that which the intellect forms for
|
|
|
5337 itself for the purpose of judging of external things.
|
|
|
5338 </p>
|
|
|
5339 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5340 <p id="FP_Q85_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
5341 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5342 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5343 </div>
|
|
|
5344 <div id="FP_Q85_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
5345 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5346 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5347 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A3-p0.1">Whether the more universal is first in our intellectual cognition?</h4>
|
|
|
5348 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5349 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p2">
|
|
|
5350 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the more universal is not first in our intellectual cognition. For what is first and more known in its
|
|
|
5351 own nature, is secondarily and less known in relation to ourselves. But universals come first as regards their nature, because
|
|
|
5352 "that is first which does not involve the existence of its correlative" (Categor. ix). Therefore the universals are secondarily
|
|
|
5353 known as regards our intellect.
|
|
|
5354 </p>
|
|
|
5355 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p3">
|
|
|
5356 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the composition precedes the simple in relation to us. But universals are the more simple. Therefore they are known
|
|
|
5357 secondarily by us.
|
|
|
5358 </p>
|
|
|
5359 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p4">
|
|
|
5360 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Phys. i, 1), that the object defined comes in our knowledge before the parts of its definition.
|
|
|
5361 But the more universal is part of the definition of the less universal, as "animal" is part of the definition of "man." Therefore
|
|
|
5362 the universals are secondarily known by us.
|
|
|
5363 </p>
|
|
|
5364 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p5">
|
|
|
5365 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, we know causes and principles by their effects. But universals are principles. Therefore universals are secondarily
|
|
|
5366 known by us.
|
|
|
5367 </p>
|
|
|
5368 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p6">
|
|
|
5369 <b>On the contrary,</b> "We must proceed from the universal to the singular and individual" (Phys. i, 1)
|
|
|
5370 </p>
|
|
|
5371 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p7">
|
|
|
5372 <b>I answer that,</b> In our knowledge there are two things to be considered. First, that intellectual knowledge in some degree arises from sensible
|
|
|
5373 knowledge: and, because sense has singular and individual things for its object, and intellect has the universal for its object,
|
|
|
5374 it follows that our knowledge of the former comes before our knowledge of the latter. Secondly, we must consider that our
|
|
|
5375 intellect proceeds from a state of potentiality to a state of actuality; and every
|
|
|
5376 power thus proceeding from potentiality to actuality comes first to an incomplete act, which is the medium between potentiality
|
|
|
5377 and actuality, before accomplishing the perfect act. The perfect act of the intellect is complete knowledge, when the object
|
|
|
5378 is distinctly and determinately known; whereas the incomplete act is imperfect knowledge, when the object is known indistinctly,
|
|
|
5379 and as it were confusedly. A thing thus imperfectly known, is known partly in act and partly in potentiality, and
|
|
|
5380 hence the Philosopher says (Phys. i, 1), that "what is manifest and certain is known to us at first confusedly; afterwards
|
|
|
5381 we know it by distinguishing its principles and elements." Now it is evident that to know an object that comprises many things,
|
|
|
5382 without proper knowledge of each thing contained in it, is to know that thing confusedly. In this way we can have knowledge
|
|
|
5383 not only of the universal whole, which contains parts potentially, but also of the integral whole; for each whole can be
|
|
|
5384 known confusedly, without its parts being known. But to know distinctly what is contained in the universal whole is to know
|
|
|
5385 the less common, as to "animal" indistinctly is to know it as "animal"; whereas to know "animal" distinctly is know it as
|
|
|
5386 "rational" or "irrational animal," that is, to know a man or a lion: therefore our intellect knows "animal" before it knows
|
|
|
5387 man; and the same reason holds in comparing any more universal idea with the less universal.
|
|
|
5388 </p>
|
|
|
5389 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p8"> Moreover, as sense, like the intellect, proceeds from potentiality to act, the same order of knowledge appears in the senses.
|
|
|
5390 For by sense we judge of the more common before the less common, in reference both to place and time; in reference to place,
|
|
|
5391 when a thing is seen afar off it is seen to be a body before it is seen to be an animal; and to be an animal before it is
|
|
|
5392 seen to be a man, and to be a man before it seen to be Socrates or Plato; and the same is true as regards
|
|
|
5393 time, for a child can distinguish man from not man before he distinguishes this man from that, and therefore "children at
|
|
|
5394 first call men fathers, and later on distinguish each one from the others" (Phys. i, 1). The reason of this is clear: because
|
|
|
5395 he who knows a thing indistinctly is in a state of potentiality as regards its principle of distinction; as he who knows "genus"
|
|
|
5396 is in a state of potentiality as regards "difference." Thus it is evident that indistinct knowledge is midway between
|
|
|
5397 potentiality and act.
|
|
|
5398 </p>
|
|
|
5399 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p9"> We must therefore conclude that knowledge of the singular and individual is prior, as regards us, to the knowledge of the
|
|
|
5400 universal; as sensible knowledge is prior to intellectual knowledge. But in both sense and intellect the knowledge of the
|
|
|
5401 more common precedes the knowledge of the less common.
|
|
|
5402 </p>
|
|
|
5403 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p10">
|
|
|
5404 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The universal can be considered in two ways. First, the universal nature may be considered together with the intention of
|
|
|
5405 universality. And since the intention of universality---viz. the relation of one and the same to many---is due to intellectual
|
|
|
5406 abstraction, the universal thus considered is a secondary consideration. Hence it is said (De Anima i, 1) that the "universal
|
|
|
5407 animal is either nothing or something secondary." But according to Plato, who
|
|
|
5408 held that universals are subsistent, the universal considered thus would be prior to the particular, for the latter, according
|
|
|
5409 to him, are mere participations of the subsistent universals which he called ideas.
|
|
|
5410 </p>
|
|
|
5411 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p11"> Secondly, the universal can be considered in the nature itself---for instance, animality or humanity as existing in the individual.
|
|
|
5412 And thus we must distinguish two orders of nature: one, by way of generation and time; and thus the imperfect and the potential
|
|
|
5413 come first. In this way the more common comes first in the order of nature; as appears clearly in the generation of man and
|
|
|
5414 animal; for "the animal is generated before man," as the Philosopher says (De Gener. Animal ii, 3).
|
|
|
5415 The other order is the order of perfection or of the intention of nature: for instance, act considered absolutely is naturally
|
|
|
5416 prior to potentiality, and the perfect to the imperfect: thus the less common comes naturally before the more common; as man
|
|
|
5417 comes before animal. For the intention of nature does not stop at the generation of animal but goes on to the generation of
|
|
|
5418 man.
|
|
|
5419 </p>
|
|
|
5420 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p12">
|
|
|
5421 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The more common universal may be compared to the less common, as the whole, and as the part. As the whole, considering that
|
|
|
5422 in the more universal is potentially contained not only the less universal, but also other things, as in "animal" is contained
|
|
|
5423 not only "man" but also "horse." As part, considering that the less common contains in its idea not only the more common,
|
|
|
5424 but also more; as "man" contains not only "animal" but also "rational." Therefore
|
|
|
5425 "animal" in itself comes into our knowledge before "man"; but "man" comes before "animal" considered as part of the same idea.
|
|
|
5426 </p>
|
|
|
5427 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p13">
|
|
|
5428 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A part can be known in two ways. First, absolutely considered in itself; and thus nothing prevents the parts being known
|
|
|
5429 before the whole, as stones are known before a house is known. Secondly as belonging to a certain whole; and thus we must
|
|
|
5430 needs know the whole before its parts. For we know a house vaguely before we know its different parts. So likewise principles
|
|
|
5431 of definition are known before the thing defined is known; otherwise the thing defined
|
|
|
5432 would not be known at all. But as parts of the definition they are known after. For we know man vaguely as man before we know
|
|
|
5433 how to distinguish all that belongs to human nature.
|
|
|
5434 </p>
|
|
|
5435 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p14">
|
|
|
5436 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The universal, as understood with the intention of universality, is, indeed, in a way, a principle of knowledge, in so far
|
|
|
5437 as the intention of universality results from the mode of understanding by way of abstraction. But what is a principle of
|
|
|
5438 knowledge is not of necessity a principle of existence, as Plato thought: since at times we know a cause through its effect,
|
|
|
5439 and substance through accidents. Wherefore the universal thus considered, according
|
|
|
5440 to the opinion of Aristotle, is neither a principle of existence, nor a substance, as he makes clear (Metaph. vii, Did. vi,
|
|
|
5441 13). But if we consider the generic or specific nature itself as existing in the singular, thus in a way it is in the nature
|
|
|
5442 of a formal principle in regard to the singulars: for the singular is the result of matter, while the idea of species is from
|
|
|
5443 the form. But the generic nature is compared to the specific nature rather after the fashion of a material principle,
|
|
|
5444 because the generic nature is taken from that which is material in a thing, while the idea of species is taken from that which
|
|
|
5445 is formal: thus the notion of animal is taken from the sensitive part, whereas the notion of man is taken from the intellectual
|
|
|
5446 part. Thus it is that the ultimate intention of nature is to the species and not to the individual, or the genus: because
|
|
|
5447 the form is the end of generation, while matter is for the sake of the form. Neither is it necessary that, as regards us,
|
|
|
5448 knowledge of any cause or principle should be secondary: since at times through sensible causes we become acquainted with
|
|
|
5449 unknown effects, and sometimes conversely.
|
|
|
5450 </p>
|
|
|
5451 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p15"></p>
|
|
|
5452 <p id="FP_Q85_A3-p16"></p>
|
|
|
5453 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5454 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5455 </div>
|
|
|
5456 <div id="FP_Q85_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
5457 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5458 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5459 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A4-p0.1">Whether we can understand many things at the same time?</h4>
|
|
|
5460 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5461 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p2">
|
|
|
5462 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we can understand many things at the same time. For intellect is above time, whereas the succession of
|
|
|
5463 before and after belongs to time. Therefore the intellect does not understand different things in succession, but at the same
|
|
|
5464 time.
|
|
|
5465 </p>
|
|
|
5466 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p3">
|
|
|
5467 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, there is nothing to prevent different forms not opposed to each other from actually being in the same subject, as,
|
|
|
5468 for instance, color and smell are in the apple. But intelligible species are not opposed to each other. Therefore there is
|
|
|
5469 nothing to prevent the same intellect being in act as regards different intelligible species, and thus it can understand many
|
|
|
5470 things at the same time.
|
|
|
5471 </p>
|
|
|
5472 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p4">
|
|
|
5473 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect understands a whole at the same time, such as a man or a house. But a whole contains many parts. Therefore
|
|
|
5474 the intellect understands many things at the same time.
|
|
|
5475 </p>
|
|
|
5476 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p5">
|
|
|
5477 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, we cannot know the difference between two things unless we know both at the same time (De Anima iii, 2), and the
|
|
|
5478 same is to be said of any other comparison. But our intellect knows the difference and comparison between one thing and another.
|
|
|
5479 Therefore it knows many things at the same time.
|
|
|
5480 </p>
|
|
|
5481 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p6">
|
|
|
5482 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said (Topic. ii, 10) that "understanding is of one thing only, knowledge is of many."
|
|
|
5483 </p>
|
|
|
5484 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p7">
|
|
|
5485 <b>I answer that,</b> The intellect can, indeed, understand many things as one, but not as many: that is to say by "one" but not by "many" intelligible
|
|
|
5486 species. For the mode of every action follows the form which is the principle of that action. Therefore whatever things the
|
|
|
5487 intellect can understand under one species, it can understand at the same time: hence it is that God sees all things at the
|
|
|
5488 same time, because He sees all in one, that is, in His Essence. But whatever things
|
|
|
5489 the intellect understands under different species, it does not understand at the same time. The reason of this is that it
|
|
|
5490 is impossible for one and the same subject to be perfected at the same time by many forms of one genus and diverse species,
|
|
|
5491 just as it is impossible for one and the same body at the same time to have different colors or different shapes. Now all
|
|
|
5492 intelligible species belong to one genus, because they are the perfections of one intellectual faculty: although the things
|
|
|
5493 which
|
|
|
5494 the species represent belong to different genera. Therefore it is impossible for one and the same intellect to be perfected
|
|
|
5495 at the same time by different intelligible species so as actually to understand different things.
|
|
|
5496 </p>
|
|
|
5497 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p8">
|
|
|
5498 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intellect is above that time, which is the measure of the movement of corporeal things. But the multitude itself of intelligible
|
|
|
5499 species causes a certain vicissitude of intelligible operations, according as one operation succeeds another. And this vicissitude
|
|
|
5500 is called time by Augustine, who says (Gen. ad lit. viii, 20,22), that "God moves the spiritual creature through time."
|
|
|
5501 </p>
|
|
|
5502 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p9">
|
|
|
5503 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Not only is it impossible for opposite forms to exist at the same time in the same subject, but neither can any forms belonging
|
|
|
5504 to the same genus, although they be not opposed to one another, as is clear from the examples of colors and shapes.
|
|
|
5505 </p>
|
|
|
5506 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p10">
|
|
|
5507 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Parts can be understood in two ways. First, in a confused way, as existing in the whole, and thus they are known through
|
|
|
5508 the one form of the whole, and so are known together. In another way they are known distinctly: thus each is known by its
|
|
|
5509 species; and so they are not understood at the same time.
|
|
|
5510 </p>
|
|
|
5511 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p11">
|
|
|
5512 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> If the intellect sees the difference or comparison between one thing and another, it knows both in relation to their difference
|
|
|
5513 or comparison; just, as we have said above (ad 3), as it knows the parts in the whole.
|
|
|
5514 </p>
|
|
|
5515 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5516 <p id="FP_Q85_A4-p13"></p>
|
|
|
5517 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5518 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5519 </div>
|
|
|
5520 <div id="FP_Q85_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
5521 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5522 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5523 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A5-p0.1">Whether our intellect understands by composition and division?</h4>
|
|
|
5524 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5525 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p2">
|
|
|
5526 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect does not understand by composition and division. For composition and division are only of
|
|
|
5527 many; whereas the intellect cannot understand many things at the same time. Therefore it cannot understand by composition
|
|
|
5528 and division.
|
|
|
5529 </p>
|
|
|
5530 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p3">
|
|
|
5531 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every composition and division implies past, present, or future time. But the intellect abstracts from time, as
|
|
|
5532 also from other individual conditions. Therefore the intellect does not understand by composition and division.
|
|
|
5533 </p>
|
|
|
5534 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p4">
|
|
|
5535 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect understands things by a process of assimilation to them. But composition and division are not in things,
|
|
|
5536 for nothing is in things but what is signified by the predicate and the subject, and which is one and the same, provided that
|
|
|
5537 the composition be true, for "man" is truly what "animal" is. Therefore the intellect does not act by composition and division.
|
|
|
5538 </p>
|
|
|
5539 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p5">
|
|
|
5540 <b>On the contrary,</b> Words signify the conceptions of the intellect, as the Philosopher says (Peri Herm. i). But in words we find composition
|
|
|
5541 and division, as appears in affirmative and negative propositions. Therefore the intellect acts by composition and division.
|
|
|
5542 </p>
|
|
|
5543 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p6">
|
|
|
5544 <b>I answer that,</b> The human intellect must of necessity understand by composition and division. For since the intellect passes from potentiality
|
|
|
5545 to act, it has a likeness to things which are generated, which do not attain to perfection all at once but acquire it by degrees:
|
|
|
5546 so likewise the human intellect does not acquire perfect knowledge by the first act of apprehension; but it first apprehends
|
|
|
5547 something about its object, such as its quiddity, and this is its first and
|
|
|
5548 proper object; and then it understands the properties, accidents, and the various relations of the essence. Thus it necessarily
|
|
|
5549 compares one thing with another by composition or division; and from one composition and division it proceeds to another,
|
|
|
5550 which is the process of reasoning.
|
|
|
5551 </p>
|
|
|
5552 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p7"> But the angelic and the Divine intellect, like all incorruptible things, have their perfection at once from the beginning.
|
|
|
5553 Hence the angelic and the Divine intellect have the entire knowledge of a thing at once and perfectly; and hence also in knowing
|
|
|
5554 the quiddity of a thing they know at once whatever we can know by composition, division, and reasoning. Therefore the human
|
|
|
5555 intellect knows by composition, division and reasoning. But the Divine intellect and the angelic intellect
|
|
|
5556 know, indeed, composition, division, and reasoning, not by the process itself, but by understanding the simple essence.
|
|
|
5557 </p>
|
|
|
5558 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p8">
|
|
|
5559 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Composition and division of the intellect are made by differentiating and comparing. Hence the intellect knows many things
|
|
|
5560 by composition and division, as by knowing the difference and comparison of things.
|
|
|
5561 </p>
|
|
|
5562 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p9">
|
|
|
5563 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although the intellect abstracts from the phantasms, it does not understand actually without turning to the phantasms, as
|
|
|
5564 we have said
|
|
|
5565 <a id="FP_Q85_A5-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html">(A[1];</a>
|
|
|
5566 <a id="FP_Q85_A5-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>). And forasmuch as it turns to the phantasms, composition and division of the intellect involve time.
|
|
|
5567 </p>
|
|
|
5568 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p10">
|
|
|
5569 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The likeness of a thing is received into the intellect according to the mode of the intellect, not according to the mode
|
|
|
5570 of the thing. Wherefore something on the part of the thing corresponds to the composition and division of the intellect; but
|
|
|
5571 it does not exist in the same way in the intellect and in the thing. For the proper object of the human intellect is the quiddity
|
|
|
5572 of a material thing, which comes under the action of the senses and the
|
|
|
5573 imagination. Now in a material thing there is a twofold composition. First, there is the composition of form with matter;
|
|
|
5574 and to this corresponds that composition of the intellect whereby the universal whole is predicated of its part: for the genus
|
|
|
5575 is derived from common matter, while the difference that completes the species is derived from the form, and the particular
|
|
|
5576 from individual matter. The second comparison is of accident with subject: and to this real composition corresponds that
|
|
|
5577 composition of the intellect, whereby accident is predicated of subject, as when we say "the man is white." Nevertheless composition
|
|
|
5578 of the intellect differs from composition of things; for in the latter the things are diverse, whereas composition of the
|
|
|
5579 intellect is a sign of the identity of the components. For the above composition of the intellect does not imply that "man"
|
|
|
5580 and "whiteness" are identical, but the assertion, "the man is white," means that "the man is something having
|
|
|
5581 whiteness": and the subject, which is a man, is identified with a subject having whiteness. It is the same with the composition
|
|
|
5582 of form and matter: for animal signifies that which has a sensitive nature; rational, that which has an intellectual nature;
|
|
|
5583 man, that which has both; and Socrates that which has all these things together with individual matter; and according to this
|
|
|
5584 kind of identity our intellect predicates the composition of one thing with another.
|
|
|
5585 </p>
|
|
|
5586 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5587 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5588 <p id="FP_Q85_A5-p13"></p>
|
|
|
5589 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5590 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5591 </div>
|
|
|
5592 <div id="FP_Q85_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
5593 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5594 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5595 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A6-p0.1">Whether the intellect can be false?</h4>
|
|
|
5596 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5597 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p2">
|
|
|
5598 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect can be false; for the Philosopher says (Metaph. vi, Did. v, 4) that "truth and falsehood
|
|
|
5599 are in the mind." But the mind and intellect are the same, as is shown above (
|
|
|
5600 <a id="FP_Q85_A6-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html">Q[79], A[1]</a>). Therefore falsehood may be in the mind.
|
|
|
5601 </p>
|
|
|
5602 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p3">
|
|
|
5603 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, opinion and reasoning belong to the intellect. But falsehood exists in both. Therefore falsehood can be in the intellect.
|
|
|
5604 </p>
|
|
|
5605 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p4">
|
|
|
5606 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, sin is in the intellectual faculty. But sin involves falsehood: for "those err that work evil" (
|
|
|
5607 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q85_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.14.22" target="asv">Prov. 14:22</a>). Therefore falsehood can be in the intellect.
|
|
|
5608 </p>
|
|
|
5609 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p5">
|
|
|
5610 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 32), that "everyone who is deceived, does not rightly understand that wherein he is deceived."
|
|
|
5611 And the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 10), that "the intellect is always true."
|
|
|
5612 </p>
|
|
|
5613 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p6">
|
|
|
5614 <b>I answer that,</b> The Philosopher (De Anima iii, 6) compares intellect with sense on this point. For sense is not deceived in its proper object,
|
|
|
5615 as sight in regard to color; has accidentally through some hindrance occurring to the sensile organ---for example, the taste
|
|
|
5616 of a fever-stricken person judges a sweet thing to be bitter, through his tongue being vitiated by ill humors. Sense, however,
|
|
|
5617 may be deceived as regards common sensible objects, as size or figure; when, for
|
|
|
5618 example, it judges the sun to be only a foot in diameter, whereas in reality it exceeds the earth in size. Much more is sense
|
|
|
5619 deceived concerning accidental sensible objects, as when it judges that vinegar is honey by reason of the color being the
|
|
|
5620 same. The reason of this is evident; for every faculty, as such, is "per se" directed to its proper object; and things of
|
|
|
5621 this kind are always the same. Hence, as long as the faculty exists, its judgment concerning its own proper object does not
|
|
|
5622 fail.
|
|
|
5623 Now the proper object of the intellect is the "quiddity" of a material thing; and hence, properly speaking, the intellect
|
|
|
5624 is not at fault concerning this quiddity; whereas it may go astray as regards the surroundings of the thing in its essence
|
|
|
5625 or quiddity, in referring one thing to another, as regards composition or division, or also in the process of reasoning. Therefore,
|
|
|
5626 also in regard to those propositions, which are understood, the intellect cannot err, as in the case of first principles
|
|
|
5627 from which arises infallible truth in the certitude of scientific conclusions.
|
|
|
5628 </p>
|
|
|
5629 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p7"> The intellect, however, may be accidentally deceived in the quiddity of composite things, not by the defect of its organ,
|
|
|
5630 for the intellect is a faculty that is independent of an organ; but on the part of the composition affecting the definition,
|
|
|
5631 when, for instance, the definition of a thing is false in relation to something else, as the definition of a circle applied
|
|
|
5632 to a triangle; or when a definition is false in itself as involving the composition of things incompatible; as,
|
|
|
5633 for instance, to describe anything as "a rational winged animal." Hence as regards simple objects not subject to composite
|
|
|
5634 definitions we cannot be deceived unless, indeed, we understand nothing whatever about them, as is said Metaph. ix, Did. viii,
|
|
|
5635 10.
|
|
|
5636 </p>
|
|
85
|
5637 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p8"><b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher says
|
|
|
5638 that falsehood is in the intellect in regard to composition
|
|
|
5639 and division.</p>
|
|
|
5640 <p><b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The same answer applies to
|
|
|
5641 the Second Objection concerning opinion and reasoning,</p><p>
|
|
|
5642 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> and to the Third Objection, concerning the error of the sinner, who
|
|
64
|
5643 errs in the practical judgment of the appetible object. But in the absolute consideration of the quiddity of a thing, and
|
|
|
5644 of those things which are known thereby, the intellect is never deceived. In this sense
|
|
|
5645 are to be understood the authorities quoted in proof of the opposite conclusion.
|
|
|
5646 </p>
|
|
|
5647 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p9"></p>
|
|
|
5648 <p id="FP_Q85_A6-p10"></p>
|
|
|
5649 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5650 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5651 </div>
|
|
|
5652 <div id="FP_Q85_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
5653 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5654 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5655 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A7-p0.1">Whether one person can understand one and the same thing better than another can?</h4>
|
|
|
5656 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5657 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p2">
|
|
|
5658 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one person cannot understand one and the same thing better than another can. For Augustine says (QQ. 83,
|
|
|
5659 qu. 32), "Whoever understands a thing otherwise than as it is, does not understand it at all. Hence it is clear that there
|
|
|
5660 is a perfect understanding, than which none other is more perfect: and therefore there are not infinite degrees of understanding
|
|
|
5661 a thing: nor can one person understand a thing better than another can."
|
|
|
5662 </p>
|
|
|
5663 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p3">
|
|
|
5664 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellect is true in its act of understanding. But truth, being a certain equality between thought and thing,
|
|
|
5665 is not subject to more or less; for a thing cannot be said to be more or less equal. Therefore a thing cannot be more or less
|
|
|
5666 understood.
|
|
|
5667 </p>
|
|
|
5668 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p4">
|
|
|
5669 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect is the most formal of all that is in man. But different forms cause different species. Therefore if
|
|
|
5670 one man understands better than another, it would seem that they do not belong to the same species.
|
|
|
5671 </p>
|
|
|
5672 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p5">
|
|
|
5673 <b>On the contrary,</b> Experience shows that some understand more profoundly than do others; as one who carries a conclusion to its first principles
|
|
|
5674 and ultimate causes understands it better than the one who reduces it only to its proximate causes.
|
|
|
5675 </p>
|
|
|
5676 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p6">
|
|
|
5677 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing being understood more by one than by another may be taken in two senses. First, so that the word "more" be taken
|
|
|
5678 as determining the act of understanding as regards the thing understood; and thus, one cannot understand the same thing more
|
|
|
5679 than another, because to understand it otherwise than as it is, either better or worse, would entail being deceived, and such
|
|
|
5680 a one would not understand it, as Augustine argues (QQ. 83, qu. 32). In another sense the
|
|
|
5681 word "more" can be taken as determining the act of understanding on the part of him who understands; and so one may understand
|
|
|
5682 the same thing better than someone else, through having a greater power of understanding: just as a man may see a thing better
|
|
|
5683 with his bodily sight, whose power is greater, and whose sight is more perfect. The same applies to the intellect in two ways.
|
|
|
5684 First, as regards the intellect itself, which is more perfect. For it is plain that the better the disposition of a
|
|
|
5685 body, the better the soul allotted to it; which clearly appears in things of different species: and the reason thereof is
|
|
|
5686 that act and form are received into matter according to matter's capacity: thus because some men have bodies of better disposition,
|
|
|
5687 their souls have a greater power of understanding, wherefore it is said (De Anima ii, 9), that "it is to be observed that
|
|
|
5688 those who have soft flesh are of apt mind." Secondly, this occurs in regard to the lower powers of which the intellect has
|
|
|
5689 need in its operation: for those in whom the imaginative, cogitative, and memorative powers are of better disposition, are
|
|
|
5690 better disposed to understand.
|
|
|
5691 </p>
|
|
85
|
5692 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p7"><b>Reply to Objection 1:</b>
|
|
|
5693 The reply to the First Objection is clear from the above;</p>
|
|
|
5694 <p><b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> likewise the reply to the Second, for the truth of the intellect
|
|
64
|
5695 consists in the intellect understanding a thing as it is.
|
|
|
5696 </p>
|
|
|
5697 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p8">
|
|
|
5698 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The difference of form which is due only to the different disposition of matter, causes not a specific but only a numerical
|
|
|
5699 difference: for different individuals have different forms, diversified according to the difference of matter.
|
|
|
5700 </p>
|
|
|
5701 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p9"></p>
|
|
|
5702 <p id="FP_Q85_A7-p10"></p>
|
|
|
5703 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5704 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5705 </div>
|
|
|
5706 <div id="FP_Q85_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
5707 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5708 <a href="summa.FP_Q86.html"></a>
|
|
|
5709 <h4 id="FP_Q85_A8-p0.1">Whether the intellect understands the indivisible before the divisible?</h4>
|
|
|
5710 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5711 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p2">
|
|
|
5712 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect understands the indivisible before the divisible. For the Philosopher says (Phys. i, 1)
|
|
|
5713 that "we understand and know from the knowledge of principles and elements." But principles are indivisible, and elements
|
|
|
5714 are of divisible things. Therefore the indivisible is known to us before the divisible.
|
|
|
5715 </p>
|
|
|
5716 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p3">
|
|
|
5717 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the definition of a thing contains what is known previously, for a definition "proceeds from the first and more
|
|
|
5718 known," as is said Topic. vi, 4. But the indivisible is part of the definition of the divisible; as a point comes into the
|
|
|
5719 definition of a line; for as Euclid says, "a line is length without breadth, the extremities of which are points"; also unity
|
|
|
5720 comes into the definition of number, for "number is multitude measured by one," as is said
|
|
|
5721 Metaph. x, Did. ix, 6. Therefore our intellect understands the indivisible before the divisible.
|
|
|
5722 </p>
|
|
|
5723 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p4">
|
|
|
5724 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "Like is known by like." But the indivisible is more like to the intellect than is the divisible; because "the intellect
|
|
|
5725 is simple" (De Anima iii, 4). Therefore our intellect first knows the indivisible.
|
|
|
5726 </p>
|
|
|
5727 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p5">
|
|
|
5728 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said (De Anima iii, 6) that "the indivisible is expressed as a privation." But privation is known secondarily. Therefore
|
|
|
5729 likewise is the indivisible.
|
|
|
5730 </p>
|
|
|
5731 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p6">
|
|
|
5732 <b>I answer that,</b> The object of our intellect in its present state is the quiddity of a material thing, which it abstracts from the phantasms,
|
|
|
5733 as above stated (
|
|
|
5734 <a id="FP_Q85_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>). And since that which is known first and of itself by our cognitive power is its proper object, we must consider its relationship
|
|
|
5735 to that quiddity in order to discover in what order the indivisible is known. Now the indivisible is threefold, as is said
|
|
|
5736 De Anima iii, 6. First, the
|
|
|
5737 continuous is indivisible, since actually it is undivided, although potentially divisible: and this indivisible is known to
|
|
|
5738 us before its division, which is a division into parts: because confused knowledge is prior to distinct knowledge, as we have
|
|
|
5739 said above
|
|
|
5740 <a id="FP_Q85_A8-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Secondly, the indivisible is so called in relation to species, as man's reason is something indivisible. This way, also,
|
|
|
5741 the indivisible is understood before its division into logical parts, as we have
|
|
|
5742 said above (De Anima iii, 6); and again before the intellect disposes and divides by affirmation and negation. The reason
|
|
|
5743 of this is that both these kinds of indivisible are understood by the intellect of itself, as being its proper object. The
|
|
|
5744 third kind of indivisible is what is altogether indivisible, as a point and unity, which cannot be divided either actually
|
|
|
5745 or potentially. And this indivisible is known secondarily, through the privation of divisibility. Wherefore a point is defined
|
|
|
5746 by
|
|
|
5747 way of privation "as that which has no parts"; and in like manner the notion of "one" is that is "indivisible," as stated
|
|
|
5748 in Metaph. x, Did. ix, 1. And the reason of this is that this indivisible has a certain opposition to a corporeal being, the
|
|
|
5749 quiddity of which is the primary and proper object of the intellect.
|
|
|
5750 </p>
|
|
|
5751 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p7"> But if our intellect understood by participation of certain separate indivisible (forms), as the Platonists maintained, it
|
|
|
5752 would follow that a like indivisible is understood primarily; for according to the Platonists what is first is first participated
|
|
|
5753 by things.
|
|
|
5754 </p>
|
|
|
5755 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p8">
|
|
|
5756 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the acquisition of knowledge, principles and elements are not always (known) first: for sometimes from sensible effects
|
|
|
5757 we arrive at the knowledge of principles and intelligible causes. But in perfect knowledge, the knowledge of effects always
|
|
|
5758 depends on the knowledge of principles and elements: for as the Philosopher says in the same passage: "Then do we consider
|
|
|
5759 that we know, when we can resolve principles into their causes."
|
|
|
5760 </p>
|
|
|
5761 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p9">
|
|
|
5762 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A point is not included in the definition of a line in general: for it is manifest that in a line of indefinite length, and
|
|
|
5763 in a circular line, there is no point, save potentially. Euclid defines a finite straight line: and therefore he mentions
|
|
|
5764 a point in the definition, as the limit in the definition of that which is limited. Unity is the measure of number: wherefore
|
|
|
5765 it is included in the definition of a measured number. But it is not included in
|
|
|
5766 the definition of the divisible, but rather conversely.
|
|
|
5767 </p>
|
|
|
5768 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p10">
|
|
|
5769 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The likeness through which we understand is the species of the known in the knower; therefore a thing is known first, not
|
|
|
5770 on account of its natural likeness to the cognitive power, but on account of the power's aptitude for the object: otherwise
|
|
|
5771 sight would perceive hearing rather than color.
|
|
|
5772 </p>
|
|
|
5773 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5774 <p id="FP_Q85_A8-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5775 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5776 <a href="summa.FP_Q86.html"></a>
|
|
|
5777 </div>
|
|
|
5778 <a href="summa.FP_Q84_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5779 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5780 </div>
|
|
|
5781 <div id="FP_Q86" class="div3">
|
|
|
5782 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5783 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5784 <h3 id="FP_Q86-p0.1">WHAT OUR INTELLECT KNOWS IN MATERIAL THINGS (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
5785 <p id="FP_Q86-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5786 <p id="FP_Q86-p2"> We now have to consider what our intellect knows in material things. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
5787 <p id="FP_Q86-p3"> (1) Whether it knows singulars?</p>
|
|
|
5788 <p id="FP_Q86-p4"> (2) Whether it knows the infinite?</p>
|
|
|
5789 <p id="FP_Q86-p5"> (3) Whether it knows contingent things?</p>
|
|
|
5790 <p id="FP_Q86-p6"> (4) Whether it knows future things?</p>
|
|
|
5791 <div id="FP_Q86_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
5792 <a href="summa.FP_Q86.html"></a>
|
|
|
5793 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5794 <h4 id="FP_Q86_A1-p0.1">Whether our intellect knows singulars?</h4>
|
|
|
5795 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5796 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p2">
|
|
|
5797 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect knows singulars. For whoever knows composition, knows the terms of composition. But our
|
|
|
5798 intellect knows this composition; "Socrates is a man": for it belongs to the intellect to form a proposition. Therefore our
|
|
|
5799 intellect knows this singular, Socrates.
|
|
|
5800 </p>
|
|
|
5801 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p3">
|
|
|
5802 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the practical intellect directs to action. But action has relation to singular things. Therefore the intellect knows
|
|
|
5803 the singular.
|
|
|
5804 </p>
|
|
|
5805 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p4">
|
|
|
5806 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, our intellect understands itself. But in itself it is a singular, otherwise it would have no action of its own;
|
|
|
5807 for actions belong to singulars. Therefore our intellect knows singulars.
|
|
|
5808 </p>
|
|
|
5809 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p5">
|
|
|
5810 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, a superior power can do whatever is done by an inferior power. But sense knows the singular. Much more, therefore,
|
|
|
5811 can the intellect know it.
|
|
|
5812 </p>
|
|
|
5813 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p6">
|
|
|
5814 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Phys. i, 5), that "the universal is known by reason; and the singular is known by sense."
|
|
|
5815 </p>
|
|
|
5816 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p7">
|
|
|
5817 <b>I answer that,</b> Our intellect cannot know the singular in material things directly and primarily. The reason of this is that the principle
|
|
|
5818 of singularity in material things is individual matter, whereas our intellect, as have said above (
|
|
|
5819 <a id="FP_Q86_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html">Q[85], A[1]</a>), understands by abstracting the intelligible species from such matter. Now what is abstracted from individual matter is
|
|
|
5820 the universal. Hence our intellect knows directly the universal only. But
|
|
|
5821 indirectly, and as it were by a kind of reflection, it can know the singular, because, as we have said above (
|
|
|
5822 <a id="FP_Q86_A1-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A7.html">Q[85], A[7]</a>), even after abstracting the intelligible species, the intellect, in order to understand, needs to turn to the phantasms
|
|
|
5823 in which it understands the species, as is said De Anima iii, 7. Therefore it understands the universal directly through the
|
|
|
5824 intelligible species, and indirectly the singular represented by the phantasm. And thus it forms the
|
|
85
|
5825 proposition "Socrates is a man."</p><p><b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Wherefore the reply to the first objection is clear.
|
|
64
|
5826 </p>
|
|
|
5827 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p8">
|
|
|
5828 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The choice of a particular thing to be done is as the conclusion of a syllogism formed by the practical intellect, as is
|
|
|
5829 said Ethic. vii, 3. But a singular proposition cannot be directly concluded from a universal proposition, except through the
|
|
|
5830 medium of a singular proposition. Therefore the universal principle of the practical intellect does not move save through
|
|
|
5831 the medium of the particular apprehension of the sensitive part, as is said De Anima
|
|
|
5832 iii, 11.
|
|
|
5833 </p>
|
|
|
5834 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p9">
|
|
|
5835 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Intelligibility is incompatible with the singular not as such, but as material, for nothing can be understood otherwise than
|
|
|
5836 immaterially. Therefore if there be an immaterial singular such as the intellect, there is no reason why it should not be
|
|
|
5837 intelligible.
|
|
|
5838 </p>
|
|
|
5839 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p10">
|
|
|
5840 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The higher power can do what the lower power can, but in a more eminent way. Wherefore what the sense knows materially and
|
|
|
5841 concretely, which is to know the singular directly, the intellect knows immaterially and in the abstract, which is to know
|
|
|
5842 the universal.
|
|
|
5843 </p>
|
|
|
5844 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5845 <p id="FP_Q86_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5846 <a href="summa.FP_Q86.html"></a>
|
|
|
5847 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5848 </div>
|
|
|
5849 <div id="FP_Q86_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
5850 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5851 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5852 <h4 id="FP_Q86_A2-p0.1">Whether our intellect can know the infinite?</h4>
|
|
|
5853 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5854 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p2">
|
|
|
5855 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect can know the infinite. For God excels all infinite things. But our intellect can know God,
|
|
|
5856 as we have said above (
|
|
|
5857 <a id="FP_Q86_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q12_A1.html">Q[12], A[1]</a>). Much more, therefore, can our intellect know all other infinite things.
|
|
|
5858 </p>
|
|
|
5859 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p3">
|
|
|
5860 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, our intellect can naturally know "genera" and "species." But there is an infinity of species in some genera, as
|
|
|
5861 in number, proportion, and figure. Therefore our intellect can know the infinite.
|
|
|
5862 </p>
|
|
|
5863 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p4">
|
|
|
5864 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if one body can coexist with another in the same place, there is nothing to prevent an infinite number of bodies
|
|
|
5865 being in one place. But one intelligible species can exist with another in the same intellect, for many things can be habitually
|
|
|
5866 known at the same time. Therefore our intellect can have an habitual knowledge of an infinite number of things.
|
|
|
5867 </p>
|
|
|
5868 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p5">
|
|
|
5869 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, as the intellect is not a corporeal faculty, as we have said (
|
|
|
5870 <a id="FP_Q86_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>), it appears to be an infinite power. But an infinite power has a capacity for an infinite object. Therefore our intellect
|
|
|
5871 can know the infinite.
|
|
|
5872 </p>
|
|
|
5873 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p6">
|
|
|
5874 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said (Phys. i, 4) that "the infinite, considered as such, is unknown."
|
|
|
5875 </p>
|
|
|
5876 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p7">
|
|
|
5877 <b>I answer that,</b> Since a faculty and its object are proportional to each other, the intellect must be related to the infinite, as is its object,
|
|
|
5878 which is the quiddity of a material thing. Now in material things the infinite does not exist actually, but only potentially,
|
|
|
5879 in the sense of one succeeding another, as is said Phys. iii, 6. Therefore infinity is potentially in our mind through its
|
|
|
5880 considering successively one thing after another: because never does our intellect
|
|
|
5881 understand so many things, that it cannot understand more.
|
|
|
5882 </p>
|
|
|
5883 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p8"> On the other hand, our intellect cannot understand the infinite either actually or habitually. Not actually, for our intellect
|
|
|
5884 cannot know actually at the same time, except what it knows through one species. But the infinite is not represented by one
|
|
|
5885 species, for if it were it would be something whole and complete. Consequently it cannot be understood except by a successive
|
|
|
5886 consideration of one part after another, as is clear from its definition (Phys. iii, 6): for the infinite
|
|
|
5887 is that "from which, however much we may take, there always remains something to be taken." Thus the infinite could not be
|
|
|
5888 known actually, unless all its parts were counted: which is impossible.
|
|
|
5889 </p>
|
|
|
5890 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p9"> For the same reason we cannot have habitual knowledge of the infinite: because in us habitual knowledge results from actual
|
|
|
5891 consideration: since by understanding we acquire knowledge, as is said Ethic. ii, 1. Wherefore it would not be possible for
|
|
|
5892 us to have a habit of an infinity of things distinctly known, unless we had already considered the entire infinity thereof,
|
|
|
5893 counting them according to the succession of our knowledge: which is impossible. And therefore neither actually
|
|
|
5894 nor habitually can our intellect know the infinite, but only potentially as explained above.
|
|
|
5895 </p>
|
|
|
5896 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p10">
|
|
|
5897 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As we have said above (
|
|
|
5898 <a id="FP_Q86_A2-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q7_A1.html">Q[7], A[1]</a>), God is called infinite, because He is a form unlimited by matter; whereas in material things, the term 'infinite' is applied
|
|
|
5899 to that which is deprived of any formal term. And form being known in itself, whereas matter cannot be known without form,
|
|
|
5900 it follows that the material infinite is in itself unknowable. But the formal infinite, God, is of Himself known; but He is
|
|
|
5901 unknown to us by reason
|
|
|
5902 of our feeble intellect, which in its present state has a natural aptitude for material objects only. Therefore we cannot
|
|
|
5903 know God in our present life except through material effects. In the future life this defect of intellect will be removed
|
|
|
5904 by the state of glory, when we shall be able to see the Essence of God Himself, but without being able to comprehend Him.
|
|
|
5905 </p>
|
|
|
5906 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p11">
|
|
|
5907 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The nature of our mind is to know species abstracted from phantasms; therefore it cannot know actually or habitually species
|
|
|
5908 of numbers or figures that are not in the imagination, except in a general way and in their universal principles; and this
|
|
|
5909 is to know them potentially and confusedly.
|
|
|
5910 </p>
|
|
|
5911 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p12">
|
|
|
5912 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If two or more bodies were in the same place, there would be no need for them to occupy the place successively, in order
|
|
|
5913 for the things placed to be counted according to this succession of occupation. On the other hand, the intelligible species
|
|
|
5914 enter into our intellect successively; since many things cannot be actually understood at the same time: and therefore there
|
|
|
5915 must be a definite and not an infinite number of species in our intellect.
|
|
|
5916 </p>
|
|
|
5917 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p13">
|
|
|
5918 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As our intellect is infinite in power, so does it know the infinite. For its power is indeed infinite inasmuch as it is not
|
|
|
5919 terminated by corporeal matter. Moreover it can know the universal, which is abstracted from individual matter, and which
|
|
|
5920 consequently is not limited to one individual, but, considered in itself, extends to an infinite number of individuals.
|
|
|
5921 </p>
|
|
|
5922 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p14"></p>
|
|
|
5923 <p id="FP_Q86_A2-p15"></p>
|
|
|
5924 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5925 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5926 </div>
|
|
|
5927 <div id="FP_Q86_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
5928 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5929 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5930 <h4 id="FP_Q86_A3-p0.1">Whether our intellect can know contingent things?</h4>
|
|
|
5931 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5932 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p2">
|
|
|
5933 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect cannot know contingent things: because, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 6), the objects
|
|
|
5934 of understanding, wisdom and knowledge are not contingent, but necessary things.
|
|
|
5935 </p>
|
|
|
5936 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p3">
|
|
|
5937 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as stated in Phys. iv, 12, "what sometimes is and sometimes is not, is measured by time." Now the intellect abstracts
|
|
|
5938 from time, and from other material conditions. Therefore, as it is proper to a contingent thing sometime to be and sometime
|
|
|
5939 not to be, it seems that contingent things are not known by the intellect.
|
|
|
5940 </p>
|
|
|
5941 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p4">
|
|
|
5942 <b>On the contrary,</b> All knowledge is in the intellect. But some sciences are of the contingent things, as the moral sciences, the objects of
|
|
|
5943 which are human actions subject to free-will; and again, the natural sciences in as far as they relate to things generated
|
|
|
5944 and corruptible. Therefore the intellect knows contingent things.
|
|
|
5945 </p>
|
|
|
5946 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p5">
|
|
|
5947 <b>I answer that,</b> Contingent things can be considered in two ways; either as contingent, or as containing some element of necessity, since
|
|
|
5948 every contingent thing has in it something necessary: for example, that Socrates runs, is in itself contingent; but the relation
|
|
|
5949 of running to motion is necessary, for it is necessary that Socrates move if he runs. Now contingency arises from matter,
|
|
|
5950 for contingency is a potentiality to be or not to be, and potentiality belongs to matter;
|
|
|
5951 whereas necessity results from form, because whatever is consequent on form is of necessity in the subject. But matter is
|
|
|
5952 the individualizing principle: whereas the universal comes from the abstraction of the form from the particular matter. Moreover
|
|
|
5953 it was laid down above
|
|
|
5954 <a id="FP_Q86_A3-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that the intellect of itself and directly has the universal for its object; while the object of sense is the singular, which
|
|
|
5955 in a certain way is the indirect object of the intellect, as we have
|
|
|
5956 said above
|
|
|
5957 <a id="FP_Q86_A3-p5.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore the contingent, considered as such, is known directly by sense and indirectly by the intellect; while the universal
|
|
|
5958 and necessary principles of contingent things are known only by the intellect. Hence if we consider the objects of science
|
|
|
5959 in their universal principles, then all science is of necessary things. But if we consider the things themselves, thus some
|
|
|
5960 sciences are of necessary things, some of contingent things.
|
|
|
5961 </p>
|
|
|
5962 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p6"> From which the replies to the objections are clear.</p>
|
|
|
5963 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p7"></p>
|
|
|
5964 <p id="FP_Q86_A3-p8"></p>
|
|
|
5965 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5966 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5967 </div>
|
|
|
5968 <div id="FP_Q86_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
5969 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5970 <a href="summa.FP_Q87.html"></a>
|
|
|
5971 <h4 id="FP_Q86_A4-p0.1">Whether our intellect can know the future?</h4>
|
|
|
5972 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5973 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p2">
|
|
|
5974 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect knows the future. For our intellect knows by means of intelligible species abstracted from
|
|
|
5975 the "here" and "now," and related indifferently to all time. But it can know the present. Therefore it can know the future.
|
|
|
5976 </p>
|
|
|
5977 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p3">
|
|
|
5978 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, man, while his senses are in suspense, can know some future things, as in sleep, and in frenzy. But the intellect
|
|
|
5979 is freer and more vigorous when removed from sense. Therefore the intellect of its own nature can know the future.
|
|
|
5980 </p>
|
|
|
5981 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p4">
|
|
|
5982 <b>Objection 3:</b> The intellectual knowledge of man is superior to any knowledge of brutes. But some animals know the future; thus crows by
|
|
|
5983 their frequent cawing foretell rain. Therefore much more can the intellect know the future.
|
|
|
5984 </p>
|
|
|
5985 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p5">
|
|
|
5986 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
5987 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q86_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.8.6" target="asv">Eccles. 8:6,7</a>), "There is a great affliction for man, because he is ignorant of things past; and things to come he cannot know by any messenger."
|
|
|
5988 </p>
|
|
|
5989 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p6">
|
|
|
5990 <b>I answer that,</b> We must apply the same distinction to future things, as we applied above
|
|
|
5991 <a id="FP_Q86_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A3.html">(A[3])</a> to contingent things. For future things considered as subject to time are singular, and the human intellect knows them by
|
|
|
5992 reflection only, as stated above
|
|
|
5993 <a id="FP_Q86_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But the principles of future things may be universal; and thus they may enter the domain of the intellect and become the
|
|
|
5994 objects of science.
|
|
|
5995 </p>
|
|
|
5996 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p7"> Speaking, however, of the knowledge of the future in a general way, we must observe that the future may be known in two ways:
|
|
|
5997 either in itself, or in its cause. The future cannot be known in itself save by God alone; to Whom even that is present which
|
|
|
5998 in the course of events is future, forasmuch as from eternity His glance embraces the whole course of time, as we have said
|
|
|
5999 above when treating of God's knowledge (
|
|
|
6000 <a id="FP_Q86_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A13.html">Q[14], A[13]</a>). But forasmuch as it exists
|
|
|
6001 in its cause, the future can be known by us also. And if, indeed, the cause be such as to have a necessary connection with
|
|
|
6002 its future result, then the future is known with scientific certitude, just as the astronomer foresees the future eclipse.
|
|
|
6003 If, however, the cause be such as to produce a certain result more frequently than not, then can the future be known more
|
|
|
6004 or less conjecturally, according as its cause is more or less inclined to produce the effect.
|
|
|
6005 </p>
|
|
|
6006 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p8">
|
|
|
6007 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument considers that knowledge which is drawn from universal causal principles; from these the future may be known,
|
|
|
6008 according to the order of the effects to the cause.
|
|
|
6009 </p>
|
|
|
6010 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p9">
|
|
|
6011 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (Confess. xii [*Gen. ad lit. xii. 13]), the soul has a certain power of forecasting, so that by its very
|
|
|
6012 nature it can know the future; hence when withdrawn from corporeal sense, and, as it were, concentrated on itself, it shares
|
|
|
6013 in the knowledge of the future. Such an opinion would be reasonable if we were to admit that the soul receives knowledge by
|
|
|
6014 participating the ideas as the Platonists maintained, because in that case the soul
|
|
|
6015 by its nature would know the universal causes of all effects, and would only be impeded in its knowledge by the body, and
|
|
|
6016 hence when withdrawn from the corporeal senses it would know the future.
|
|
|
6017 </p>
|
|
|
6018 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p10"> But since it is connatural to our intellect to know things, not thus, but by receiving its knowledge from the senses; it
|
|
|
6019 is not natural for the soul to know the future when withdrawn from the senses: rather does it know the future by the impression
|
|
|
6020 of superior spiritual and corporeal causes; of spiritual causes, when by Divine power the human intellect is enlightened through
|
|
|
6021 the ministry of angels, and the phantasms are directed to the knowledge of future events; or, by the
|
|
|
6022 influence of demons, when the imagination is moved regarding the future known to the demons, as explained above (
|
|
|
6023 <a id="FP_Q86_A4-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q57_A3.html">Q[57], A[3]</a>). The soul is naturally more inclined to receive these impressions of spiritual causes when it is withdrawn from the senses,
|
|
|
6024 as it is then nearer to the spiritual world, and freer from external distractions. The same may also come from superior corporeal
|
|
|
6025 causes. For it is clear that superior bodies influence inferior bodies. Hence, in consequence
|
|
|
6026 of the sensitive faculties being acts of corporeal organs, the influence of the heavenly bodies causes the imagination to
|
|
|
6027 be affected, and so, as the heavenly bodies cause many future events, the imagination receives certain images of some such
|
|
|
6028 events. These images are perceived more at night and while we sleep than in the daytime and while we are awake, because, as
|
|
|
6029 stated in De Somn. et Vigil. ii [*De Divinat. per somn. ii.], "impressions made by day are evanescent. The night air is calmer,
|
|
|
6030 when silence reigns, hence bodily impressions are made in sleep, when slight internal movements are felt more than in wakefulness,
|
|
|
6031 and such movements produce in the imagination images from which the future may be foreseen."
|
|
|
6032 </p>
|
|
|
6033 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p11">
|
|
|
6034 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Brute animals have no power above the imagination wherewith to regulate it, as man has his reason, and therefore their imagination
|
|
|
6035 follows entirely the influence of the heavenly bodies. Thus from such animals' movements some future things, such as rain
|
|
|
6036 and the like, may be known rather from human movements directed by reason. Hence the Philosopher says (De Somn. et Vig.),
|
|
|
6037 that "some who are most imprudent are most far-seeing; for their intelligence is
|
|
|
6038 not burdened with cares, but is as it were barren and bare of all anxiety moving at the caprice of whatever is brought to
|
|
|
6039 bear on it."
|
|
|
6040 </p>
|
|
|
6041 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
6042 <p id="FP_Q86_A4-p13"></p>
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6043 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A3.html"></a>
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6044 <a href="summa.FP_Q87.html"></a>
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6045 </div>
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6046 <a href="summa.FP_Q85_A8.html"></a>
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6047 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html"></a>
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6048 </div>
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6049 <div id="FP_Q87" class="div3">
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6050 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A4.html"></a>
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6051 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html"></a>
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6052 <h3 id="FP_Q87-p0.1">HOW THE INTELLECTUAL SOUL KNOWS ITSELF AND ALL WITHIN ITSELF (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
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6053 <p id="FP_Q87-p1"></p>
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6054 <p id="FP_Q87-p2"> We have now to consider how the intellectual soul knows itself and all within itself. Under this head there are four points
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6055 of inquiry:
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6056 </p>
|
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6057 <p id="FP_Q87-p3"> (1) Whether the soul knows itself by its own essence?</p>
|
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6058 <p id="FP_Q87-p4"> (2) Whether it knows its own habits?</p>
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6059 <p id="FP_Q87-p5"> (3) How does the intellect know its own act?</p>
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|
6060 <p id="FP_Q87-p6"> (4) How does it know the act of the will?</p>
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6061 <div id="FP_Q87_A1" class="div4">
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6062 <a href="summa.FP_Q87.html"></a>
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6063 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html"></a>
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6064 <h4 id="FP_Q87_A1-p0.1">Whether the intellectual soul knows itself by its essence?</h4>
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6065 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p1"></p>
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6066 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p2">
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6067 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellectual soul knows itself by its own essence. For Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 3), that "the
|
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6068 mind knows itself, because it is incorporeal."
|
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6069 </p>
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6070 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p3">
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|
6071 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, both angels and human souls belong to the genus of intellectual substance. But an angel understands itself by its
|
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6072 own essence. Therefore likewise does the human soul.
|
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6073 </p>
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6074 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p4">
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|
6075 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "in things void of matter, the intellect and that which is understood are the same" (De Anima iii, 4). But the human
|
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6076 mind is void of matter, not being the act of a body as stated above (
|
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|
6077 <a id="FP_Q87_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>). Therefore the intellect and its object are the same in the human mind; and therefore the human mind understands itself
|
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6078 by its own essence.
|
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6079 </p>
|
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6080 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p5">
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6081 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said (De Anima iii, 4) that "the intellect understands itself in the same way as it understands other things." But
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6082 it understands other things, not by their essence, but by their similitudes. Therefore it does not understand itself by its
|
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6083 own essence.
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6084 </p>
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6085 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p6">
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6086 <b>I answer that,</b> Everything is knowable so far as it is in act, and not, so far as it is in potentiality (Metaph. ix, Did. viii, 9): for a
|
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6087 thing is a being, and is true, and therefore knowable, according as it is actual. This is quite clear as regards sensible
|
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6088 things, for the eye does not see what is potentially, but what is actually colored. In like manner it is clear that the intellect,
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6089 so far as it knows material things, does not know save what is in act: and hence it
|
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6090 does not know primary matter except as proportionate to form, as is stated Phys. i, 7. Consequently immaterial substances
|
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6091 are intelligible by their own essence according as each one is actual by its own essence.
|
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6092 </p>
|
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6093 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p7"> Therefore it is that the Essence of God, the pure and perfect act, is simply and perfectly in itself intelligible; and hence
|
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6094 God by His own Essence knows Himself, and all other things also. The angelic essence belongs, indeed, to the genus of intelligible
|
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6095 things as "act," but not as a "pure act," nor as a "complete act," and hence the angel's act of intelligence is not completed
|
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6096 by his essence. For although an angel understands himself by his own essence, still he cannot
|
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6097 understand all other things by his own essence; for he knows things other than himself by their likenesses. Now the human
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6098 intellect is only a potentiality in the genus of intelligible beings, just as primary matter is a potentiality as regards
|
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6099 sensible beings; and hence it is called "possible" [*Possibilis---elsewhere in this translation rendered "passive"---Ed.].
|
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6100 Therefore in its essence the human mind is potentially understanding. Hence it has in itself the power to understand, but
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6101 not to be
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6102 understood, except as it is made actual. For even the Platonists asserted than an order of intelligible beings existed above
|
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6103 the order of intellects, forasmuch as the intellect understands only by participation of the intelligible; for they said that
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6104 the participator is below what it participates. If, therefore, the human intellect, as the Platonists held, became actual
|
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6105 by participating separate intelligible forms, it would understand itself by such participation of incorporeal beings. But
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6106 as
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6107 in this life our intellect has material and sensible things for its proper natural object, as stated above (
|
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6108 <a id="FP_Q87_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>), it understands itself according as it is made actual by the species abstracted from sensible things, through the light
|
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6109 of the active intellect, which not only actuates the intelligible things themselves, but also, by their instrumentality, actuates
|
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6110 the passive intellect. Therefore the intellect knows itself not by its essence, but by its act. This
|
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6111 happens in two ways: In the first place, singularly, as when Socrates or Plato perceives that he has an intellectual soul
|
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6112 because he perceives that he understands. In the second place, universally, as when we consider the nature of the human mind
|
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6113 from knowledge of the intellectual act. It is true, however, that the judgment and force of this knowledge, whereby we know
|
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6114 the nature of the soul, comes to us according to the derivation of our intellectual light from the Divine Truth which contains
|
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|
6115 the types of all things as above stated (
|
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|
6116 <a id="FP_Q87_A1-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A5.html">Q[84], A[5]</a>). Hence Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 6): "We gaze on the inviolable truth whence we can as perfectly as possible define,
|
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6117 not what each man's mind is, but what it ought to be in the light of the eternal types." There is, however, a difference between
|
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6118 these two kinds of knowledge, and it consists in this, that the mere presence of the mind suffices for the first; the mind
|
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6119 itself being the principle of action whereby it
|
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6120 perceives itself, and hence it is said to know itself by its own presence. But as regards the second kind of knowledge, the
|
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6121 mere presence of the mind does not suffice, and there is further required a careful and subtle inquiry. Hence many are ignorant
|
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6122 of the soul's nature, and many have erred about it. So Augustine says (De Trin. x, 9), concerning such mental inquiry: "Let
|
|
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6123 the mind strive not to see itself as if it were absent, but to discern itself as present"---i.e. to know how it differs
|
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6124 from other things; which is to know its essence and nature.
|
|
|
6125 </p>
|
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|
6126 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p8">
|
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|
6127 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The mind knows itself by means of itself, because at length it acquires knowledge of itself, though led thereto by its own
|
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6128 act: because it is itself that it knows since it loves itself, as he says in the same passage. For a thing can be called self-evident
|
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|
6129 in two ways, either because we can know it by nothing else except itself, as first principles are called self-evident; or
|
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6130 because it is not accidentally knowable, as color is visible of itself,
|
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6131 whereas substance is visible by its accident.
|
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|
6132 </p>
|
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|
6133 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p9">
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|
6134 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The essence of an angel is an act in the genus of intelligible things, and therefore it is both intellect and the thing understood.
|
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|
6135 Hence an angel apprehends his own essence through itself: not so the human mind, which is either altogether in potentiality
|
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|
6136 to intelligible things---as is the passive intellect---or is the act of intelligible things abstracted from the phantasms---as
|
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6137 is the active intellect.
|
|
|
6138 </p>
|
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6139 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p10">
|
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|
6140 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This saying of the Philosopher is universally true in every kind of intellect. For as sense in act is the sensible in act,
|
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|
6141 by reason of the sensible likeness which is the form of sense in act, so likewise the intellect in act is the object understood
|
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|
6142 in act, by reason of the likeness of the thing understood, which is the form of the intellect in act. So the human intellect,
|
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|
6143 which becomes actual by the species of the object understood, is itself
|
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|
6144 understood by the same species as by its own form. Now to say that in "things without matter the intellect and what is understood
|
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|
6145 are the same," is equal to saying that "as regards things actually understood the intellect and what is understood are the
|
|
|
6146 same." For a thing is actually understood in that it is immaterial. But a distinction must be drawn: since the essences of
|
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6147 some things are immaterial---as the separate substances called angels, each of which is understood and understands, whereas
|
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6148 there are other things whose essences are not wholly immaterial, but only the abstract likenesses thereof. Hence the Commentator
|
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|
6149 says (De Anima iii) that the proposition quoted is true only of separate substances; because in a sense it is verified in
|
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6150 their regard, and not in regard of other substances, as already stated (Reply OBJ 2).
|
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|
6151 </p>
|
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6152 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p11"></p>
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6153 <p id="FP_Q87_A1-p12"></p>
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6154 <a href="summa.FP_Q87.html"></a>
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6155 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html"></a>
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6156 </div>
|
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|
6157 <div id="FP_Q87_A2" class="div4">
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6158 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html"></a>
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6159 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A3.html"></a>
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6160 <h4 id="FP_Q87_A2-p0.1">Whether our intellect knows the habits of the soul by their essence?</h4>
|
|
|
6161 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6162 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p2">
|
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|
6163 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect knows the habits of the soul by their essence. For Augustine says (De Trin. xiii, 1): "Faith
|
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|
6164 is not seen in the heart wherein it abides, as the soul of a man may be seen by another from the movement of the body; but
|
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6165 we know most certainly that it is there, and conscience proclaims its existence"; and the same principle applies to the other
|
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|
6166 habits of the soul. Therefore the habits of the soul are not known by their acts, but by
|
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|
6167 themselves.
|
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|
6168 </p>
|
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|
6169 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p3">
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|
6170 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, material things outside the soul are known by their likeness being present in the soul, and are said therefore to
|
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|
6171 be known by their likenesses. But the soul's habits are present by their essence in the soul. Therefore the habits of the
|
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|
6172 soul are known by their essence.
|
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|
6173 </p>
|
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|
6174 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p4">
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|
6175 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "whatever is the cause of a thing being such is still more so." But habits and intelligible species cause things
|
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|
6176 to be known by the soul. Therefore they are still more known by the soul in themselves.
|
|
|
6177 </p>
|
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|
6178 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p5">
|
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|
6179 <b>On the contrary,</b> Habits like powers are the principles of acts. But as is said (De Anima ii, 4), "acts and operations are logically prior
|
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|
6180 to powers." Therefore in the same way they are prior to habits; and thus habits, like the powers, are known by their acts.
|
|
|
6181 </p>
|
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|
6182 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p6">
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|
6183 <b>I answer that,</b> A habit is a kind of medium between mere power and mere act. Now, it has been said
|
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|
6184 <a id="FP_Q87_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that nothing is known but as it is actual: therefore so far as a habit fails in being a perfect act, it falls short in being
|
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6185 of itself knowable, and can be known only by its act; thus, for example, anyone knows he has a habit from the fact that he
|
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|
6186 can produce the act proper to that habit; or he may inquire into the nature and idea of the habit
|
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|
6187 by considering the act. The first kind of knowledge of the habit arises from its being present, for the very fact of its presence
|
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|
6188 causes the act whereby it is known. The second kind of knowledge of the habit arises from a careful inquiry, as is explained
|
|
|
6189 above of the mind
|
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|
6190 <a id="FP_Q87_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html">(A[1])</a>.
|
|
|
6191 </p>
|
|
|
6192 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p7">
|
|
|
6193 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although faith is not known by external movement of the body, it is perceived by the subject wherein it resides, by the interior
|
|
|
6194 act of the heart. For no one knows that he has faith unless he knows that he believes.
|
|
|
6195 </p>
|
|
|
6196 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p8">
|
|
|
6197 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Habits are present in our intellect, not as its object since, in the present state of life, our intellect's object is the
|
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|
6198 nature of a material thing as stated above (
|
|
|
6199 <a id="FP_Q87_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>), but as that by which it understands.
|
|
|
6200 </p>
|
|
|
6201 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p9">
|
|
|
6202 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The axiom, "whatever is the cause of a thing being such, is still more so," is true of things that are of the same order,
|
|
|
6203 for instance, of the same kind of cause; for example, we may say that health is desirable on account of life, and therefore
|
|
|
6204 life is more desirable still. But if we take things of different orders the axiom is not true: for we may say that health
|
|
|
6205 is caused by medicine, but it does not follow that medicine is more desirable than
|
|
|
6206 health, for health belongs to the order of final causes, whereas medicine belongs to the order of efficient causes. So of
|
|
|
6207 two things belonging essentially to the order of the objects of knowledge, the one which is the cause of the other being known,
|
|
|
6208 is the more known, as principles are more known than conclusions. But habit as such does not belong to the order of objects
|
|
|
6209 of knowledge; nor are things known on account of the habit, as on account of an object known, but as on account of a
|
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6210 disposition or form whereby the subject knows: and therefore the argument does not prove.
|
|
|
6211 </p>
|
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|
6212 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p10"></p>
|
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6213 <p id="FP_Q87_A2-p11"></p>
|
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6214 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html"></a>
|
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6215 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A3.html"></a>
|
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6216 </div>
|
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6217 <div id="FP_Q87_A3" class="div4">
|
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6218 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html"></a>
|
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6219 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A4.html"></a>
|
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6220 <h4 id="FP_Q87_A3-p0.1">Whether our intellect knows its own act?</h4>
|
|
|
6221 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6222 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p2">
|
|
|
6223 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect does not know its own act. For what is known is the object of the knowing faculty. But the
|
|
|
6224 act differs from the object. Therefore the intellect does not know its own act.
|
|
|
6225 </p>
|
|
|
6226 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p3">
|
|
|
6227 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is known is known by some act. If, then, the intellect knows its own act, it knows it by some act, and
|
|
|
6228 again it knows that act by some other act; this is to proceed indefinitely, which seems impossible.
|
|
|
6229 </p>
|
|
|
6230 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p4">
|
|
|
6231 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect has the same relation to its act as sense has to its act. But the proper sense does not feel its own
|
|
|
6232 act, for this belongs to the common sense, as stated De Anima iii, 2. Therefore neither does the intellect understand its
|
|
|
6233 own act.
|
|
|
6234 </p>
|
|
|
6235 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p5">
|
|
|
6236 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11), "I understand that I understand."
|
|
|
6237 </p>
|
|
|
6238 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p6">
|
|
|
6239 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
6240 <a id="FP_Q87_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2) a thing is intelligible according as it is in act. Now the ultimate perfection of the intellect consists in its own operation:
|
|
|
6241 for this is not an act tending to something else in which lies the perfection of the work accomplished, as building is the
|
|
|
6242 perfection of the thing built; but it remains in the agent as its perfection and act, as is said Metaph. ix, Did. viii, 8.
|
|
|
6243 Therefore the first thing understood
|
|
|
6244 of the intellect is its own act of understanding. This occurs in different ways with different intellects. For there is an
|
|
|
6245 intellect, namely, the Divine, which is Its own act of intelligence, so that in God the understanding of His intelligence,
|
|
|
6246 and the understanding of His Essence, are one and the same act, because His Essence is His act of understanding. But there
|
|
|
6247 is another intellect, the angelic, which is not its own act of understanding, as we have said above (
|
|
|
6248 <a id="FP_Q87_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A1.html">Q[79],
|
|
|
6249 A[1]
|
|
|
6250 </a>), and yet the first object of that act is the angelic essence. Wherefore although there is a logical distinction between
|
|
|
6251 the act whereby he understands that he understands, and that whereby he understands his essence, yet he understands both by
|
|
|
6252 one and the same act; because to understand his own essence is the proper perfection of his essence, and by one and the same
|
|
|
6253 act is a thing, together with its perfection, understood. And there is yet another, namely, the human intellect, which
|
|
|
6254 neither is its own act of understanding, nor is its own essence the first object of its act of understanding, for this object
|
|
|
6255 is the nature of a material thing. And therefore that which is first known by the human intellect is an object of this kind,
|
|
|
6256 and that which is known secondarily is the act by which that object is known; and through the act the intellect itself is
|
|
|
6257 known, the perfection of which is this act of understanding. For this reason did the Philosopher assert that objects are known
|
|
|
6258 before acts, and acts before powers (De Anima ii, 4).
|
|
|
6259 </p>
|
|
|
6260 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p7">
|
|
|
6261 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The object of the intellect is something universal, namely, "being" and "the true," in which the act also of understanding
|
|
|
6262 is comprised. Wherefore the intellect can understand its own act. But not primarily, since the first object of our intellect,
|
|
|
6263 in this state of life, is not every being and everything true, but "being" and "true," as considered in material things, as
|
|
|
6264 we have said above (
|
|
|
6265 <a id="FP_Q87_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>), from which it acquires
|
|
|
6266 knowledge of all other things.
|
|
|
6267 </p>
|
|
|
6268 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p8">
|
|
|
6269 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The intelligent act of the human intellect is not the act and perfection of the material nature understood, as if the nature
|
|
|
6270 of the material thing and intelligent act could be understood by one act; just as a thing and its perfection are understood
|
|
|
6271 by one act. Hence the act whereby the intellect understands a stone is distinct from the act whereby it understands that it
|
|
|
6272 understands a stone; and so on. Nor is there any difficulty in the intellect being
|
|
|
6273 thus potentially infinite, as explained above (
|
|
|
6274 <a id="FP_Q87_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A2.html">Q[86], A[2]</a>).
|
|
|
6275 </p>
|
|
|
6276 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p9">
|
|
|
6277 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The proper sense feels by reason of the immutation in the material organ caused by the external sensible. A material object,
|
|
|
6278 however, cannot immute itself; but one is immuted by another, and therefore the act of the proper sense is perceived by the
|
|
|
6279 common sense. The intellect, on the contrary, does not perform the act of understanding by the material immutation of an organ;
|
|
|
6280 and so there is no comparison.
|
|
|
6281 </p>
|
|
|
6282 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6283 <p id="FP_Q87_A3-p11"></p>
|
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|
6284 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6285 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6286 </div>
|
|
|
6287 <div id="FP_Q87_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
6288 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6289 <a href="summa.FP_Q88.html"></a>
|
|
|
6290 <h4 id="FP_Q87_A4-p0.1">Whether the intellect understands the act of the will?</h4>
|
|
|
6291 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6292 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p2">
|
|
|
6293 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intellect does not understand the act of the will. For nothing is known by the intellect, unless it
|
|
|
6294 be in some way present in the intellect. But the act of the will is not in the intellect; since the will and the intellect
|
|
|
6295 are distinct. Therefore the act of the will is not known by the intellect.
|
|
|
6296 </p>
|
|
|
6297 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p3">
|
|
|
6298 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the act is specified by the object. But the object of the will is not the same as the object of the intellect. Therefore
|
|
|
6299 the act of the will is specifically distinct from the object of the intellect, and therefore the act of the will is not known
|
|
|
6300 by the intellect.
|
|
|
6301 </p>
|
|
|
6302 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p4">
|
|
|
6303 <b>Objection 3:</b> Augustine (Confess. x, 17) says of the soul's affections that "they are known neither by images as bodies are known; nor
|
|
|
6304 by their presence, like the arts; but by certain notions." Now it does not seem that there can be in the soul any other notions
|
|
|
6305 of things but either the essences of things known or the likenesses thereof. Therefore it seems impossible for the intellect
|
|
|
6306 to known such affections of the soul as the acts of the will.
|
|
|
6307 </p>
|
|
|
6308 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p5">
|
|
|
6309 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11), "I understand that I will."
|
|
|
6310 </p>
|
|
|
6311 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p6">
|
|
|
6312 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
6313 <a id="FP_Q87_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q59_A1.html">Q[59], A[1]</a>), the act of the will is nothing but an inclination consequent on the form understood; just as the natural appetite is an
|
|
|
6314 inclination consequent on the natural form. Now the inclination of a thing resides in it according to its mode of existence;
|
|
|
6315 and hence the natural inclination resides in a natural thing naturally, and the inclination called the sensible appetite is
|
|
|
6316 in the sensible thing sensibly; and
|
|
|
6317 likewise the intelligible inclination, which is the act of the will, is in the intelligent subject intelligibly as in its
|
|
|
6318 principle and proper subject. Hence the Philosopher expresses himself thus (De Anima iii, 9)---that "the will is in the reason."
|
|
|
6319 Now whatever is intelligibly in an intelligent subject, is understood by that subject. Therefore the act of the will is understood
|
|
|
6320 by the intellect, both inasmuch as one knows that one wills; and inasmuch as one knows the nature of this act, and
|
|
|
6321 consequently, the nature of its principle which is the habit or power.
|
|
|
6322 </p>
|
|
|
6323 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p7">
|
|
|
6324 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument would hold good if the will and the intellect were in different subjects, as they are distinct powers; for
|
|
|
6325 then whatever was in the will would not be in the intellect. But as both are rooted in the same substance of the soul, and
|
|
|
6326 since one is in a certain way the principle of the other, consequently what is in the will is, in a certain way, also in the
|
|
|
6327 intellect.
|
|
|
6328 </p>
|
|
|
6329 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p8">
|
|
|
6330 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The "good" and the "true" which are the objects of the will and of the intellect, differ logically, but one is contained
|
|
|
6331 in the other, as we have said above (
|
|
|
6332 <a id="FP_Q87_A4-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A4.html">Q[82], A[4]</a>, ad 1;
|
|
|
6333 <a id="FP_Q87_A4-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q16_A4.html">Q[16], A[4]</a>, ad 1); for the true is good and the good is true. Therefore the objects of the will fall under the intellect, and those
|
|
|
6334 of the intellect can fall under the will.
|
|
|
6335 </p>
|
|
|
6336 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p9">
|
|
|
6337 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The affections of the soul are in the intellect not by similitude only, like bodies; nor by being present in their subject,
|
|
|
6338 as the arts; but as the thing caused is in its principle, which contains some notion of the thing caused. And so Augustine
|
|
|
6339 says that the soul's affections are in the memory by certain notions.
|
|
|
6340 </p>
|
|
|
6341 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6342 <p id="FP_Q87_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6343 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6344 <a href="summa.FP_Q88.html"></a>
|
|
|
6345 </div>
|
|
|
6346 <a href="summa.FP_Q86_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6347 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6348 </div>
|
|
|
6349 <div id="FP_Q88" class="div3">
|
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|
6350 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
6351 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6352 <h3 id="FP_Q88-p0.1">HOW THE HUMAN SOUL KNOWS WHAT IS ABOVE ITSELF (THREE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
6353 <p id="FP_Q88-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6354 <p id="FP_Q88-p2"> We must now consider how the human soul knows what is above itself, viz. immaterial substances. Under this head there are
|
|
|
6355 three points of inquiry:
|
|
|
6356 </p>
|
|
|
6357 <p id="FP_Q88-p3"> (1) Whether the human soul in the present state of life can understand the immaterial substances called angels, in themselves?</p>
|
|
|
6358 <p id="FP_Q88-p4"> (2) Whether it can arrive at the knowledge thereof by the knowledge of material things?</p>
|
|
|
6359 <p id="FP_Q88-p5"> (3) Whether God is the first object of our knowledge?</p>
|
|
|
6360 <div id="FP_Q88_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
6361 <a href="summa.FP_Q88.html"></a>
|
|
|
6362 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6363 <h4 id="FP_Q88_A1-p0.1">Whether the human soul in the present state of life can understand immaterial substances in themselves?</h4>
|
|
|
6364 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6365 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p2">
|
|
|
6366 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human soul in the present state of life can understand immaterial substances in themselves. For Augustine
|
|
|
6367 (De Trin. ix, 3) says: "As the mind itself acquires the knowledge of corporeal things by means of the corporeal senses, so
|
|
|
6368 it gains from itself the knowledge of incorporeal things." But these are the immaterial substances. Therefore the human mind
|
|
|
6369 understands immaterial substances.
|
|
|
6370 </p>
|
|
|
6371 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p3">
|
|
|
6372 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, like is known by like. But the human mind is more akin to immaterial than to material things; since its own nature
|
|
|
6373 is immaterial, as is clear from what we have said above (
|
|
|
6374 <a id="FP_Q88_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>). Since then our mind understands material things, much more is it able to understand immaterial things.
|
|
|
6375 </p>
|
|
|
6376 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p4">
|
|
|
6377 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the fact that objects which are in themselves most sensible are not most felt by us, comes from sense being corrupted
|
|
|
6378 by their very excellence. But the intellect is not subject to such a corrupting influence from its object, as is stated De
|
|
|
6379 Anima iii, 4. Therefore things which are in themselves in the highest degree of intelligibility, are likewise to us most intelligible.
|
|
|
6380 As material things, however, are intelligible only so far as we make them
|
|
|
6381 actually so by abstracting them from material conditions, it is clear that those substances are more intelligible in themselves
|
|
|
6382 whose nature is immaterial. Therefore they are much more known to us than are material things.
|
|
|
6383 </p>
|
|
|
6384 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p5">
|
|
|
6385 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Commentator says (Metaph. ii) that "nature would be frustrated in its end" were we unable to understand abstract
|
|
|
6386 substances, "because it would have made what in itself is naturally intelligible not to be understood at all." But in nature
|
|
|
6387 nothing is idle or purposeless. Therefore immaterial substances can be understood by us.
|
|
|
6388 </p>
|
|
|
6389 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p6">
|
|
|
6390 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, as sense is to the sensible, so is intellect to the intelligible. But our sight can see all things corporeal, whether
|
|
|
6391 superior and incorruptible; or lower and corruptible. Therefore our intellect can understand all intelligible substances,
|
|
|
6392 even the superior and immaterial.
|
|
|
6393 </p>
|
|
|
6394 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p7">
|
|
|
6395 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
6396 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q88_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.9.16" target="asv">Wis. 9:16</a>): "The things that are in heaven, who shall search out?" But these substances are said to be in heaven, according to
|
|
|
6397 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q88_A1-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.10" target="asv"> Mat. 18:10, </a> "Their angels in heaven," etc. Therefore immaterial substances cannot be known by human investigation.
|
|
|
6398 </p>
|
|
|
6399 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p8">
|
|
|
6400 <b>I answer that,</b> In the opinion of Plato, immaterial substances are not only understood by us, but are the objects we understand first of
|
|
|
6401 all. For Plato taught that immaterial subsisting forms, which he called "Ideas," are the proper objects of our intellect,
|
|
|
6402 and thus first and "per se" understood by us; and, further, that material objects are known by the soul inasmuch as phantasy
|
|
|
6403 and sense are mixed up with the mind. Hence the purer the intellect is, so much the more
|
|
|
6404 clearly does it perceive the intelligible truth of immaterial things.
|
|
|
6405 </p>
|
|
|
6406 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p9"> But in Aristotle's opinion, which experience corroborates, our intellect in its present state of life has a natural relationship
|
|
|
6407 to the natures of material things; and therefore it can only understand by turning to the phantasms, as we have said above
|
|
|
6408 (
|
|
|
6409 <a id="FP_Q88_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>). Thus it clearly appears that immaterial substances which do not fall under sense and imagination, cannot first and "per
|
|
|
6410 se" be known by us, according to the mode of knowledge which experience
|
|
|
6411 proves us to have.
|
|
|
6412 </p>
|
|
|
6413 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p10"> Nevertheless Averroes (Comment. De Anima iii) teaches that in this present life man can in the end arrive at the knowledge
|
|
|
6414 of separate substances by being coupled or united to some separate substance, which he calls the "active intellect," and which,
|
|
|
6415 being a separate substance itself, can naturally understand separate substances. Hence, when it is perfectly united to us
|
|
|
6416 so that by its means we are able to understand perfectly, we also shall be able to understand separate
|
|
|
6417 substances, as in the present life through the medium of the passive intellect united to us, we can understand material things.
|
|
|
6418 Now he said that the active intellect is united to us, thus. For since we understand by means of both the active intellect
|
|
|
6419 and intelligible objects, as, for instance, we understand conclusions by principles understood; it is clear that the active
|
|
|
6420 intellect must be compared to the objects understood, either as the principal agent is to the instrument, or as form to
|
|
|
6421 matter. For an action is ascribed to two principles in one of these two ways; to a principal agent and to an instrument, as
|
|
|
6422 cutting to the workman and the saw; to a form and its subject, as heating to heat and fire. In both these ways the active
|
|
|
6423 intellect can be compared to the intelligible object as perfection is to the perfectible, and as act is to potentiality. Now
|
|
|
6424 a subject is made perfect and receives its perfection at one and the same time, as the reception of what is actually visible
|
|
|
6425 synchronizes with the reception of light in the eye. Therefore the passive intellect receives the intelligible object and
|
|
|
6426 the active intellect together; and the more numerous the intelligible objects received, so much the nearer do we come to the
|
|
|
6427 point of perfect union between ourselves and the active intellect; so much so that when we understand all the intelligible
|
|
|
6428 objects, the active intellect becomes one with us, and by its instrumentality we can understand all things material and
|
|
|
6429 immaterial. In this he makes the ultimate happiness of man to consist. Nor, as regards the present inquiry, does it matter
|
|
|
6430 whether the passive intellect in that state of happiness understands separate substances by the instrumentality of the active
|
|
|
6431 intellect, as he himself maintains, or whether (as he says Alexander holds) the passive intellect can never understand separate
|
|
|
6432 substances (because according to him it is corruptible), but man understands separate substances by means of the active
|
|
|
6433 intellect.
|
|
|
6434 </p>
|
|
|
6435 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p11"> This opinion, however, is untrue. First, because, supposing the active intellect to be a separate substance, we could not
|
|
|
6436 formally understand by its instrumentality, for the medium of an agent's formal action consists in its form and act, since
|
|
|
6437 every agent acts according to its actuality, as was said of the passive intellect (
|
|
|
6438 <a id="FP_Q88_A1-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q70_A1.html">Q[70], A[1]</a>). Secondly, this opinion is untrue, because in the above explanation, the active intellect, supposing it to be a
|
|
|
6439 separate substance, would not be joined to us in its substance, but only in its light, as participated in things understood;
|
|
|
6440 and would not extend to the other acts of the active intellect so as to enable us to understand immaterial substances; just
|
|
|
6441 as when we see colors set off by the sun, we are not united to the substance of the sun so as to act like the sun, but its
|
|
|
6442 light only is united to us, that we may see the colors. Thirdly, this opinion is untrue, because granted that, as above
|
|
|
6443 explained, the active intellect were united to us in substance, still it is not said that it is wholly so united in regard
|
|
|
6444 to one intelligible object, or two; but rather in regard to all intelligible objects. But all such objects together do not
|
|
|
6445 equal the force of the active intellect, as it is a much greater thing to understand separate substances than to understand
|
|
|
6446 all material things. Hence it clearly follows that the knowledge of all material things would not make the active intellect
|
|
|
6447 to be
|
|
|
6448 so united to us as to enable us by its instrumentality to understand separate substances.
|
|
|
6449 </p>
|
|
|
6450 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p12"> Fourthly, this opinion is untrue, because it is hardly possible for anyone in this world to understand all material things:
|
|
|
6451 and thus no one, or very few, could reach to perfect felicity; which is against what the Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 9), that
|
|
|
6452 happiness is a "kind of common good, communicable to all capable of virtue." Further, it is unreasonable that only the few
|
|
|
6453 of any species attain to the end of the species.
|
|
|
6454 </p>
|
|
|
6455 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p13"> Fifthly, the Philosopher expressly says (Ethic. i, 10), that happiness is "an operation according to perfect virtue"; and
|
|
|
6456 after enumerating many virtues in the tenth book, he concludes (Ethic. i, 7) that ultimate happiness consisting in the knowledge
|
|
|
6457 of the highest things intelligible is attained through the virtue of wisdom, which in the sixth chapter he had named as the
|
|
|
6458 chief of speculative sciences. Hence Aristotle clearly places the ultimate felicity of man in the knowledge
|
|
|
6459 of separate substances, obtainable by speculative science; and not by being united to the active intellect as some imagined.
|
|
|
6460 </p>
|
|
|
6461 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p14"> Sixthly, as was shown above (
|
|
|
6462 <a id="FP_Q88_A1-p14.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A4.html">Q[79], A[4]</a>), the active intellect is not a separate substance; but a faculty of the soul, extending itself actively to the same objects
|
|
|
6463 to which the passive intellect extends receptively; because, as is stated (De Anima iii, 5), the passive intellect is "all
|
|
|
6464 things potentially," and the active intellect is "all things in act." Therefore both intellects, according to the present
|
|
|
6465 state of life, extend to material things only,
|
|
|
6466 which are made actually intelligible by the active intellect, and are received in the passive intellect. Hence in the present
|
|
|
6467 state of life we cannot understand separate immaterial substances in themselves, either by the passive or by the active intellect.
|
|
|
6468 </p>
|
|
|
6469 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p15">
|
|
|
6470 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine may be taken to mean that the knowledge of incorporeal things in the mind can be gained by the mind itself. This
|
|
|
6471 is so true that philosophers also say that the knowledge concerning the soul is a principle for the knowledge of separate
|
|
|
6472 substances. For by knowing itself, it attains to some knowledge of incorporeal substances, such as is within its compass;
|
|
|
6473 not that the knowledge of itself gives it a perfect and absolute knowledge of them.
|
|
|
6474 </p>
|
|
|
6475 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p16">
|
|
|
6476 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The likeness of nature is not a sufficient cause of knowledge; otherwise what Empedocles said would be true ---that the soul
|
|
|
6477 needs to have the nature of all in order to know all. But knowledge requires that the likeness of the thing known be in the
|
|
|
6478 knower, as a kind of form thereof. Now our passive intellect, in the present state of life, is such that it can be informed
|
|
|
6479 with similitudes abstracted from phantasms: and therefore it knows material things
|
|
|
6480 rather than immaterial substances.
|
|
|
6481 </p>
|
|
|
6482 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p17">
|
|
|
6483 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There must needs be some proportion between the object and the faculty of knowledge; such as of the active to the passive,
|
|
|
6484 and of perfection to the perfectible. Hence that sensible objects of great power are not grasped by the senses, is due not
|
|
|
6485 merely to the fact that they corrupt the organ, but also to their being improportionate to the sensitive power. And thus it
|
|
|
6486 is that immaterial substances are improportionate to our intellect, in our present
|
|
|
6487 state of life, so that it cannot understand them.
|
|
|
6488 </p>
|
|
|
6489 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p18">
|
|
|
6490 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> This argument of the Commentator fails in several ways. First, because if separate substances are not understood by us, it
|
|
|
6491 does not follow that they are not understood by any intellect; for they are understood by themselves, and by one another.
|
|
|
6492 </p>
|
|
|
6493 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p19"> Secondly, to be understood by us is not the end of separate substances: while only that is vain and purposeless, which fails
|
|
|
6494 to attain its end. It does not follow, therefore, that immaterial substances are purposeless, even if they are not understood
|
|
|
6495 by us at all.
|
|
|
6496 </p>
|
|
|
6497 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p20">
|
|
|
6498 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Sense knows bodies, whether superior or inferior, in the same way, that is, by the sensible acting on the organ. But we do
|
|
|
6499 not understand material and immaterial substances in the same way. The former we understand by a process of abstraction, which
|
|
|
6500 is impossible in the case of the latter, for there are no phantasms of what is immaterial.
|
|
|
6501 </p>
|
|
|
6502 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p21"></p>
|
|
|
6503 <p id="FP_Q88_A1-p22"></p>
|
|
|
6504 <a href="summa.FP_Q88.html"></a>
|
|
|
6505 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6506 </div>
|
|
|
6507 <div id="FP_Q88_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
6508 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6509 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6510 <h4 id="FP_Q88_A2-p0.1">Whether our intellect can understand immaterial substances through its knowledge of material things?</h4>
|
|
|
6511 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6512 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p2">
|
|
|
6513 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that our intellect can know immaterial substances through the knowledge of material things. For Dionysius says
|
|
|
6514 (Coel. Hier. i) that "the human mind cannot be raised up to immaterial contemplation of the heavenly hierarchies, unless it
|
|
|
6515 is led thereto by material guidance according to its own nature." Therefore we can be led by material things to know immaterial
|
|
|
6516 substances.
|
|
|
6517 </p>
|
|
|
6518 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p3">
|
|
|
6519 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, science resides in the intellect. But there are sciences and definitions of immaterial substances; for Damascene
|
|
|
6520 defines an angel (De Fide Orth. ii, 3); and we find angels treated of both in theology and philosophy. Therefore immaterial
|
|
|
6521 substances can be understood by us.
|
|
|
6522 </p>
|
|
|
6523 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p4">
|
|
|
6524 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the human soul belongs to the genus of immaterial substances. But it can be understood by us through its act by
|
|
|
6525 which it understands material things. Therefore also other material substances can be understood by us, through their material
|
|
|
6526 effects.
|
|
|
6527 </p>
|
|
|
6528 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p5">
|
|
|
6529 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the only cause which cannot be comprehended through its effects is that which is infinitely distant from them, and
|
|
|
6530 this belongs to God alone. Therefore other created immaterial substances can be understood by us through material things.
|
|
|
6531 </p>
|
|
|
6532 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p6">
|
|
|
6533 <b>On the contrary,</b> Dionysius says (Div. Nom. i) that "intelligible things cannot be understood through sensible things, nor composite things
|
|
|
6534 through simple, nor incorporeal through corporeal."
|
|
|
6535 </p>
|
|
|
6536 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p7">
|
|
|
6537 <b>I answer that,</b> Averroes says (De Anima iii) that a philosopher named Avempace [*Ibn-Badja, Arabian Philosopher; ob. 1183] taught that by
|
|
|
6538 the understanding of natural substances we can be led, according to true philosophical principles, to the knowledge of immaterial
|
|
|
6539 substances. For since the nature of our intellect is to abstract the quiddity of material things from matter, anything material
|
|
|
6540 residing in that abstracted quiddity can again be made subject to abstraction; and
|
|
|
6541 as the process of abstraction cannot go on forever, it must arrive at length at some immaterial quiddity, absolutely without
|
|
|
6542 matter; and this would be the understanding of immaterial substance.
|
|
|
6543 </p>
|
|
|
6544 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p8"> Now this opinion would be true, were immaterial substances the forms and species of these material things; as the Platonists
|
|
|
6545 supposed. But supposing, on the contrary, that immaterial substances differ altogether from the quiddity of material things,
|
|
|
6546 it follows that however much our intellect abstract the quiddity of material things from matter, it could never arrive at
|
|
|
6547 anything akin to immaterial substance. Therefore we are not able perfectly to understand immaterial substances
|
|
|
6548 through material substances.
|
|
|
6549 </p>
|
|
|
6550 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p9">
|
|
|
6551 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> From material things we can rise to some kind of knowledge of immaterial things, but not to the perfect knowledge thereof;
|
|
|
6552 for there is no proper and adequate proportion between material and immaterial things, and the likenesses drawn from material
|
|
|
6553 things for the understanding of immaterial things are very dissimilar therefrom, as Dionysius says (Coel. Hier. ii).
|
|
|
6554 </p>
|
|
|
6555 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p10">
|
|
|
6556 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Science treats of higher things principally by way of negation. Thus Aristotle (De Coel. i, 3) explains the heavenly bodies
|
|
|
6557 by denying to them inferior corporeal properties. Hence it follows that much less can immaterial substances be known by us
|
|
|
6558 in such a way as to make us know their quiddity; but we may have a scientific knowledge of them by way of negation and by
|
|
|
6559 their relation to material things.
|
|
|
6560 </p>
|
|
|
6561 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p11">
|
|
|
6562 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The human soul understands itself through its own act of understanding, which is proper to it, showing perfectly its power
|
|
|
6563 and nature. But the power and nature of immaterial substances cannot be perfectly known through such act, nor through any
|
|
|
6564 other material thing, because there is no proportion between the latter and the power of the former.
|
|
|
6565 </p>
|
|
|
6566 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p12">
|
|
|
6567 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Created immaterial substances are not in the same natural genus as material substances, for they do not agree in power or
|
|
|
6568 in matter; but they belong to the same logical genus, because even immaterial substances are in the predicament of substance,
|
|
|
6569 as their essence is distinct from their existence. But God has no connection with material things, as regards either natural
|
|
|
6570 genus or logical genus; because God is in no genus, as stated above (
|
|
|
6571 <a id="FP_Q88_A2-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q3_A5.html">Q[3], A[5]</a>). Hence through the likeness derived from material things we can know something positive concerning the angels, according
|
|
|
6572 to some common notion, though not according to the specific nature; whereas we cannot acquire any such knowledge at all about
|
|
|
6573 God.
|
|
|
6574 </p>
|
|
|
6575 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
6576 <p id="FP_Q88_A2-p14"></p>
|
|
|
6577 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6578 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6579 </div>
|
|
|
6580 <div id="FP_Q88_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
6581 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6582 <a href="summa.FP_Q89.html"></a>
|
|
|
6583 <h4 id="FP_Q88_A3-p0.1">Whether God is the first object known by the human mind?</h4>
|
|
|
6584 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6585 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p2">
|
|
|
6586 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God is the first object known by the human mind. For that object in which all others are known, and by
|
|
|
6587 which we judge others, is the first thing known to us; as light is to the eye, and first principles to the intellect. But
|
|
|
6588 we know all things in the light of the first truth, and thereby judge of all things, as Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 2; De
|
|
|
6589 Vera Relig. xxxi; [*Confess. xii, 25]). Therefore God is the first object known to us.
|
|
|
6590 </p>
|
|
|
6591 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p3">
|
|
|
6592 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever causes a thing to be such is more so. But God is the cause of all our knowledge; for He is "the true light
|
|
|
6593 which enlighteneth every man that cometh into this world" (
|
|
|
6594 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q88_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#John.1.9" target="asv">Jn. 1:9</a>). Therefore God is our first and most known object.
|
|
|
6595 </p>
|
|
|
6596 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p4">
|
|
|
6597 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what is first known in the image is the exemplar to which it is made. But in our mind is the image of God, as Augustine
|
|
|
6598 says (De Trin. xii, 4,7). Therefore God is the first object known to our mind.
|
|
|
6599 </p>
|
|
|
6600 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p5">
|
|
|
6601 <b>On the contrary,</b> "No man hath seen God at any time" (
|
|
|
6602 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q88_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.1.18" target="asv">Jn. 1:18</a>).
|
|
|
6603 </p>
|
|
|
6604 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p6">
|
|
|
6605 <b>I answer that,</b> Since the human intellect in the present state of life cannot understand even immaterial created substances
|
|
|
6606 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, much less can it understand the essence of the uncreated substance. Hence it must be said simply that God is not the first
|
|
|
6607 object of our knowledge. Rather do we know God through creatures, according to the Apostle (
|
|
|
6608 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q88_A3-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv">Rom. 1:20</a>), "the invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood by the
|
|
|
6609 things that are made": while the first object of our knowledge in this life is the "quiddity of a material thing," which is
|
|
|
6610 the proper object of our intellect, as appears above in many passages (
|
|
|
6611 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>;
|
|
|
6612 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p6.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A8.html">Q[85], A[8]</a>;
|
|
|
6613 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p6.5" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html">Q[87], A[2]</a>, ad 2)
|
|
|
6614 </p>
|
|
|
6615 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p7">
|
|
|
6616 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We see and judge of all things in the light of the first truth, forasmuch as the light itself of our mind, whether natural
|
|
|
6617 or gratuitous, is nothing else than the impression of the first truth upon it, as stated above (
|
|
|
6618 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q12_A2.html">Q[12], A[2]</a>). Hence, as the light itself of our intellect is not the object it understands, much less can it be said that God is the
|
|
|
6619 first object known by our intellect.
|
|
|
6620 </p>
|
|
|
6621 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p8">
|
|
|
6622 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The axiom, "Whatever causes a thing to be such is more so," must be understood of things belonging to one and the same order,
|
|
|
6623 as explained above (
|
|
|
6624 <a id="FP_Q88_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html">Q[81], A[2]</a>, ad 3). Other things than God are known because of God; not as if He were the first known object, but because He is the first
|
|
|
6625 cause of our faculty of knowledge.
|
|
|
6626 </p>
|
|
|
6627 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p9">
|
|
|
6628 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If there existed in our souls a perfect image of God, as the Son is the perfect image of the Father, our mind would know
|
|
|
6629 God at once. But the image in our mind is imperfect; hence the argument does not prove.
|
|
|
6630 </p>
|
|
|
6631 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6632 <p id="FP_Q88_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6633 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6634 <a href="summa.FP_Q89.html"></a>
|
|
|
6635 </div>
|
|
|
6636 <a href="summa.FP_Q87_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6637 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6638 </div>
|
|
|
6639 <div id="FP_Q89" class="div3">
|
|
|
6640 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6641 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6642 <h3 id="FP_Q89-p0.1">OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SEPARATED SOUL (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
6643 <p id="FP_Q89-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6644 <p id="FP_Q89-p2"> We must now consider the knowledge of the separated soul. Under this head there are eight points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
6645 <p id="FP_Q89-p3"> (1) Whether the soul separated from the body can understand?</p>
|
|
|
6646 <p id="FP_Q89-p4"> (2) Whether it understands separate substances?</p>
|
|
|
6647 <p id="FP_Q89-p5"> (3) Whether it understands all natural things?</p>
|
|
|
6648 <p id="FP_Q89-p6"> (4) Whether it understands individuals and singulars?</p>
|
|
|
6649 <p id="FP_Q89-p7"> (5) Whether the habits of knowledge acquired in this life remain?</p>
|
|
|
6650 <p id="FP_Q89-p8"> (6) Whether the soul can use the habit of knowledge here acquired?</p>
|
|
|
6651 <p id="FP_Q89-p9"> (7) Whether local distance impedes the separated soul's knowledge?</p>
|
|
|
6652 <p id="FP_Q89-p10"> (8) Whether souls separated from the body know what happens here?</p>
|
|
|
6653 <div id="FP_Q89_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
6654 <a href="summa.FP_Q89.html"></a>
|
|
|
6655 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6656 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A1-p0.1">Whether the separated soul can understand anything?</h4>
|
|
|
6657 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6658 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p2">
|
|
|
6659 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul separated from the body can understand nothing at all. For the Philosopher says (De Anima i,
|
|
|
6660 4) that "the understanding is corrupted together with its interior principle." But by death all human interior principles
|
|
|
6661 are corrupted. Therefore also the intellect itself is corrupted.
|
|
|
6662 </p>
|
|
|
6663 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p3">
|
|
|
6664 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the human soul is hindered from understanding when the senses are tied, and by a distracted imagination, as explained
|
|
|
6665 above (
|
|
|
6666 <a id="FP_Q89_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], AA[7]</a>,8). But death destroys the senses and imagination, as we have shown above (
|
|
|
6667 <a id="FP_Q89_A1-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html">Q[77], A[8]</a>). Therefore after death the soul understands nothing.
|
|
|
6668 </p>
|
|
|
6669 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p4">
|
|
|
6670 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if the separated soul can understand, this must be by means of some species. But it does not understand by means
|
|
|
6671 of innate species, because it has none such; being at first "like a tablet on which nothing is written": nor does it understand
|
|
|
6672 by species abstracted from things, for it does not then possess organs of sense and imagination which are necessary for the
|
|
|
6673 abstraction of species: nor does it understand by means of species, formerly abstracted
|
|
|
6674 and retained in the soul; for if that were so, a child's soul would have no means of understanding at all: nor does it understand
|
|
|
6675 by means of intelligible species divinely infused, for such knowledge would not be natural, such as we treat of now, but the
|
|
|
6676 effect of grace. Therefore the soul apart from the body understands nothing.
|
|
|
6677 </p>
|
|
|
6678 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p5">
|
|
|
6679 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima i, 1), "If the soul had no proper operation, it could not be separated from the body." But
|
|
|
6680 the soul is separated from the body; therefore it has a proper operation and above all, that which consists in intelligence.
|
|
|
6681 Therefore the soul can understand when it is apart from the body.
|
|
|
6682 </p>
|
|
|
6683 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p6">
|
|
|
6684 <b>I answer that,</b> The difficulty in solving this question arises from the fact that the soul united to the body can understand only by turning
|
|
|
6685 to the phantasms, as experience shows. Did this not proceed from the soul's very nature, but accidentally through its being
|
|
|
6686 bound up with the body, as the Platonists said, the difficulty would vanish; for in that case when the body was once removed,
|
|
|
6687 the soul would at once return to its own nature, and would understand intelligible
|
|
|
6688 things simply, without turning to the phantasms, as is exemplified in the case of other separate substances. In that case,
|
|
|
6689 however, the union of soul and body would not be for the soul's good, for evidently it would understand worse in the body
|
|
|
6690 than out of it; but for the good of the body, which would be unreasonable, since matter exists on account of the form, and
|
|
|
6691 not the form for the sake of matter. But if we admit that the nature of the soul requires it to understand by turning to the
|
|
|
6692 phantasms, it will seem, since death does not change its nature, that it can then naturally understand nothing; as the phantasms
|
|
|
6693 are wanting to which it may turn.
|
|
|
6694 </p>
|
|
|
6695 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p7"> To solve this difficulty we must consider that as nothing acts except so far as it is actual, the mode of action in every
|
|
|
6696 agent follows from its mode of existence. Now the soul has one mode of being when in the body, and another when apart from
|
|
|
6697 it, its nature remaining always the same; but this does not mean that its union with the body is an accidental thing, for,
|
|
|
6698 on the contrary, such union belongs to its very nature, just as the nature of a light object is not changed, when
|
|
|
6699 it is in its proper place, which is natural to it, and outside its proper place, which is beside its nature. The soul, therefore,
|
|
|
6700 when united to the body, consistently with that mode of existence, has a mode of understanding, by turning to corporeal phantasms,
|
|
|
6701 which are in corporeal organs; but when it is separated from the body, it has a mode of understanding, by turning to simply
|
|
|
6702 intelligible objects, as is proper to other separate substances. Hence it is as natural for the soul to understand
|
|
|
6703 by turning to the phantasms as it is for it to be joined to the body; but to be separated from the body is not in accordance
|
|
|
6704 with its nature, and likewise to understand without turning to the phantasms is not natural to it; and hence it is united
|
|
|
6705 to the body in order that it may have an existence and an operation suitable to its nature. But here again a difficulty arises.
|
|
|
6706 For since nature is always ordered to what is best, and since it is better to understand by turning to simply intelligible
|
|
|
6707 objects than by turning to the phantasms; God should have ordered the soul's nature so that the nobler way of understanding
|
|
|
6708 would have been natural to it, and it would not have needed the body for that purpose.
|
|
|
6709 </p>
|
|
|
6710 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p8"> In order to resolve this difficulty we must consider that while it is true that it is nobler in itself to understand by turning
|
|
|
6711 to something higher than to understand by turning to phantasms, nevertheless such a mode of understanding was not so perfect
|
|
|
6712 as regards what was possible to the soul. This will appear if we consider that every intellectual substance possesses intellective
|
|
|
6713 power by the influence of the Divine light, which is one and simple in its first principle, and the
|
|
|
6714 farther off intellectual creatures are from the first principle so much the more is the light divided and diversified, as
|
|
|
6715 is the case with lines radiating from the centre of a circle. Hence it is that God by His one Essence understands all things;
|
|
|
6716 while the superior intellectual substances understand by means of a number of species, which nevertheless are fewer and more
|
|
|
6717 universal and bestow a deeper comprehension of things, because of the efficaciousness of the intellectual power of such
|
|
|
6718 natures: whereas the inferior intellectual natures possess a greater number of species, which are less universal, and bestow
|
|
|
6719 a lower degree of comprehension, in proportion as they recede from the intellectual power of the higher natures. If, therefore,
|
|
|
6720 the inferior substances received species in the same degree of universality as the superior substances, since they are not
|
|
|
6721 so strong in understanding, the knowledge which they would derive through them would be imperfect, and of a general and
|
|
|
6722 confused nature. We can see this to a certain extent in man, for those who are of weaker intellect fail to acquire perfect
|
|
|
6723 knowledge through the universal conceptions of those who have a better understanding, unless things are explained to them
|
|
|
6724 singly and in detail. Now it is clear that in the natural order human souls hold the lowest place among intellectual substances.
|
|
|
6725 But the perfection of the universe required various grades of being. If, therefore, God had willed souls to understand in
|
|
|
6726 the
|
|
|
6727 same way as separate substances, it would follow that human knowledge, so far from being perfect, would be confused and general.
|
|
|
6728 Therefore to make it possible for human souls to possess perfect and proper knowledge, they were so made that their nature
|
|
|
6729 required them to be joined to bodies, and thus to receive the proper and adequate knowledge of sensible things from the sensible
|
|
|
6730 things themselves; thus we see in the case of uneducated men that they have to be taught by sensible examples.
|
|
|
6731 </p>
|
|
|
6732 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p9"> It is clear then that it was for the soul's good that it was united to a body, and that it understands by turning to the
|
|
|
6733 phantasms. Nevertheless it is possible for it to exist apart from the body, and also to understand in another way.
|
|
|
6734 </p>
|
|
|
6735 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p10">
|
|
|
6736 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher's words carefully examined will show that he said this on the previous supposition that understanding is
|
|
|
6737 a movement of body and soul as united, just as sensation is, for he had not as yet explained the difference between intellect
|
|
86
|
6738 and sense. We may also say that he is referring
|
|
|
6739 to the way of understanding by turning to phantasms.
|
|
|
6740 </p>
|
|
|
6741 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p10a">
|
|
|
6742 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This is also the meaning
|
|
|
6743 of the second objection.</p>
|
|
64
|
6744 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p11">
|
|
|
6745 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The separated soul does not understand by way of innate species, nor by species abstracted then, nor only by species retained,
|
|
|
6746 and this the objection proves; but the soul in that state understands by means of participated species arising from the influence
|
|
|
6747 of the Divine light, shared by the soul as by other separate substances; though in a lesser degree. Hence as soon as it ceases
|
|
|
6748 to act by turning to corporeal (phantasms), the soul turns at once to
|
|
|
6749 the superior things; nor is this way of knowledge unnatural, for God is the author of the influx of both of the light of grace
|
|
|
6750 and of the light of nature.
|
|
|
6751 </p>
|
|
|
6752 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
6753 <p id="FP_Q89_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
6754 <a href="summa.FP_Q89.html"></a>
|
|
|
6755 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6756 </div>
|
|
|
6757 <div id="FP_Q89_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
6758 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6759 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6760 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A2-p0.1">Whether the separated soul understands separate substances?</h4>
|
|
|
6761 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6762 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p2">
|
|
|
6763 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the separated soul does not understand separate substances. For the soul is more perfect when joined to
|
|
|
6764 the body than when existing apart from it, being an essential part of human nature; and every part of a whole is more perfect
|
|
|
6765 when it exists in that whole. But the soul in the body does not understand separate substances as shown above (
|
|
|
6766 <a id="FP_Q89_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html">Q[88], A[1]</a>). Therefore much less is it able to do so when apart from the
|
|
|
6767 body.
|
|
|
6768 </p>
|
|
|
6769 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p3">
|
|
|
6770 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is known is known either by its presence or by its species. But separate substances cannot be known to
|
|
|
6771 the soul by their presence, for God alone can enter into the soul; nor by means of species abstracted by the soul from an
|
|
|
6772 angel, for an angel is more simple than a soul. Therefore the separated soul cannot at all understand separate substances.
|
|
|
6773 </p>
|
|
|
6774 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p4">
|
|
|
6775 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, some philosophers said that the ultimate happiness of man consists in the knowledge of separate substances. If,
|
|
|
6776 therefore, the separated soul can understand separate substances, its happiness would be secured by its separation alone;
|
|
|
6777 which cannot be reasonably be said.
|
|
|
6778 </p>
|
|
|
6779 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p5">
|
|
|
6780 <b>On the contrary,</b> Souls apart from the body know other separated souls; as we see in the case of the rich man in hell, who saw Lazarus and
|
|
|
6781 Abraham (
|
|
|
6782 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.23" target="asv">Lk. 16:23</a>). Therefore separated souls see the devils and the angels.
|
|
|
6783 </p>
|
|
|
6784 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p6">
|
|
|
6785 <b>I answer that,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. ix, 3), "our mind acquires the knowledge of incorporeal things by itself"---i.e. by knowing itself
|
|
|
6786 (
|
|
|
6787 <a id="FP_Q89_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q88_A1.html">Q[88], A[1]</a>, ad 1). Therefore from the knowledge which the separated soul has of itself, we can judge how it knows other separate things.
|
|
|
6788 Now it was said above
|
|
|
6789 <a id="FP_Q89_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, that as long as it is united to the body the soul understands by turning to phantasms, and therefore it does not
|
|
|
6790 understand itself save through becoming actually intelligent by means of ideas abstracted from phantasms; for thus it understands
|
|
|
6791 itself through its own act, as shown above (
|
|
|
6792 <a id="FP_Q89_A2-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html">Q[87], A[1]</a>). When, however, it is separated from the body, it understands no longer by turning to phantasms, but by turning to simply
|
|
|
6793 intelligible objects; hence in that state it understands itself through itself. Now, every separate substance "understands
|
|
|
6794 what is above itself and what is below
|
|
|
6795 itself, according to the mode of its substance" (De Causis viii): for a thing is understood according as it is in the one
|
|
|
6796 who understands; while one thing is in another according to the nature of that in which it is. And the mode of existence of
|
|
|
6797 a separated soul is inferior to that of an angel, but is the same as that of other separated souls. Therefore the soul apart
|
|
|
6798 from the body has perfect knowledge of other separated souls, but it has an imperfect and defective knowledge of the angels
|
|
|
6799 so
|
|
|
6800 far as its natural knowledge is concerned. But the knowledge of glory is otherwise.
|
|
|
6801 </p>
|
|
|
6802 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p7">
|
|
|
6803 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The separated soul is, indeed, less perfect considering its nature in which it communicates with the nature of the body:
|
|
|
6804 but it has a greater freedom of intelligence, since the weight and care of the body is a clog upon the clearness of its intelligence
|
|
|
6805 in the present life.
|
|
|
6806 </p>
|
|
|
6807 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p8">
|
|
|
6808 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The separated soul understands the angels by means of divinely impressed ideas; which, however, fail to give perfect knowledge
|
|
|
6809 of them, forasmuch as the nature of the soul is inferior to that of an angel.
|
|
|
6810 </p>
|
|
|
6811 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p9">
|
|
|
6812 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Man's ultimate happiness consists not in the knowledge of any separate substances; but in the knowledge of God, Who is seen
|
|
|
6813 only by grace. The knowledge of other separate substances if perfectly understood gives great happiness---not final and ultimate
|
|
|
6814 happiness. But the separated soul does not understand them perfectly, as was shown above in this article.
|
|
|
6815 </p>
|
|
|
6816 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6817 <p id="FP_Q89_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6818 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6819 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6820 </div>
|
|
|
6821 <div id="FP_Q89_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
6822 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6823 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6824 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A3-p0.1">Whether the separated soul knows all natural things?</h4>
|
|
|
6825 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6826 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p2">
|
|
|
6827 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the separated soul knows all natural things. For the types of all natural things exist in separate substances.
|
|
|
6828 Therefore, as separated souls know separate substances, they also know all natural things.
|
|
|
6829 </p>
|
|
|
6830 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p3">
|
|
|
6831 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whoever understands the greater intelligible, will be able much more to understand the lesser intelligible. But
|
|
|
6832 the separated soul understands immaterial substances, which are in the highest degree of intelligibility. Therefore much more
|
|
|
6833 can it understand all natural things which are in a lower degree of intelligibility.
|
|
|
6834 </p>
|
|
|
6835 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p4">
|
|
|
6836 <b>On the contrary,</b> The devils have greater natural knowledge than the separated soul; yet they do not know all natural things, but have to learn
|
|
|
6837 many things by long experience, as Isidore says (De Summo Bono i). Therefore neither can the separated soul know all natural
|
|
|
6838 things.
|
|
|
6839 </p>
|
|
|
6840 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p5">
|
|
|
6841 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
6842 <a id="FP_Q89_A3-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, the separated soul, like the angels, understands by means of species, received from the influence of the Divine light. Nevertheless,
|
|
|
6843 as the soul by nature is inferior to an angel, to whom this kind of knowledge is natural, the soul apart from the body through
|
|
|
6844 such species does not receive perfect knowledge, but only a general and confused kind of knowledge. Separated souls, therefore,
|
|
|
6845 have the same relation
|
|
|
6846 through such species to imperfect and confused knowledge of natural things as the angels have to the perfect knowledge thereof.
|
|
|
6847 Now angels through such species know all natural things perfectly; because all that God has produced in the respective natures
|
|
|
6848 of natural things has been produced by Him in the angelic intelligence, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ii, 8). Hence it follows
|
|
|
6849 that separated souls know all natural things not with a certain and proper knowledge, but in a general and confused
|
|
|
6850 manner.
|
|
|
6851 </p>
|
|
|
6852 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p6">
|
|
|
6853 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Even an angel does not understand all natural things through his substance, but through certain species, as stated above
|
|
|
6854 (
|
|
|
6855 <a id="FP_Q89_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A1.html">Q[87], A[1]</a>). So it does not follow that the soul knows all natural things because it knows separate substances after a fashion.
|
|
|
6856 </p>
|
|
|
6857 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p7">
|
|
|
6858 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As the soul separated from the body does not perfectly understand separate substances, so neither does it know all natural
|
|
|
6859 things perfectly; but it knows them confusedly, as above explained in this article.
|
|
|
6860 </p>
|
|
|
6861 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p8">
|
|
|
6862 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Isidore speaks of the knowledge of the future which neither angels, nor demons, nor separated souls, know except so far as
|
|
|
6863 future things pre-exist in their causes or are known by Divine revelation. But we are here treating of the knowledge of natural
|
|
|
6864 things.
|
|
|
6865 </p>
|
|
|
6866 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p9">
|
|
|
6867 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Knowledge acquired here by study is proper and perfect; the knowledge of which we speak is confused. Hence it does not follow
|
|
|
6868 that to study in order to learn is useless.
|
|
|
6869 </p>
|
|
|
6870 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6871 <p id="FP_Q89_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6872 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
6873 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6874 </div>
|
|
|
6875 <div id="FP_Q89_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
6876 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6877 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
6878 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A4-p0.1">Whether the separated soul knows singulars?</h4>
|
|
|
6879 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6880 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p2">
|
|
|
6881 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the separated soul does not know singulars. For no cognitive power besides the intellect remains in the
|
|
|
6882 separated soul, as is clear from what has been said above (
|
|
|
6883 <a id="FP_Q89_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A8.html">Q[77], A[8]</a>). But the intellect cannot know singulars, as we have shown (
|
|
|
6884 <a id="FP_Q89_A4-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html">Q[86], A[1]</a>). Therefore the separated soul cannot know singulars.
|
|
|
6885 </p>
|
|
|
6886 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p3">
|
|
|
6887 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the knowledge of the singular is more determinate than knowledge of the universal. But the separated soul has no
|
|
|
6888 determinate knowledge of the species of natural things, therefore much less can it know singulars.
|
|
|
6889 </p>
|
|
|
6890 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p4">
|
|
|
6891 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if it knew the singulars, yet not by sense, for the same reason it would know all singulars. But it does not know
|
|
|
6892 all singulars. Therefore it knows none.
|
|
|
6893 </p>
|
|
|
6894 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p5">
|
|
|
6895 <b>On the contrary,</b> The rich man in hell said: "I have five brethren" (
|
|
|
6896 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.28" target="asv">Lk. 16:28</a>).
|
|
|
6897 </p>
|
|
|
6898 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p6">
|
|
|
6899 <b>I answer that,</b> Separated souls know some singulars, but not all, not even all present singulars. To understand this, we must consider that
|
|
|
6900 there is a twofold way of knowing things, one by means of abstraction from phantasms, and in this way singulars cannot be
|
|
|
6901 directly known by the intellect, but only indirectly, as stated above (
|
|
|
6902 <a id="FP_Q89_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q86_A1.html">Q[86], A[1]</a>). The other way of understanding is by the infusion of species by God, and in that way it is possible for
|
|
|
6903 the intellect to know singulars. For as God knows all things, universal and singular, by His Essence, as the cause of universal
|
|
|
6904 and individual principles (
|
|
|
6905 <a id="FP_Q89_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A2.html">Q[14], A[2]</a>), so likewise separate substances can know singulars by species which are a kind of participated similitude of the Divine
|
|
|
6906 Essence. There is a difference, however, between angels and separated souls in the fact that through these species the angels
|
|
|
6907 have a perfect and proper knowledge of things; whereas
|
|
|
6908 separated have only a confused knowledge. Hence the angels, by reason of their perfect intellect, through these species, know
|
|
|
6909 not only the specific natures of things, but also the singulars contained in those species; whereas separated souls by these
|
|
|
6910 species know only those singulars to which they are determined by former knowledge in this life, or by some affection, or
|
|
|
6911 by natural aptitude, or by the disposition of the Divine order; because whatever is received into anything is conditioned
|
|
|
6912 according to the mode of the recipient.
|
|
|
6913 </p>
|
|
|
6914 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p7">
|
|
|
6915 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intellect does not know the singular by way of abstraction; neither does the separated soul know it thus; but as explained
|
|
|
6916 above.
|
|
|
6917 </p>
|
|
|
6918 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p8">
|
|
|
6919 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The knowledge of the separated soul is confined to those species or individuals to which the soul has some kind of determinate
|
|
|
6920 relation, as we have said.
|
|
|
6921 </p>
|
|
|
6922 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p9">
|
|
|
6923 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The separated soul has not the same relation to all singulars, but one relation to some, and another to others. Therefore
|
|
|
6924 there is not the same reason why it should know all singulars.
|
|
|
6925 </p>
|
|
|
6926 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6927 <p id="FP_Q89_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6928 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6929 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
6930 </div>
|
|
|
6931 <div id="FP_Q89_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
6932 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
6933 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
6934 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A5-p0.1">Whether the habit of knowledge here acquired remains in the separated soul?</h4>
|
|
|
6935 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
6936 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p2">
|
|
|
6937 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the habit of knowledge acquired in this life does not remain in the soul separated from the body: for
|
|
|
6938 the Apostle says: "Knowledge shall be destroyed" (
|
|
|
6939 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.8" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:8</a>).
|
|
|
6940 </p>
|
|
|
6941 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p3">
|
|
|
6942 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, some in this world who are less good enjoy knowledge denied to others who are better. If, therefore, the habit of
|
|
|
6943 knowledge remained in the soul after death, it would follow that some who are less good would, even in the future life, excel
|
|
|
6944 some who are better; which seems unreasonable.
|
|
|
6945 </p>
|
|
|
6946 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p4">
|
|
|
6947 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, separated souls will possess knowledge by influence of the Divine light. Supposing, therefore, that knowledge here
|
|
|
6948 acquired remained in the separated soul, it would follow that two forms of the same species would co-exist in the same subject
|
|
|
6949 which cannot be.
|
|
|
6950 </p>
|
|
|
6951 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p5">
|
|
|
6952 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Praedic. vi, 4,5), that "a habit is a quality hard to remove: yet sometimes knowledge is destroyed
|
|
|
6953 by sickness or the like." But in this life there is no change so thorough as death. Therefore it seems that the habit of knowledge
|
|
|
6954 is destroyed by death.
|
|
|
6955 </p>
|
|
|
6956 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p6">
|
|
|
6957 <b>On the contrary,</b> Jerome says (Ep. liii, ad Paulinum), "Let us learn on earth that kind of knowledge which will remain with us in heaven."
|
|
|
6958 </p>
|
|
|
6959 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p7">
|
|
|
6960 <b>I answer that,</b> Some say that the habit of knowledge resides not in the intellect itself, but in the sensitive powers, namely, the imaginative,
|
|
|
6961 cogitative, and memorative, and that the intelligible species are not kept in the passive intellect. If this were true, it
|
|
|
6962 would follow that when the body is destroyed by death, knowledge here acquired would also be entirely destroyed.
|
|
|
6963 </p>
|
|
|
6964 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p8"> But, since knowledge resides in the intellect, which is "the abode of species," as the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4),
|
|
|
6965 the habit of knowledge here acquired must be partly in the aforesaid sensitive powers and partly in the intellect. This can
|
|
|
6966 be seen by considering the very actions from which knowledge arises. For "habits are like the actions whereby they are acquired"
|
|
|
6967 (Ethic. ii, 1). Now the actions of the intellect, by which knowledge is here acquired, are performed by the
|
|
|
6968 mind turning to the phantasms in the aforesaid sensitive powers. Hence through such acts the passive intellect acquires a
|
|
|
6969 certain facility in considering the species received: and the aforesaid sensitive powers acquire a certain aptitude in seconding
|
|
|
6970 the action of the intellect when it turns to them to consider the intelligible object. But as the intellectual act resides
|
|
|
6971 chiefly and formally in the intellect itself, whilst it resides materially and dispositively in the inferior powers, the same
|
|
|
6972 distinction is to be applied to habit.
|
|
|
6973 </p>
|
|
|
6974 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p9"> Knowledge, therefore, acquired in the present life does not remain in the separated soul, as regards what belongs to the
|
|
|
6975 sensitive powers; but as regards what belongs to the intellect itself, it must remain; because, as the Philosopher says (De
|
|
|
6976 Long. et Brev. Vitae ii), a form may be corrupted in two ways; first, directly, when corrupted by its contrary, as heat, by
|
|
|
6977 cold; and secondly, indirectly, when its subject is corrupted. Now it is evident that human knowledge is not
|
|
|
6978 corrupted through corruption of the subject, for the intellect is an incorruptible faculty, as above stated (
|
|
|
6979 <a id="FP_Q89_A5-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html">Q[79], A[2]</a>, ad 2). Neither can the intelligible species in the passive intellect be corrupted by their contrary; for there is no contrary
|
|
|
6980 to intelligible "intentions," above all as regards simple intelligence of "what a thing is." But contrariety may exist in
|
|
|
6981 the intellect as regards mental composition and division, or also reasoning; so far as what is false in
|
|
|
6982 statement or argument is contrary to truth. And thus knowledge may be corrupted by its contrary when a false argument seduces
|
|
|
6983 anyone from the knowledge of truth. For this reason the Philosopher in the above work mentions two ways in which knowledge
|
|
|
6984 is corrupted directly: namely, "forgetfulness" on the part of the memorative power, and "deception" on the part of a false
|
|
|
6985 argument. But these have no place in the separated soul. Therefore we must conclude that the habit of knowledge, so far as
|
|
|
6986 it
|
|
|
6987 is in the intellect, remains in the separated soul.
|
|
|
6988 </p>
|
|
|
6989 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p10">
|
|
|
6990 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle is not speaking of knowledge as a habit, but as to the act of knowing; and hence he says, in proof of the assertion
|
|
|
6991 quoted, "Now, I know in part."
|
|
|
6992 </p>
|
|
|
6993 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p11">
|
|
|
6994 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As a less good man may exceed a better man in bodily stature, so the same kind of man may have a habit of knowledge in the
|
|
|
6995 future life which a better man may not have. Such knowledge, however, cannot be compared with the other prerogatives enjoyed
|
|
|
6996 by the better man.
|
|
|
6997 </p>
|
|
|
6998 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p12">
|
|
|
6999 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> These two kinds of knowledge are not of the same species, so there is no impossibility.
|
|
|
7000 </p>
|
|
|
7001 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p13">
|
|
|
7002 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> This objection considers the corruption of knowledge on the part of the sensitive powers.
|
|
|
7003 </p>
|
|
|
7004 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p14"></p>
|
|
|
7005 <p id="FP_Q89_A5-p15"></p>
|
|
|
7006 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7007 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
7008 </div>
|
|
|
7009 <div id="FP_Q89_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
7010 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
7011 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
7012 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A6-p0.1">Whether the act of knowledge acquired here remains in the separated soul?</h4>
|
|
|
7013 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7014 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p2">
|
|
|
7015 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the act of knowledge here acquired does not remain in the separated soul. For the Philosopher says (De
|
|
|
7016 Anima i, 4), that when the body is corrupted, "the soul neither remembers nor loves." But to consider what is previously known
|
|
|
7017 is an act of memory. Therefore the separated soul cannot retain an act of knowledge here acquired.
|
|
|
7018 </p>
|
|
|
7019 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p3">
|
|
|
7020 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, intelligible species cannot have greater power in the separated soul than they have in the soul united to the body.
|
|
|
7021 But in this life we cannot understand by intelligible species without turning to phantasms, as shown above (
|
|
|
7022 <a id="FP_Q89_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>). Therefore the separated soul cannot do so, and thus it cannot understand at all by intelligible species acquired in this
|
|
|
7023 life.
|
|
|
7024 </p>
|
|
|
7025 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p4">
|
|
|
7026 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 1), that "habits produce acts similar to those whereby they are acquired." But
|
|
|
7027 the habit of knowledge is acquired here by acts of the intellect turning to phantasms: therefore it cannot produce any other
|
|
|
7028 acts. These acts, however, are not adapted to the separated soul. Therefore the soul in the state of separation cannot produce
|
|
|
7029 any act of knowledge acquired in this life.
|
|
|
7030 </p>
|
|
|
7031 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p5">
|
|
|
7032 <b>On the contrary,</b> It was said to Dives in hell (
|
|
|
7033 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.25" target="asv">Lk. 16:25</a>): "Remember thou didst receive good things in thy lifetime."
|
|
|
7034 </p>
|
|
|
7035 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p6">
|
|
|
7036 <b>I answer that,</b> Action offers two things for our consideration---its species and its mode. Its species comes from the object, whereto the
|
|
|
7037 faculty of knowledge is directed by the (intelligible) species, which is the object's similitude; whereas the mode is gathered
|
|
|
7038 from the power of the agent. Thus that a person see a stone is due to the species of the stone in his eye; but that he see
|
|
|
7039 it clearly, is due to the eye's visual power. Therefore as the intelligible species remain
|
|
|
7040 in the separated soul, as stated above
|
|
|
7041 <a id="FP_Q89_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A5.html">(A[5])</a>, and since the state of the separated soul is not the same as it is in this life, it follows that through the intelligible
|
|
|
7042 species acquired in this life the soul apart from the body can understand what it understood formerly, but in a different
|
|
|
7043 way; not by turning to phantasms, but by a mode suited to a soul existing apart from the body. Thus the act of knowledge here
|
|
|
7044 acquired remains in the separated soul, but in a
|
|
|
7045 different way.
|
|
|
7046 </p>
|
|
|
7047 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p7">
|
|
|
7048 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher speaks of remembrance, according as memory belongs to the sensitive part, but not as belonging in a way to
|
|
|
7049 the intellect, as explained above (
|
|
|
7050 <a id="FP_Q89_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A6.html">Q[79], A[6]</a>).
|
|
|
7051 </p>
|
|
|
7052 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p8">
|
|
|
7053 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The different mode of intelligence is produced by the different state of the intelligent soul; not by diversity of species.
|
|
|
7054 </p>
|
|
|
7055 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p9">
|
|
|
7056 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The acts which produce a habit are like the acts caused by that habit, in species, but not in mode. For example, to do just
|
|
|
7057 things, but not justly, that is, pleasurably, causes the habit of political justice, whereby we act pleasurably. (Cf. Aristotle,
|
|
|
7058 Ethic. v, 8: Magn. Moral. i, 34).
|
|
|
7059 </p>
|
|
|
7060 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p10"></p>
|
|
|
7061 <p id="FP_Q89_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7062 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
7063 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
7064 </div>
|
|
|
7065 <div id="FP_Q89_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
7066 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
7067 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
7068 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A7-p0.1">Whether local distance impedes the knowledge in the separated soul?</h4>
|
|
|
7069 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7070 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p2">
|
|
|
7071 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that local distance impedes the separated soul's knowledge. For Augustine says (De Cura pro Mort. xiii), that
|
|
|
7072 "the souls of the dead are where they cannot know what is done here." But they know what is done among themselves. Therefore
|
|
|
7073 local distance impedes the knowledge in the separated soul.
|
|
|
7074 </p>
|
|
|
7075 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p3">
|
|
|
7076 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Divin. Daemon. iii), that "the demon's rapidity of movement enables them to tell things unknown
|
|
|
7077 to us." But agility of movement would be useless in that respect unless their knowledge was impeded by local distance; which,
|
|
|
7078 therefore, is a much greater hindrance to the knowledge of the separated soul, whose nature is inferior to the demon's.
|
|
|
7079 </p>
|
|
|
7080 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p4">
|
|
|
7081 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as there is distance of place, so is there distance of time. But distance of time impedes knowledge in the separated
|
|
|
7082 soul, for the soul is ignorant of the future. Therefore it seems that distance of place also impedes its knowledge.
|
|
|
7083 </p>
|
|
|
7084 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p5">
|
|
|
7085 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7086 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.23" target="asv">Lk. 16:23</a>), that Dives, "lifting up his eyes when he was in torment, saw Abraham afar off." Therefore local distance does not impede
|
|
|
7087 knowledge in the separated soul.
|
|
|
7088 </p>
|
|
|
7089 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p6">
|
|
|
7090 <b>I answer that,</b> Some have held that the separated soul knows the singular by abstraction from the sensible. If that were so, it might be
|
|
|
7091 that local distance would impede its knowledge; for either the sensible would need to act upon the soul, or the soul upon
|
|
|
7092 the sensible, and in either case a determinate distance would be necessary. This is, however, impossible because abstraction
|
|
|
7093 of the species from the sensible is done through the senses and other sensible faculties which
|
|
|
7094 do not remain actually in the soul apart from the body. But the soul when separated understands singulars by species derived
|
|
|
7095 from the Divine light, which is indifferent to what is near or distant. Hence knowledge in the separated soul is not hindered
|
|
|
7096 by local distance.
|
|
|
7097 </p>
|
|
|
7098 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p7">
|
|
|
7099 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine says that the souls of the departed cannot see what is done here, not because they are 'there,' as if impeded by
|
|
|
7100 local distance; but for some other cause, as we shall explain
|
|
|
7101 <a id="FP_Q89_A7-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A8.html">(A[8])</a>.
|
|
|
7102 </p>
|
|
|
7103 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p8">
|
|
|
7104 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Augustine speaks there in accordance with the opinion that demons have bodies naturally united to them, and so have sensitive
|
|
|
7105 powers, which require local distance. In the same book he expressly sets down this opinion, though apparently rather by way
|
|
|
7106 of narration than of assertion, as we may gather from De Civ. Dei xxi, 10.
|
|
|
7107 </p>
|
|
|
7108 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p9">
|
|
|
7109 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The future, which is distant in time, does not actually exist, and therefore is not knowable in itself, because so far as
|
|
|
7110 a thing falls short of being, so far does it fall short of being knowable. But what is locally distant exists actually, and
|
|
|
7111 is knowable in itself. Hence we cannot argue from distance of time to distance of place.
|
|
|
7112 </p>
|
|
|
7113 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p10"></p>
|
|
|
7114 <p id="FP_Q89_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7115 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
7116 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
7117 </div>
|
|
|
7118 <div id="FP_Q89_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
7119 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
7120 <a href="summa.FP_Q90.html"></a>
|
|
|
7121 <h4 id="FP_Q89_A8-p0.1">Whether separated souls know that takes place on earth?</h4>
|
|
|
7122 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7123 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p2">
|
|
|
7124 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that separated souls know what takes place on earth; for otherwise they would have no care for it, as they
|
|
|
7125 have, according to what Dives said (
|
|
|
7126 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.27" target="asv">Lk. 16:27,28</a>), "I have five brethren . . . he may testify unto them, lest they also come into the place of torments." Therefore separated
|
|
|
7127 souls know what passes on earth.
|
|
|
7128 </p>
|
|
|
7129 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p3">
|
|
|
7130 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the dead often appear to the living, asleep or awake, and tell them of what takes place there; as Samuel appeared
|
|
|
7131 to Saul (
|
|
|
7132 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iKgs.28.11" target="asv">1 Kings 28:11</a>). But this could not be unless they knew what takes place here. Therefore they know what takes place on earth.
|
|
|
7133 </p>
|
|
|
7134 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p4">
|
|
|
7135 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, separated souls know what happens among themselves. If, therefore, they do not know what takes place among us, it
|
|
|
7136 must be by reason of local distance; which has been shown to be false
|
|
|
7137 <a id="FP_Q89_A8-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A7.html">(A[7])</a>.
|
|
|
7138 </p>
|
|
|
7139 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p5">
|
|
|
7140 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7141 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Job.14.21" target="asv">Job 14:21</a>): "He will not understand whether his children come to honor or dishonor."
|
|
|
7142 </p>
|
|
|
7143 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p6">
|
|
|
7144 <b>I answer that,</b> By natural knowledge, of which we are treating now, the souls of the dead do not know what passes on earth. This follows
|
|
|
7145 from what has been laid down
|
|
|
7146 <a id="FP_Q89_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, since the separated soul has knowledge of singulars, by being in a way determined to them, either by some vestige of previous
|
|
|
7147 knowledge or affection, or by the Divine order. Now the souls departed are in a state of separation from the living, both
|
|
|
7148 by Divine order and by their
|
|
|
7149 mode of existence, whilst they are joined to the world of incorporeal spiritual substances; and hence they are ignorant of
|
|
|
7150 what goes on among us. Whereof Gregory gives the reason thus: "The dead do not know how the living act, for the life of the
|
|
|
7151 spirit is far from the life of the flesh; and so, as corporeal things differ from incorporeal in genus, so they are distinct
|
|
|
7152 in knowledge" (Moral. xii). Augustine seems to say the same (De Cura pro Mort. xiii), when he asserts that, "the souls of
|
|
|
7153 the
|
|
|
7154 dead have no concern in the affairs of the living."
|
|
|
7155 </p>
|
|
|
7156 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p7"> Gregory and Augustine, however, seem to be divided in opinion as regards the souls of the blessed in heaven, for Gregory
|
|
|
7157 continues the passage above quoted: "The case of the holy souls is different, for since they see the light of Almighty God,
|
|
|
7158 we cannot believe that external things are unknown to them." But Augustine (De Cura pro Mort. xiii) expressly says: "The dead,
|
|
|
7159 even the saints do not know what is done by the living or by their own children," as a gloss quotes on the
|
|
|
7160 text, "Abraham hath not known us" (
|
|
|
7161 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.63.16" target="asv">Is. 63:16</a>). He confirms this opinion by saying that he was not visited, nor consoled in sorrow by his mother, as when she was alive;
|
|
|
7162 and he could not think it possible that she was less kind when in a happier state; and again by the fact that the Lord promised
|
|
|
7163 to king Josias that he should die, lest he should see his people's afflictions (
|
|
|
7164 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p7.2" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">4 Kings 22:20</a>). Yet Augustine says this in doubt; and premises, "Let every one take, as he pleases,
|
|
|
7165 what I say." Gregory, on the other hand, is positive, since he says, "We cannot believe." His opinion, indeed, seems to be
|
|
|
7166 the more probable one---that the souls of the blessed who see God do know all that passes here. For they are equal to the
|
|
|
7167 angels, of whom Augustine says that they know what happens among those living on earth. But as the souls of the blessed are
|
|
|
7168 most perfectly united to Divine justice, they do not suffer from sorrow, nor do they interfere in mundane affairs, except
|
|
|
7169 in
|
|
|
7170 accordance with Divine justice.
|
|
|
7171 </p>
|
|
|
7172 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p8">
|
|
|
7173 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The souls of the departed may care for the living, even if ignorant of their state; just as we care for the dead by pouring
|
|
|
7174 forth prayer on their behalf, though we are ignorant of their state. Moreover, the affairs of the living can be made known
|
|
|
7175 to them not immediately, but the souls who pass hence thither, or by angels and demons, or even by "the revelation of the
|
|
|
7176 Holy Ghost," as Augustine says in the same book.
|
|
|
7177 </p>
|
|
|
7178 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p9">
|
|
|
7179 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That the dead appear to the living in any way whatever is either by the special dispensation of God; in order that the souls
|
|
|
7180 of the dead may interfere in affairs of the living---and this is to be accounted as miraculous. Or else such apparitions occur
|
|
|
7181 through the instrumentality of bad or good angels, without the knowledge of the departed; as may likewise happen when the
|
|
|
7182 living appear, without their own knowledge, to others living, as Augustine says
|
|
|
7183 in the same book. And so it may be said of Samuel that he appeared through Divine revelation; according to
|
|
|
7184 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q89_A8-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.46.23" target="asv"> Ecclus. 46:23, </a> "he slept, and told the king the end of his life." Or, again, this apparition was procured by the demons; unless, indeed,
|
|
|
7185 the authority of Ecclesiasticus be set aside through not being received by the Jews as canonical Scripture.
|
|
|
7186 </p>
|
|
|
7187 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p10">
|
|
|
7188 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This kind of ignorance does not proceed from the obstacle of local distance, but from the cause mentioned above.
|
|
|
7189 </p>
|
|
|
7190 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7191 <p id="FP_Q89_A8-p12"></p>
|
|
|
7192 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
7193 <a href="summa.FP_Q90.html"></a>
|
|
|
7194 </div>
|
|
|
7195 <a href="summa.FP_Q88_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7196 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7197 </div>
|
|
|
7198 <div id="FP_Q90" class="div3">
|
|
|
7199 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
7200 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7201 <h3 id="FP_Q90-p0.1">OF THE FIRST PRODUCTION OF MAN'S SOUL (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
7202 <p id="FP_Q90-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7203 <p id="FP_Q90-p2"> After the foregoing we must consider the first production of man, concerning which there are four subjects of treatment:
|
|
|
7204 (1) the production of man himself; (2) the end of this production; (3) the state and condition of the first man; (4) the place
|
|
|
7205 of his abode. Concerning the production of man, there are three things to be considered: (1) the production of man's soul;
|
|
|
7206 (2) the production of man's body; (3) the production of the woman.
|
|
|
7207 </p>
|
|
|
7208 <p id="FP_Q90-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
7209 <p id="FP_Q90-p4"> (1) Whether man's soul was something made, or was of the Divine substance?</p>
|
|
|
7210 <p id="FP_Q90-p5"> (2) Whether, if made, it was created?</p>
|
|
|
7211 <p id="FP_Q90-p6"> (3) Whether it was made by angelic instrumentality?</p>
|
|
|
7212 <p id="FP_Q90-p7"> (4) Whether it was made before the body?</p>
|
|
|
7213 <div id="FP_Q90_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
7214 <a href="summa.FP_Q90.html"></a>
|
|
|
7215 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7216 <h4 id="FP_Q90_A1-p0.1">Whether the soul was made or was of God's substance?</h4>
|
|
|
7217 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7218 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p2">
|
|
|
7219 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul was not made, but was God's substance. For it is written (
|
|
|
7220 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q90_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.7" target="asv">Gn. 2:7</a>): "God formed man of the slime of the earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life, and man was made a living soul."
|
|
|
7221 But he who breathes sends forth something of himself. Therefore the soul, whereby man lives, is of the Divine substance.
|
|
|
7222 </p>
|
|
|
7223 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p3">
|
|
|
7224 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as above explained (
|
|
|
7225 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>), the soul is a simple form. But a form is an act. Therefore the soul is a pure act; which applies to God alone. Therefore
|
|
|
7226 the soul is of God's substance.
|
|
|
7227 </p>
|
|
|
7228 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p4">
|
|
|
7229 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, things that exist and do differ are the same. But God and the mind exist, and in no way differ, for they could only
|
|
|
7230 be differentiated by certain differences, and thus would be composite. Therefore God and the human mind are the same.
|
|
|
7231 </p>
|
|
|
7232 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p5">
|
|
|
7233 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (De Orig. Animae iii, 15) mentions certain opinions which he calls "exceedingly and evidently perverse, and contrary
|
|
|
7234 to the Catholic Faith," among which the first is the opinion that "God made the soul not out of nothing, but from Himself."
|
|
|
7235 </p>
|
|
|
7236 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p6">
|
|
|
7237 <b>I answer that,</b> To say that the soul is of the Divine substance involves a manifest improbability. For, as is clear from what has been said
|
|
|
7238 (
|
|
|
7239 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q77_A2.html">Q[77] , A[2]</a>;
|
|
|
7240 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A2.html">Q[79], A[2]</a>;
|
|
|
7241 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html">Q[84], A[6]</a>), the human soul is sometimes in a state of potentiality to the act of intelligence ---acquires its knowledge somehow from
|
|
|
7242 things---and thus has various powers; all of which are incompatible with the Divine Nature, Which is
|
|
|
7243 a pure act---receives nothing from any other---and admits of no variety in itself, as we have proved (
|
|
|
7244 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p6.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q3_A1.html">Q[3], AA[1]</a>,7;
|
|
|
7245 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p6.5" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
7246 </p>
|
|
|
7247 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p7"> This error seems to have originated from two statements of the ancients. For those who first began to observe the nature
|
|
|
7248 of things, being unable to rise above their imagination, supposed that nothing but bodies existed. Therefore they said that
|
|
|
7249 God was a body, which they considered to be the principle of other bodies. And since they held that the soul was of the same
|
|
|
7250 nature as that body which they regarded as the first principle, as is stated De Anima i, 2, it followed that the
|
|
|
7251 soul was of the nature of God Himself. According to this supposition, also, the Manichaeans, thinking that God was corporeal
|
|
|
7252 light, held that the soul was part of that light bound up with the body.
|
|
|
7253 </p>
|
|
|
7254 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p8"> Then a further step in advance was made, and some surmised the existence of something incorporeal, not apart from the body,
|
|
|
7255 but the form of a body; so that Varro said, "God is a soul governing the world by movement and reason," as Augustine relates
|
|
|
7256 (De Civ. Dei vii, 6 [*The words as quoted are to be found iv. 31.]) So some supposed man's soul to be part of that one soul,
|
|
|
7257 as man is a part of the whole world; for they were unable to go so far as to understand the different degrees
|
|
|
7258 of spiritual substance, except according to the distinction of bodies.
|
|
|
7259 </p>
|
|
|
7260 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p9"> But, all these theories are impossible, as proved above (
|
|
|
7261 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q3_A1.html">Q[3], AA[1]</a>,8; and
|
|
|
7262 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A1.html">Q[75], A[1]</a>), wherefore it is evidently false that the soul is of the substance of God.
|
|
|
7263 </p>
|
|
|
7264 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p10">
|
|
|
7265 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The term "breathe" is not to be taken in the material sense; but as regards the act of God, to breathe [spirare], is the
|
|
|
7266 same as to "make a spirit." Moreover, in the material sense, man by breathing does not send forth anything of his own substance,
|
|
|
7267 but an extraneous thing.
|
|
|
7268 </p>
|
|
|
7269 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p11">
|
|
|
7270 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although the soul is a simple form in its essence, yet it is not its own existence, but is a being by participation, as above
|
|
|
7271 explained (
|
|
|
7272 <a id="FP_Q90_A1-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A5.html">Q[75], A[5]</a>, ad 4). Therefore it is not a pure act like God.
|
|
|
7273 </p>
|
|
|
7274 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p12">
|
|
|
7275 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That which differs, properly speaking, differs in something; wherefore we seek for difference where we find also resemblance.
|
|
|
7276 For this reason things which differ must in some way be compound; since they differ in something, and in something resemble
|
|
|
7277 each other. In this sense, although all that differ are diverse, yet all things that are diverse do not differ. For simple
|
|
|
7278 things are diverse; yet do not differ from one another by differences which enter
|
|
|
7279 into their composition. For instance, a man and a horse differ by the difference of rational and irrational; but we cannot
|
|
|
7280 say that these again differ by some further difference.
|
|
|
7281 </p>
|
|
|
7282 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
7283 <p id="FP_Q90_A1-p14"></p>
|
|
|
7284 <a href="summa.FP_Q90.html"></a>
|
|
|
7285 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7286 </div>
|
|
|
7287 <div id="FP_Q90_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
7288 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7289 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7290 <h4 id="FP_Q90_A2-p0.1">Whether the soul was produced by creation?</h4>
|
|
|
7291 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7292 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p2">
|
|
|
7293 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the soul was not produced by creation. For that which has in itself something material is produced from
|
|
|
7294 matter. But the soul is in part material, since it is not a pure act. Therefore the soul was made of matter; and hence it
|
|
|
7295 was not created.
|
|
|
7296 </p>
|
|
|
7297 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p3">
|
|
|
7298 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every actuality of matter is educed from the potentiality of that matter; for since matter is in potentiality to
|
|
|
7299 act, any act pre-exists in matter potentially. But the soul is the act of corporeal matter, as is clear from its definition.
|
|
|
7300 Therefore the soul is educed from the potentiality of matter.
|
|
|
7301 </p>
|
|
|
7302 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p4">
|
|
|
7303 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the soul is a form. Therefore, if the soul is created, all other forms also are created. Thus no forms would come
|
|
|
7304 into existence by generation; which is not true.
|
|
|
7305 </p>
|
|
|
7306 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p5">
|
|
|
7307 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7308 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q90_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.27" target="asv">Gn. 1:27</a>): "God created man to His own image." But man is like to God in his soul. Therefore the soul was created.
|
|
|
7309 </p>
|
|
|
7310 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p6">
|
|
|
7311 <b>I answer that,</b> The rational soul can be made only by creation; which, however, is not true of other forms. The reason is because, since
|
|
|
7312 to be made is the way to existence, a thing must be made in such a way as is suitable to its mode of existence. Now that properly
|
|
|
7313 exists which itself has existence; as it were, subsisting in its own existence. Wherefore only substances are properly and
|
|
|
7314 truly called beings; whereas an accident has not existence, but something is (modified)
|
|
|
7315 by it, and so far is it called a being; for instance, whiteness is called a being, because by it something is white. Hence
|
|
|
7316 it is said Metaph. vii, Did. vi, 1 that an accident should be described as "of something rather than as something." The same
|
|
|
7317 is to be said of all non-subsistent forms. Therefore, properly speaking, it does not belong to any non-existing form to be
|
|
|
7318 made; but such are said to be made through the composite substances being made. On the other hand, the rational soul is a
|
|
|
7319 subsistent form, as above explained (
|
|
|
7320 <a id="FP_Q90_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], A[2]</a>). Wherefore it is competent to be and to be made. And since it cannot be made of pre-existing matter---whether corporeal,
|
|
|
7321 which would render it a corporeal being---or spiritual, which would involve the transmutation of one spiritual substance into
|
|
|
7322 another, we must conclude that it cannot exist except by creation.
|
|
|
7323 </p>
|
|
|
7324 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p7">
|
|
|
7325 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The soul's simple essence is as the material element, while its participated existence is its formal element; which participated
|
|
|
7326 existence necessarily co-exists with the soul's essence, because existence naturally follows the form. The same reason holds
|
|
|
7327 if the soul is supposed to be composed of some spiritual matter, as some maintain; because the said matter is not in potentiality
|
|
|
7328 to another form, as neither is the matter of a celestial body;
|
|
|
7329 otherwise the soul would be corruptible. Wherefore the soul cannot in any way be made of pre-existent matter.
|
|
|
7330 </p>
|
|
|
7331 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p8">
|
|
|
7332 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The production of act from the potentiality of matter is nothing else but something becoming actually that previously was
|
|
|
7333 in potentiality. But since the rational soul does not depend in its existence on corporeal matter, and is subsistent, and
|
|
|
7334 exceeds the capacity of corporeal matter, as we have seen (
|
|
|
7335 <a id="FP_Q90_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A2.html">Q[75], A[2]</a>), it is not educed from the potentiality of matter.
|
|
|
7336 </p>
|
|
|
7337 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p9">
|
|
|
7338 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As we have said, there is no comparison between the rational soul and other forms.
|
|
|
7339 </p>
|
|
|
7340 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
7341 <p id="FP_Q90_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7342 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7343 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7344 </div>
|
|
|
7345 <div id="FP_Q90_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
7346 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7347 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7348 <h4 id="FP_Q90_A3-p0.1">Whether the rational soul is produced by God immediately?</h4>
|
|
|
7349 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7350 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p2">
|
|
|
7351 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the rational soul is not immediately made by God, but by the instrumentality of the angels. For spiritual
|
|
|
7352 things have more order than corporeal things. But inferior bodies are produced by means of the superior, as Dionysius says
|
|
|
7353 (Div. Nom. iv). Therefore also the inferior spirits, who are the rational souls, are produced by means of the superior spirits,
|
|
|
7354 the angels.
|
|
|
7355 </p>
|
|
|
7356 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p3">
|
|
|
7357 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the end corresponds to the beginning of things; for God is the beginning and end of all. Therefore the issue of
|
|
|
7358 things from their beginning corresponds to the forwarding of them to their end. But "inferior things are forwarded by the
|
|
|
7359 higher," as Dionysius says (Eccl. Hier. v); therefore also the inferior are produced into existence by the higher, and souls
|
|
|
7360 by angels.
|
|
|
7361 </p>
|
|
|
7362 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p4">
|
|
|
7363 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "perfect is that which can produce its like," as is stated Metaph. v. But spiritual substances are much more perfect
|
|
|
7364 than corporeal. Therefore, since bodies produce their like in their own species, much more are angels able to produce something
|
|
|
7365 specifically inferior to themselves; and such is the rational soul.
|
|
|
7366 </p>
|
|
|
7367 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p5">
|
|
|
7368 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7369 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q90_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.7" target="asv">Gn. 2:7</a>) that God Himself "breathed into the face of man the breath of life."
|
|
|
7370 </p>
|
|
|
7371 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p6">
|
|
|
7372 <b>I answer that,</b> Some have held that angels, acting by the power of God, produce rational souls. But this is quite impossible, and is against
|
|
|
7373 faith. For it has been proved that the rational soul cannot be produced except by creation. Now, God alone can create; for
|
|
|
7374 the first agent alone can act without presupposing the existence of anything; while the second cause always presupposes something
|
|
|
7375 derived from the first cause, as above explained (
|
|
|
7376 <a id="FP_Q90_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q75_A3.html">Q[75],
|
|
|
7377 A[3]
|
|
|
7378 </a>): and every agent, that presupposes something to its act, acts by making a change therein. Therefore everything else acts
|
|
|
7379 by producing a change, whereas God alone acts by creation. Since, therefore, the rational soul cannot be produced by a change
|
|
|
7380 in matter, it cannot be produced, save immediately by God.
|
|
|
7381 </p>
|
|
|
7382 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p7"> Thus the replies to the objections are clear. For that bodies produce their like or something inferior to themselves, and
|
|
|
7383 that the higher things lead forward the inferior---all these things are effected through a certain transmutation.
|
|
|
7384 </p>
|
|
|
7385 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p8"></p>
|
|
|
7386 <p id="FP_Q90_A3-p9"></p>
|
|
|
7387 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7388 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7389 </div>
|
|
|
7390 <div id="FP_Q90_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
7391 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7392 <a href="summa.FP_Q91.html"></a>
|
|
|
7393 <h4 id="FP_Q90_A4-p0.1">Whether the human soul was produced before the body?</h4>
|
|
|
7394 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7395 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p2">
|
|
|
7396 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human soul was made before the body. For the work of creation preceded the work of distinction and
|
|
|
7397 adornment, as shown above (
|
|
|
7398 <a id="FP_Q90_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q66_A1.html">Q[66], A[1]</a>;
|
|
|
7399 <a id="FP_Q90_A4-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q70_A1.html">Q[70], A[1]</a>). But the soul was made by creation; whereas the body was made at the end of the work of adornment. Therefore the soul of
|
|
|
7400 man was made before the body.
|
|
|
7401 </p>
|
|
|
7402 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p3">
|
|
|
7403 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the rational soul has more in common with the angels than with the brute animals. But angels were created before
|
|
|
7404 bodies, or at least, at the beginning with corporeal matter; whereas the body of man was formed on the sixth day, when also
|
|
|
7405 the animals were made. Therefore the soul of man was created before the body.
|
|
|
7406 </p>
|
|
|
7407 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p4">
|
|
|
7408 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the end is proportionate to the beginning. But in the end the soul outlasts the body. Therefore in the beginning
|
|
|
7409 it was created before the body.
|
|
|
7410 </p>
|
|
|
7411 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p5">
|
|
|
7412 <b>On the contrary,</b> The proper act is produced in its proper potentiality. Therefore since the soul is the proper act of the body, the soul was
|
|
|
7413 produced in the body.
|
|
|
7414 </p>
|
|
|
7415 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p6">
|
|
|
7416 <b>I answer that,</b> Origen (Peri Archon i, 7,8) held that not only the soul of the first man, but also the souls of all men were created at the
|
|
|
7417 same time as the angels, before their bodies: because he thought that all spiritual substances, whether souls or angels, are
|
|
|
7418 equal in their natural condition, and differ only by merit; so that some of them---namely, the souls of men or of heavenly
|
|
|
7419 bodies---are united to bodies while others remain in their different orders entirely free
|
|
|
7420 from matter. Of this opinion we have already spoken (
|
|
|
7421 <a id="FP_Q90_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q47_A2.html">Q[47], A[2]</a>); and so we need say nothing about it here.
|
|
|
7422 </p>
|
|
|
7423 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p7"> Augustine, however (Gen. ad lit. vii, 24), says that the soul of the first man was created at the same time as the angels,
|
|
|
7424 before the body, for another reason; because he supposes that the body of man, during the work of the six days, was produced,
|
|
|
7425 not actually, but only as to some "causal virtues"; which cannot be said of the soul, because neither was it made of any pre-existing
|
|
|
7426 corporeal or spiritual matter, nor could it be produced from any created virtue. Therefore it seems
|
|
|
7427 that the soul itself, during the work of the six days, when all things were made, was created, together with the angels; and
|
|
|
7428 that afterwards, by its own will, was joined to the service of the body. But he does not say this by way of assertion; as
|
|
|
7429 his words prove. For he says (Gen. ad lit. vii, 29): "We may believe, if neither Scripture nor reason forbid, that man was
|
|
|
7430 made on the sixth day, in the sense that his body was created as to its causal virtue in the elements of the world, but that
|
|
|
7431 the
|
|
|
7432 soul was already created."
|
|
|
7433 </p>
|
|
|
7434 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p8"> Now this could be upheld by those who hold that the soul has of itself a complete species and nature, and that it is not
|
|
|
7435 united to the body as its form, but as its administrator. But if the soul is united to the body as its form, and is naturally
|
|
|
7436 a part of human nature, the above supposition is quite impossible. For it is clear that God made the first things in their
|
|
|
7437 perfect natural state, as their species required. Now the soul, as a part of human nature, has its natural
|
|
|
7438 perfection only as united to the body. Therefore it would have been unfitting for the soul to be created without the body.
|
|
|
7439 </p>
|
|
|
7440 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p9"> Therefore, if we admit the opinion of Augustine about the work of the six days (
|
|
|
7441 <a id="FP_Q90_A4-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q74_A2.html">Q[74], A[2]</a>), we may say that the human soul preceded in the work of the six days by a certain generic similitude, so far as it has intellectual
|
|
|
7442 nature in common with the angels; but was itself created at the same time as the body. According to the other saints, both
|
|
|
7443 the body and soul of the first man were produced in the work of the six days.
|
|
|
7444 </p>
|
|
|
7445 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p10">
|
|
|
7446 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If the soul by its nature were a complete species, so that it might be created as to itself, this reason would prove that
|
|
|
7447 the soul was created by itself in the beginning. But as the soul is naturally the form of the body, it was necessarily created,
|
|
|
7448 not separately, but in the body.
|
|
|
7449 </p>
|
|
|
7450 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p11">
|
|
|
7451 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The same observation applies to the second objection. For if the soul had a species of itself it would have something still
|
|
|
7452 more in common with the angels. But, as the form of the body, it belongs to the animal genus, as a formal principle.
|
|
|
7453 </p>
|
|
|
7454 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p12">
|
|
|
7455 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That the soul remains after the body, is due to a defect of the body, namely, death. Which defect was not due when the soul
|
|
|
7456 was first created.
|
|
|
7457 </p>
|
|
|
7458 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p13"></p>
|
|
|
7459 <p id="FP_Q90_A4-p14"></p>
|
|
|
7460 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7461 <a href="summa.FP_Q91.html"></a>
|
|
|
7462 </div>
|
|
|
7463 <a href="summa.FP_Q89_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
7464 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7465 </div>
|
|
|
7466 <div id="FP_Q91" class="div3">
|
|
|
7467 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7468 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7469 <h3 id="FP_Q91-p0.1">THE PRODUCTION OF THE FIRST MAN'S BODY (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
7470 <p id="FP_Q91-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7471 <p id="FP_Q91-p2"> We have now to consider the production of the first man's body. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
7472 <p id="FP_Q91-p3"> (1) The matter from which it was produced;</p>
|
|
|
7473 <p id="FP_Q91-p4"> (2) The author by whom it was produced;</p>
|
|
|
7474 <p id="FP_Q91-p5"> (3) The disposition it received in its production;</p>
|
|
|
7475 <p id="FP_Q91-p6"> (4) The mode and order of its production.</p>
|
|
|
7476 <p id="FP_Q91-p7"></p>
|
|
|
7477 <div id="FP_Q91_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
7478 <a href="summa.FP_Q91.html"></a>
|
|
|
7479 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7480 <h4 id="FP_Q91_A1-p0.1">Whether the body of the first man was made of the slime of the earth?</h4>
|
|
|
7481 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7482 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p2">
|
|
|
7483 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the body of the first man was not made of the slime of the earth. For it is an act of greater power to
|
|
|
7484 make something out of nothing than out of something; because "not being" is farther off from actual existence than "being
|
|
|
7485 in potentiality." But since man is the most honorable of God's lower creatures, it was fitting that in the production of man's
|
|
|
7486 body, the power of God should be most clearly shown. Therefore it should not have been made
|
|
|
7487 of the slime of the earth, but out of nothing.
|
|
|
7488 </p>
|
|
|
7489 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p3">
|
|
|
7490 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the heavenly bodies are nobler than earthly bodies. But the human body has the greatest nobility; since it is perfected
|
|
|
7491 by the noblest form, which is the rational soul. Therefore it should not be made of an earthly body, but of a heavenly body.
|
|
|
7492 </p>
|
|
|
7493 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p4">
|
|
|
7494 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, fire and air are nobler than earth and water, as is clear from their subtlety. Therefore, since the human body is
|
|
|
7495 most noble, it should rather have been made of fire and air than of the slime of the earth.
|
|
|
7496 </p>
|
|
|
7497 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p5">
|
|
|
7498 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the human body is composed of the four elements. Therefore it was not made of the slime of the earth, but of the
|
|
|
7499 four elements.
|
|
|
7500 </p>
|
|
|
7501 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p6">
|
|
|
7502 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7503 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.7" target="asv">Gn. 2:7</a>): "God made man of the slime of the earth."
|
|
|
7504 </p>
|
|
|
7505 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p7">
|
|
|
7506 <b>I answer that,</b> As God is perfect in His works, He bestowed perfection on all of them according to their capacity: "God's works are perfect"
|
|
|
7507 (
|
|
|
7508 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.32.4" target="asv">Dt. 32:4</a>). He Himself is simply perfect by the fact that "all things are pre-contained" in Him, not as component parts, but as "united
|
|
|
7509 in one simple whole," as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. v); in the same way as various effects pre-exist in their cause, according
|
|
|
7510 to its one virtue. This perfection is bestowed on the angels, inasmuch as
|
|
|
7511 all things which are produced by God in nature through various forms come under their knowledge. But on man this perfection
|
|
|
7512 is bestowed in an inferior way. For he does not possess a natural knowledge of all natural things, but is in a manner composed
|
|
|
7513 of all things, since he has in himself a rational soul of the genus of spiritual substances, and in likeness to the heavenly
|
|
|
7514 bodies he is removed from contraries by an equable temperament. As to the elements, he has them in their very substance,
|
|
|
7515 yet in such a way that the higher elements, fire and air, predominate in him by their power; for life is mostly found where
|
|
|
7516 there is heat, which is from fire; and where there is humor, which is of the air. But the inferior elements abound in man
|
|
|
7517 by their substance; otherwise the mingling of elements would not be evenly balanced, unless the inferior elements, which have
|
|
|
7518 the less power, predominated in quantity. Therefore the body of man is said to have been formed from the slime of the earth;
|
|
|
7519 because earth and water mingled are called slime, and for this reason man is called 'a little world,' because all creatures
|
|
|
7520 of the world are in a way to be found in him.
|
|
|
7521 </p>
|
|
|
7522 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p8">
|
|
|
7523 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The power of the Divine Creator was manifested in man's body when its matter was produced by creation. But it was fitting
|
|
|
7524 that the human body should be made of the four elements, that man might have something in common with the inferior bodies,
|
|
|
7525 as being something between spiritual and corporeal substances.
|
|
|
7526 </p>
|
|
|
7527 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p9">
|
|
|
7528 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although the heavenly body is in itself nobler than the earthly body, yet for the acts of the rational soul the heavenly
|
|
|
7529 body is less adapted. For the rational soul receives the knowledge of truth in a certain way through the senses, the organs
|
|
|
7530 of which cannot be formed of a heavenly body which is impassible. Nor is it true that something of the fifth essence enters
|
|
|
7531 materially into the composition of the human body, as some say, who suppose that the
|
|
|
7532 soul is united to the body by means of light. For, first of all, what they say is false---that light is a body. Secondly,
|
|
|
7533 it is impossible for something to be taken from the fifth essence, or from a heavenly body, and to be mingled with the elements,
|
|
|
7534 since a heavenly body is impassible; wherefore it does not enter into the composition of mixed bodies, except as in the effects
|
|
|
7535 of its power.
|
|
|
7536 </p>
|
|
|
7537 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p10">
|
|
|
7538 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If fire and air, whose action is of greater power, predominated also in quantity in the human body, they would entirely draw
|
|
|
7539 the rest into themselves, and there would be no equality in the mingling, such as is required in the composition of man, for
|
|
|
7540 the sense of touch, which is the foundation of the other senses. For the organ of any particular sense must not actually have
|
|
|
7541 the contraries of which that sense has the perception, but only potentially;
|
|
|
7542 either in such a way that it is entirely void of the whole "genus" of such contraries---thus, for instance, the pupil of the
|
|
|
7543 eye is without color, so as to be in potentiality as regards all colors; which is not possible in the organ of touch, since
|
|
|
7544 it is composed of the very elements, the qualities of which are perceived by that sense---or so that the organ is a medium
|
|
|
7545 between two contraries, as much needs be the case with regard to touch; for the medium is in potentiality to the extremes.
|
|
|
7546 </p>
|
|
|
7547 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p11">
|
|
|
7548 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> In the slime of the earth are earth, and water binding the earth together. Of the other elements, Scripture makes no mention,
|
|
|
7549 because they are less in quantity in the human body, as we have said; and because also in the account of the Creation no mention
|
|
|
7550 is made of fire and air, which are not perceived by senses of uncultured men such as those to whom the Scripture was immediately
|
|
|
7551 addressed.
|
|
|
7552 </p>
|
|
|
7553 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
7554 <p id="FP_Q91_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
7555 <a href="summa.FP_Q91.html"></a>
|
|
|
7556 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7557 </div>
|
|
|
7558 <div id="FP_Q91_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
7559 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7560 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7561 <h4 id="FP_Q91_A2-p0.1">Whether the human body was immediately produced by God?</h4>
|
|
|
7562 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7563 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p2">
|
|
|
7564 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human body was not produced by God immediately. For Augustine says (De Trin. iii, 4), that "corporeal
|
|
|
7565 things are disposed by God through the angels." But the human body was made of corporeal matter, as stated above
|
|
|
7566 <a id="FP_Q91_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q91_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore it was produced by the instrumentality of the angels, and not immediately by God.
|
|
|
7567 </p>
|
|
|
7568 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p3">
|
|
|
7569 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever can be made by a created power, is not necessarily produced immediately by God. But the human body can
|
|
|
7570 be produced by the created power of a heavenly body; for even certain animals are produced from putrefaction by the active
|
|
|
7571 power of a heavenly body; and Albumazar says that man is not generated where heat and cold are extreme, but only in temperate
|
|
|
7572 regions. Therefore the human body was not necessarily produced immediately by God.
|
|
|
7573 </p>
|
|
|
7574 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p4">
|
|
|
7575 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing is made of corporeal matter except by some material change. But all corporeal change is caused by a movement
|
|
|
7576 of a heavenly body, which is the first movement. Therefore, since the human body was produced from corporeal matter, it seems
|
|
|
7577 that a heavenly body had part in its production.
|
|
|
7578 </p>
|
|
|
7579 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p5">
|
|
|
7580 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. vii, 24) that man's body was made during the work of the six days, according to the
|
|
|
7581 causal virtues which God inserted in corporeal creatures; and that afterwards it was actually produced. But what pre-exists
|
|
|
7582 in the corporeal creature by reason of causal virtues can be produced by some corporeal body. Therefore the human body was
|
|
|
7583 produced by some created power, and not immediately by God.
|
|
|
7584 </p>
|
|
|
7585 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p6">
|
|
|
7586 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7587 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.17.1" target="asv">Ecclus. 17:1</a>): "God created man out of the earth."
|
|
|
7588 </p>
|
|
|
7589 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p7">
|
|
|
7590 <b>I answer that,</b> The first formation of the human body could not be by the instrumentality of any created power, but was immediately from
|
|
|
7591 God. Some, indeed, supposed that the forms which are in corporeal matter are derived from some immaterial forms; but the Philosopher
|
|
|
7592 refutes this opinion (Metaph. vii), for the reason that forms cannot be made in themselves, but only in the composite, as
|
|
|
7593 we have explained (
|
|
|
7594 <a id="FP_Q91_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q65_A4.html">Q[65], A[4]</a>); and because the agent must
|
|
|
7595 be like its effect, it is not fitting that a pure form, not existing in matter, should produce a form which is in matter,
|
|
|
7596 and which form is only made by the fact that the composite is made. So a form which is in matter can only be the cause of
|
|
|
7597 another form that is in matter, according as composite is made by composite. Now God, though He is absolutely immaterial,
|
|
|
7598 can alone by His own power produce matter by creation: wherefore He alone can produce a form in matter, without the aid of
|
|
|
7599 any
|
|
|
7600 preceding material form. For this reason the angels cannot transform a body except by making use of something in the nature
|
|
|
7601 of a seed, as Augustine says (De Trin. iii, 19). Therefore as no pre-existing body has been formed whereby another body of
|
|
|
7602 the same species could be generated, the first human body was of necessity made immediately by God.
|
|
|
7603 </p>
|
|
|
7604 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p8">
|
|
|
7605 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the angels are the ministers of God, as regards what He does in bodies, yet God does something in bodies beyond
|
|
|
7606 the angels' power, as, for instance, raising the dead, or giving sight to the blind: and by this power He formed the body
|
|
|
7607 of the first man from the slime of the earth. Nevertheless the angels could act as ministers in the formation of the body
|
|
|
7608 of the first man, in the same way as they will do at the last resurrection by collecting
|
|
|
7609 the dust.
|
|
|
7610 </p>
|
|
|
7611 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p9">
|
|
|
7612 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Perfect animals, produced from seed, cannot be made by the sole power of a heavenly body, as Avicenna imagined; although
|
|
|
7613 the power of a heavenly body may assist by co-operation in the work of natural generation, as the Philosopher says (Phys.
|
|
|
7614 ii, 26), "man and the sun beget man from matter." For this reason, a place of moderate temperature is required for the production
|
|
|
7615 of man and other animals. But the power of heavenly bodies suffices for the
|
|
|
7616 production of some imperfect animals from properly disposed matter: for it is clear that more conditions are required to produce
|
|
|
7617 a perfect than an imperfect thing.
|
|
|
7618 </p>
|
|
|
7619 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p10">
|
|
|
7620 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The movement of the heavens causes natural changes; but not changes that surpass the order of nature, and are caused by the
|
|
|
7621 Divine Power alone, as for the dead to be raised to life, or the blind to see: like to which also is the making of man from
|
|
|
7622 the slime of the earth.
|
|
|
7623 </p>
|
|
|
7624 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p11">
|
|
|
7625 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> An effect may be said to pre-exist in the causal virtues of creatures, in two ways. First, both in active and in passive
|
|
|
7626 potentiality, so that not only can it be produced out of pre-existing matter, but also that some pre-existing creature can
|
|
|
7627 produce it. Secondly, in passive potentiality only; that is, that out of pre-existing matter it can be produced by God. In
|
|
|
7628 this sense, according to Augustine, the human body pre-existed in the previous work in
|
|
|
7629 their causal virtues.
|
|
|
7630 </p>
|
|
|
7631 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
7632 <p id="FP_Q91_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
7633 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7634 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7635 </div>
|
|
|
7636 <div id="FP_Q91_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
7637 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7638 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7639 <h4 id="FP_Q91_A3-p0.1">Whether the body of man was given an apt disposition?</h4>
|
|
|
7640 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7641 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p2">
|
|
|
7642 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the body of man was not given an apt disposition. For since man is the noblest of animals, his body ought
|
|
|
7643 to be the best disposed in what is proper to an animal, that is, in sense and movement. But some animals have sharper senses
|
|
|
7644 and quicker movement than man; thus dogs have a keener smell, and birds a swifter flight. Therefore man's body was not aptly
|
|
|
7645 disposed.
|
|
|
7646 </p>
|
|
|
7647 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p3">
|
|
|
7648 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, perfect is what lacks nothing. But the human body lacks more than the body of other animals, for these are provided
|
|
|
7649 with covering and natural arms of defense, in which man is lacking. Therefore the human body is very imperfectly disposed.
|
|
|
7650 </p>
|
|
|
7651 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p4">
|
|
|
7652 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man is more distant from plants than he is from the brutes. But plants are erect in stature, while brutes are prone
|
|
|
7653 in stature. Therefore man should not be of erect stature.
|
|
|
7654 </p>
|
|
|
7655 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p5">
|
|
|
7656 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7657 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.30" target="asv">Eccles. 7:30</a>): "God made man right."
|
|
|
7658 </p>
|
|
|
7659 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p6">
|
|
|
7660 <b>I answer that,</b> All natural things were produced by the Divine art, and so may be called God's works of art. Now every artist intends to
|
|
|
7661 give to his work the best disposition; not absolutely the best, but the best as regards the proposed end; and even if this
|
|
|
7662 entails some defect, the artist cares not: thus, for instance, when man makes himself a saw for the purpose of cutting, he
|
|
|
7663 makes it of iron, which is suitable for the object in view; and he does not prefer to make it
|
|
|
7664 of glass, though this be a more beautiful material, because this very beauty would be an obstacle to the end he has in view.
|
|
|
7665 Therefore God gave to each natural being the best disposition; not absolutely so, but in the view of its proper end. This
|
|
|
7666 is what the Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 7): "And because it is better so, not absolutely, but for each one's substance."
|
|
|
7667 </p>
|
|
|
7668 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p7"> Now the proximate end of the human body is the rational soul and its operations; since matter is for the sake of the form,
|
|
|
7669 and instruments are for the action of the agent. I say, therefore, that God fashioned the human body in that disposition which
|
|
|
7670 was best, as most suited to such a form and to such operations. If defect exists in the disposition of the human body, it
|
|
|
7671 is well to observe that such defect arises as a necessary result of the matter, from the conditions required in
|
|
|
7672 the body, in order to make it suitably proportioned to the soul and its operations.
|
|
|
7673 </p>
|
|
|
7674 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p8">
|
|
|
7675 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sense of touch, which is the foundation of the other senses, is more perfect in man than in any other animal; and for
|
|
|
7676 this reason man must have the most equable temperament of all animals. Moreover man excels all other animals in the interior
|
|
|
7677 sensitive powers, as is clear from what we have said above (
|
|
|
7678 <a id="FP_Q91_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">Q[78], A[4]</a>). But by a kind of necessity, man falls short of the other animals in some of the exterior senses; thus of all
|
|
|
7679 animals he has the least sense of smell. For man needs the largest brain as compared to the body; both for his greater freedom
|
|
|
7680 of action in the interior powers required for the intellectual operations, as we have seen above (
|
|
|
7681 <a id="FP_Q91_A3-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>); and in order that the low temperature of the brain may modify the heat of the heart, which has to be considerable in man
|
|
|
7682 for him to be able to stand erect. So that size of the brain, by reason of its humidity, is an impediment to the
|
|
|
7683 smell, which requires dryness. In the same way, we may suggest a reason why some animals have a keener sight, and a more acute
|
|
|
7684 hearing than man; namely, on account of a hindrance to his senses arising necessarily from the perfect equability of his temperament.
|
|
|
7685 The same reason suffices to explain why some animals are more rapid in movement than man, since this excellence of speed is
|
|
|
7686 inconsistent with the equability of the human temperament.
|
|
|
7687 </p>
|
|
|
7688 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p9">
|
|
|
7689 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Horns and claws, which are the weapons of some animals, and toughness of hide and quantity of hair or feathers, which are
|
|
|
7690 the clothing of animals, are signs of an abundance of the earthly element; which does not agree with the equability and softness
|
|
|
7691 of the human temperament. Therefore such things do not suit the nature of man. Instead of these, he has reason and hands whereby
|
|
|
7692 he can make himself arms and clothes, and other necessaries of life, of
|
|
|
7693 infinite variety. Wherefore the hand is called by Aristotle (De Anima iii, 8), "the organ of organs." Moreover this was more
|
|
|
7694 becoming to the rational nature, which is capable of conceiving an infinite number of things, so as to make for itself an
|
|
|
7695 infinite number of instruments.
|
|
|
7696 </p>
|
|
|
7697 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p10">
|
|
|
7698 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> An upright stature was becoming to man for four reasons. First, because the senses are given to man, not only for the purpose
|
|
|
7699 of procuring the necessaries of life, which they are bestowed on other animals, but also for the purpose of knowledge. Hence,
|
|
|
7700 whereas the other animals take delight in the objects of the senses only as ordered to food and sex, man alone takes pleasure
|
|
|
7701 in the beauty of sensible objects for its own sake. Therefore, as the senses
|
|
|
7702 are situated chiefly in the face, other animals have the face turned to the ground, as it were for the purpose of seeking
|
|
|
7703 food and procuring a livelihood; whereas man has his face erect, in order that by the senses, and chiefly by sight, which
|
|
|
7704 is more subtle and penetrates further into the differences of things, he may freely survey the sensible objects around him,
|
|
|
7705 both heavenly and earthly, so as to gather intelligible truth from all things. Secondly, for the greater freedom of the acts
|
|
|
7706 of the
|
|
|
7707 interior powers; the brain, wherein these actions are, in a way, performed, not being low down, but lifted up above other
|
|
|
7708 parts of the body. Thirdly, because if man's stature were prone to the ground he would need to use his hands as fore-feet;
|
|
|
7709 and thus their utility for other purposes would cease. Fourthly, because if man's stature were prone to the ground, and he
|
|
|
7710 used his hands as fore-feet, he would be obliged to take hold of his food with his mouth. Thus he would have a protruding
|
|
|
7711 mouth,
|
|
|
7712 with thick and hard lips, and also a hard tongue, so as to keep it from being hurt by exterior things; as we see in other
|
|
|
7713 animals. Moreover, such an attitude would quite hinder speech, which is reason's proper operation.
|
|
|
7714 </p>
|
|
|
7715 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p11"> Nevertheless, though of erect stature, man is far above plants. For man's superior part, his head, is turned towards the
|
|
|
7716 superior part of the world, and his inferior part is turned towards the inferior world; and therefore he is perfectly disposed
|
|
|
7717 as to the general situation of his body. Plants have the superior part turned towards the lower world, since their roots correspond
|
|
|
7718 to the mouth; and their inferior part towards the upper world. But brute animals have a middle
|
|
|
7719 disposition, for the superior part of the animal is that by which it takes food, and the inferior part that by which it rids
|
|
|
7720 itself of the surplus.
|
|
|
7721 </p>
|
|
|
7722 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
7723 <p id="FP_Q91_A3-p13"></p>
|
|
|
7724 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7725 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7726 </div>
|
|
|
7727 <div id="FP_Q91_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
7728 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7729 <a href="summa.FP_Q92.html"></a>
|
|
|
7730 <h4 id="FP_Q91_A4-p0.1">Whether the production of the human body is fittingly described in Scripture?</h4>
|
|
|
7731 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7732 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p2">
|
|
|
7733 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the production of the human body is not fittingly described in Scripture. For, as the human body was made
|
|
|
7734 by God, so also were the other works of the six days. But in the other works it is written, "God said; Let it be made, and
|
|
|
7735 it was made." Therefore the same should have been said of man.
|
|
|
7736 </p>
|
|
|
7737 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p3">
|
|
|
7738 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the human body was made by God immediately, as explained above
|
|
|
7739 <a id="FP_Q91_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Therefore it was not fittingly said, "Let us make man."
|
|
|
7740 </p>
|
|
|
7741 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p4">
|
|
|
7742 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the form of the human body is the soul itself which is the breath of life. Therefore, having said, "God made man
|
|
|
7743 of the slime of the earth," he should not have added: "And He breathed into him the breath of life."
|
|
|
7744 </p>
|
|
|
7745 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p5">
|
|
|
7746 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the soul, which is the breath of life, is in the whole body, and chiefly in the heart. Therefore it was not fittingly
|
|
|
7747 said: "He breathed into his face the breath of life."
|
|
|
7748 </p>
|
|
|
7749 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p6">
|
|
|
7750 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the male and female sex belong to the body, while the image of God belongs to the soul. But the soul, according
|
|
|
7751 to Augustine (Gen. ad lit. vii, 24), was made before the body. Therefore having said: "To His image He made them," he should
|
|
|
7752 not have added, "male and female He created them."
|
|
|
7753 </p>
|
|
|
7754 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p7">
|
|
|
7755 <b>On the contrary,</b> Is the authority of Scripture.
|
|
|
7756 </p>
|
|
|
7757 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p8">
|
|
|
7758 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine observes (Gen. ad lit. vi, 12), man surpasses other things, not in the fact that God Himself made man, as though
|
|
|
7759 He did not make other things; since it is written (
|
|
|
7760 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A4-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.101.26" target="asv">Ps. 101:26</a>), "The work of Thy hands is the heaven," and elsewhere (
|
|
|
7761 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A4-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.94.5" target="asv">Ps. 94:5</a>), "His hands laid down the dry land"; but in this, that man is made to God's image. Yet in describing man's production, Scripture
|
|
|
7762 uses a special way of
|
|
|
7763 speaking, to show that other things were made for man's sake. For we are accustomed to do with more deliberation and care
|
|
|
7764 what we have chiefly in mind.
|
|
|
7765 </p>
|
|
|
7766 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p9">
|
|
|
7767 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> We must not imagine that when God said "Let us make man," He spoke to the angels, as some were perverse enough to think.
|
|
|
7768 But by these words is signified the plurality of the Divine Person, Whose image is more clearly expressed in man.
|
|
|
7769 </p>
|
|
|
7770 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p10">
|
|
|
7771 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Some have thought that man's body was formed first in priority of time, and that afterwards the soul was infused into the
|
|
|
7772 formed body. But it is inconsistent with the perfection of the production of things, that God should have made either the
|
|
|
7773 body without the soul, or the soul without the body, since each is a part of human nature. This is especially unfitting as
|
|
|
7774 regards the body, for the body depends on the soul, and not the soul on the body.
|
|
|
7775 </p>
|
|
|
7776 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p11"> To remove the difficulty some have said that the words, "God made man," must be understood of the production of the body
|
|
|
7777 with the soul; and that the subsequent words, "and He breathed into his face the breath of life," should be understood of
|
|
|
7778 the Holy Ghost; as the Lord breathed on His Apostles, saying, "Receive ye the Holy Ghost" (
|
|
|
7779 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A4-p11.1" href="./asv.html#John.20.22" target="asv">Jn. 20:22</a>). But this explanation, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiii, 24), is excluded by the very words of Scripture. For we
|
|
|
7780 read farther on, "And man was made a living soul"; which words the Apostle (
|
|
|
7781 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q91_A4-p11.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.45" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:45</a>) refers not to spiritual life, but to animal life. Therefore, by breath of life we must understand the soul, so that the
|
|
|
7782 words, "He breathed into his face the breath of life," are a sort of exposition of what goes before; for the soul is the form
|
|
|
7783 of the body.
|
|
|
7784 </p>
|
|
|
7785 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p12">
|
|
|
7786 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Since vital operations are more clearly seen in man's face, on account of the senses which are there expressed; therefore
|
|
|
7787 Scripture says that the breath of life was breathed into man's face.
|
|
|
7788 </p>
|
|
|
7789 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p13">
|
|
|
7790 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> According to Augustine (Gen. ad lit. iv, 34), the works of the six days were done all at one time; wherefore according to
|
|
|
7791 him man's soul, which he holds to have been made with the angels, was not made before the sixth day; but on the sixth day
|
|
|
7792 both the soul of the first man was made actually, and his body in its causal elements. But other doctors hold that on the
|
|
|
7793 sixth day both body and soul of man were actually made.
|
|
|
7794 </p>
|
|
|
7795 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p14"></p>
|
|
|
7796 <p id="FP_Q91_A4-p15"></p>
|
|
|
7797 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7798 <a href="summa.FP_Q92.html"></a>
|
|
|
7799 </div>
|
|
|
7800 <a href="summa.FP_Q90_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7801 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7802 </div>
|
|
|
7803 <div id="FP_Q92" class="div3">
|
|
|
7804 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
7805 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7806 <h3 id="FP_Q92-p0.1">THE PRODUCTION OF THE WOMAN (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
7807 <p id="FP_Q92-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7808 <p id="FP_Q92-p2"> We must next consider the production of the woman. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
7809 <p id="FP_Q92-p3"> (1) Whether the woman should have been made in that first production of things?</p>
|
|
|
7810 <p id="FP_Q92-p4"> (2) Whether the woman should have been made from man?</p>
|
|
|
7811 <p id="FP_Q92-p5"> (3) Whether of man's rib?</p>
|
|
|
7812 <p id="FP_Q92-p6"> (4) Whether the woman was made immediately by God?</p>
|
|
|
7813 <div id="FP_Q92_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
7814 <a href="summa.FP_Q92.html"></a>
|
|
|
7815 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7816 <h4 id="FP_Q92_A1-p0.1">Whether the woman should have been made in the first production of things?</h4>
|
|
|
7817 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7818 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p2">
|
|
|
7819 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the woman should not have been made in the first production of things. For the Philosopher says (De Gener.
|
|
|
7820 ii, 3), that "the female is a misbegotten male." But nothing misbegotten or defective should have been in the first production
|
|
|
7821 of things. Therefore woman should not have been made at that first production.
|
|
|
7822 </p>
|
|
|
7823 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p3">
|
|
|
7824 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, subjection and limitation were a result of sin, for to the woman was it said after sin (
|
|
|
7825 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.3.16" target="asv">Gn. 3:16</a>): "Thou shalt be under the man's power"; and Gregory says that, "Where there is no sin, there is no inequality." But woman
|
|
|
7826 is naturally of less strength and dignity than man; "for the agent is always more honorable than the patient," as Augustine
|
|
|
7827 says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 16). Therefore woman should not have been made in the first
|
|
|
7828 production of things before sin.
|
|
|
7829 </p>
|
|
|
7830 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p4">
|
|
|
7831 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, occasions of sin should be cut off. But God foresaw that the woman would be an occasion of sin to man. Therefore
|
|
|
7832 He should not have made woman.
|
|
|
7833 </p>
|
|
|
7834 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p5">
|
|
|
7835 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7836 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.18" target="asv">Gn. 2:18</a>): "It is not good for man to be alone; let us make him a helper like to himself."
|
|
|
7837 </p>
|
|
|
7838 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p6">
|
|
|
7839 <b>I answer that,</b> It was necessary for woman to be made, as the Scripture says, as a "helper" to man; not, indeed, as a helpmate in other works,
|
|
|
7840 as some say, since man can be more efficiently helped by another man in other works; but as a helper in the work of generation.
|
|
|
7841 This can be made clear if we observe the mode of generation carried out in various living things. Some living things do not
|
|
|
7842 possess in themselves the power of generation, but are generated by some other
|
|
|
7843 specific agent, such as some plants and animals by the influence of the heavenly bodies, from some fitting matter and not
|
|
|
7844 from seed: others possess the active and passive generative power together; as we see in plants which are generated from seed;
|
|
|
7845 for the noblest vital function in plants is generation. Wherefore we observe that in these the active power of generation
|
|
|
7846 invariably accompanies the passive power. Among perfect animals the active power of generation belongs to the male sex, and
|
|
|
7847 the
|
|
|
7848 passive power to the female. And as among animals there is a vital operation nobler than generation, to which their life is
|
|
|
7849 principally directed; therefore the male sex is not found in continual union with the female in perfect animals, but only
|
|
|
7850 at the time of coition; so that we may consider that by this means the male and female are one, as in plants they are always
|
|
|
7851 united; although in some cases one of them preponderates, and in some the other. But man is yet further ordered to a still
|
|
|
7852 nobler vital action, and that is intellectual operation. Therefore there was greater reason for the distinction of these two
|
|
|
7853 forces in man; so that the female should be produced separately from the male; although they are carnally united for generation.
|
|
|
7854 Therefore directly after the formation of woman, it was said: "And they shall be two in one flesh" (
|
|
|
7855 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.24" target="asv">Gn. 2:24</a>).
|
|
|
7856 </p>
|
|
|
7857 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p7">
|
|
|
7858 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As regards the individual nature, woman is defective and misbegotten, for the active force in the male seed tends to the
|
|
|
7859 production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex; while the production of woman comes from defect in the active force
|
|
|
7860 or from some material indisposition, or even from some external influence; such as that of a south wind, which is moist, as
|
|
|
7861 the Philosopher observes (De Gener. Animal. iv, 2). On the other hand, as regards human
|
|
|
7862 nature in general, woman is not misbegotten, but is included in nature's intention as directed to the work of generation.
|
|
|
7863 Now the general intention of nature depends on God, Who is the universal Author of nature. Therefore, in producing nature,
|
|
|
7864 God formed not only the male but also the female.
|
|
|
7865 </p>
|
|
|
7866 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p8">
|
|
|
7867 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Subjection is twofold. One is servile, by virtue of which a superior makes use of a subject for his own benefit; and this
|
|
|
7868 kind of subjection began after sin. There is another kind of subjection which is called economic or civil, whereby the superior
|
|
|
7869 makes use of his subjects for their own benefit and good; and this kind of subjection existed even before sin. For good order
|
|
|
7870 would have been wanting in the human family if some were not governed by others
|
|
|
7871 wiser than themselves. So by such a kind of subjection woman is naturally subject to man, because in man the discretion of
|
|
|
7872 reason predominates. Nor is inequality among men excluded by the state of innocence, as we shall prove (
|
|
|
7873 <a id="FP_Q92_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q96_A3.html">Q[96], A[3]</a>).
|
|
|
7874 </p>
|
|
|
7875 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p9">
|
|
|
7876 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If God had deprived the world of all those things which proved an occasion of sin, the universe would have been imperfect.
|
|
|
7877 Nor was it fitting for the common good to be destroyed in order that individual evil might be avoided; especially as God is
|
|
|
7878 so powerful that He can direct any evil to a good end.
|
|
|
7879 </p>
|
|
|
7880 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
7881 <p id="FP_Q92_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7882 <a href="summa.FP_Q92.html"></a>
|
|
|
7883 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
7884 </div>
|
|
|
7885 <div id="FP_Q92_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
7886 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7887 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7888 <h4 id="FP_Q92_A2-p0.1">Whether woman should have been made from man?</h4>
|
|
|
7889 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7890 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p2">
|
|
|
7891 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that woman should not have been made from man. For sex belongs both to man and animals. But in the other animals
|
|
|
7892 the female was not made from the male. Therefore neither should it have been so with man.
|
|
|
7893 </p>
|
|
|
7894 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p3">
|
|
|
7895 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, things of the same species are of the same matter. But male and female are of the same species. Therefore, as man
|
|
|
7896 was made of the slime of the earth, so woman should have been made of the same, and not from man.
|
|
|
7897 </p>
|
|
|
7898 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p4">
|
|
|
7899 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, woman was made to be a helpmate to man in the work of generation. But close relationship makes a person unfit for
|
|
|
7900 that office; hence near relations are debarred from intermarriage, as is written (
|
|
|
7901 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.18.6" target="asv">Lev. 18:6</a>). Therefore woman should not have been made from man.
|
|
|
7902 </p>
|
|
|
7903 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p5">
|
|
|
7904 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
7905 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.17.5" target="asv">Ecclus. 17:5</a>): "He created of him," that is, out of man, "a helpmate like to himself," that is, woman.
|
|
|
7906 </p>
|
|
|
7907 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p6">
|
|
|
7908 <b>I answer that,</b> When all things were first formed, it was more suitable for the woman to be made from man that (for the female to be from
|
|
|
7909 the male) in other animals. First, in order thus to give the first man a certain dignity consisting in this, that as God is
|
|
|
7910 the principle of the whole universe, so the first man, in likeness to God, was the principle of the whole human race. Wherefore
|
|
|
7911 Paul says that "God made the whole human race from one" (
|
|
|
7912 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.17.26" target="asv">Acts
|
|
|
7913 17:26
|
|
|
7914 </a>). Secondly, that man might love woman all the more, and cleave to her more closely, knowing her to be fashioned from himself.
|
|
|
7915 Hence it is written (
|
|
|
7916 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A2-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.23" target="asv">Gn. 2:23,24</a>): "She was taken out of man, wherefore a man shall leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife." This was most
|
|
|
7917 necessary as regards the human race, in which the male and female live together for life; which is not the case with other
|
|
|
7918 animals. Thirdly, because, as the Philosopher says (Ethic.
|
|
|
7919 viii, 12), the human male and female are united, not only for generation, as with other animals, but also for the purpose
|
|
|
7920 of domestic life, in which each has his or her particular duty, and in which the man is the head of the woman. Wherefore it
|
|
|
7921 was suitable for the woman to be made out of man, as out of her principle. Fourthly, there is a sacramental reason for this.
|
|
|
7922 For by this is signified that the Church takes her origin from Christ. Wherefore the Apostle says (
|
|
|
7923 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A2-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Eph.5.32" target="asv">Eph.
|
|
|
7924 5:32
|
|
|
7925 </a>): "This is a great sacrament; but I speak in Christ and in the Church."
|
|
|
7926 </p>
|
|
|
7927 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p7"> Reply OBJ 1 is clear from the foregoing.</p>
|
|
|
7928 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p8">
|
|
|
7929 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Matter is that from which something is made. Now created nature has a determinate principle; and since it is determined to
|
|
|
7930 one thing, it has also a determinate mode of proceeding. Wherefore from determinate matter it produces something in a determinate
|
|
|
7931 species. On the other hand, the Divine Power, being infinite, can produce things of the same species out of any matter, such
|
|
|
7932 as a man from the slime of the earth, and a woman from out of man.
|
|
|
7933 </p>
|
|
|
7934 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p9">
|
|
|
7935 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A certain affinity arises from natural generation, and this is an impediment to matrimony. Woman, however, was not produced
|
|
|
7936 from man by natural generation, but by the Divine Power alone. Wherefore Eve is not called the daughter of Adam; and so this
|
|
|
7937 argument does not prove.
|
|
|
7938 </p>
|
|
|
7939 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
7940 <p id="FP_Q92_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
7941 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
7942 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
7943 </div>
|
|
|
7944 <div id="FP_Q92_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
7945 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A2.html"></a>
|
|
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7946 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A4.html"></a>
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|
7947 <h4 id="FP_Q92_A3-p0.1">Whether the woman was fittingly made from the rib of man?</h4>
|
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7948 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
7949 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p2">
|
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|
7950 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the woman should not have been formed from the rib of man. For the rib was much smaller than the woman's
|
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|
7951 body. Now from a smaller thing a larger thing can be made only---either by addition (and then the woman ought to have been
|
|
|
7952 described as made out of that which was added, rather than out of the rib itself)---or by rarefaction, because, as Augustine
|
|
|
7953 says (Gen. ad lit. x): "A body cannot increase in bulk except by rarefaction." But the
|
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|
7954 woman's body is not more rarefied than man's---at least, not in the proportion of a rib to Eve's body. Therefore Eve was not
|
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|
7955 formed from a rib of Adam.
|
|
|
7956 </p>
|
|
|
7957 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p3">
|
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|
7958 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in those things which were first created there was nothing superfluous. Therefore a rib of Adam belonged to the
|
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|
7959 integrity of his body. So, if a rib was removed, his body remained imperfect; which is unreasonable to suppose.
|
|
|
7960 </p>
|
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|
7961 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p4">
|
|
|
7962 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a rib cannot be removed from man without pain. But there was no pain before sin. Therefore it was not right for
|
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|
7963 a rib to be taken from the man, that Eve might be made from it.
|
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|
7964 </p>
|
|
|
7965 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p5">
|
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|
7966 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
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|
7967 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q92_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.22" target="asv">Gn. 2:22</a>): "God built the rib, which He took from Adam, into a woman."
|
|
|
7968 </p>
|
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|
7969 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p6">
|
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|
7970 <b>I answer that,</b> It was right for the woman to be made from a rib of man. First, to signify the social union of man and woman, for the woman
|
|
|
7971 should neither "use authority over man," and so she was not made from his head; nor was it right for her to be subject to
|
|
|
7972 man's contempt as his slave, and so she was not made from his feet. Secondly, for the sacramental signification; for from
|
|
|
7973 the side of Christ sleeping on the Cross the Sacraments flowed---namely, blood and water---on
|
|
|
7974 which the Church was established.
|
|
|
7975 </p>
|
|
|
7976 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p7">
|
|
|
7977 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Some say that the woman's body was formed by a material increase, without anything being added; in the same way as our Lord
|
|
|
7978 multiplied the five loaves. But this is quite impossible. For such an increase of matter would either be by a change of the
|
|
|
7979 very substance of the matter itself, or by a change of its dimensions. Not by change of the substance of the matter, both
|
|
|
7980 because matter, considered in itself, is quite unchangeable, since it has a potential
|
|
|
7981 existence, and has nothing but the nature of a subject, and because quantity and size are extraneous to the essence of matter
|
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|
7982 itself. Wherefore multiplication of matter is quite unintelligible, as long as the matter itself remains the same without
|
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|
7983 anything added to it; unless it receives greater dimensions. This implies rarefaction, which is for the same matter to receive
|
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|
7984 greater dimensions, as the Philosopher says (Phys. iv). To say, therefore, that the same matter is enlarged, without being
|
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|
7985 rarefied, is to combine contradictories ---viz. the definition with the absence of the thing defined.
|
|
|
7986 </p>
|
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|
7987 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p8"> Wherefore, as no rarefaction is apparent in such multiplication of matter, we must admit an addition of matter: either by
|
|
|
7988 creation, or which is more probable, by conversion. Hence Augustine says (Tract. xxiv in Joan.) that "Christ filled five thousand
|
|
|
7989 men with five loaves, in the same way as from a few seeds He produces the harvest of corn"---that is, by transformation of
|
|
|
7990 the nourishment. Nevertheless, we say that the crowds were fed with five loaves, or that woman was made from
|
|
|
7991 the rib, because an addition was made to the already existing matter of the loaves and of the rib.
|
|
|
7992 </p>
|
|
|
7993 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p9">
|
|
|
7994 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The rib belonged to the integral perfection of Adam, not as an individual, but as the principle of the human race; just as
|
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|
7995 the semen belongs to the perfection of the begetter, and is released by a natural and pleasurable operation. Much more, therefore,
|
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|
7996 was it possible that by the Divine power the body of the woman should be produced from the man's rib.
|
|
|
7997 </p>
|
|
86
|
7998 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p10"><b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> From this it is clear how to answer the third objection.</p>
|
|
64
|
7999 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p11"></p>
|
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|
8000 <p id="FP_Q92_A3-p12"></p>
|
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|
8001 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
8002 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8003 </div>
|
|
|
8004 <div id="FP_Q92_A4" class="div4">
|
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8005 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A3.html"></a>
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8006 <a href="summa.FP_Q93.html"></a>
|
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|
8007 <h4 id="FP_Q92_A4-p0.1">Whether the woman was formed immediately by God?</h4>
|
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|
8008 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p1"></p>
|
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|
8009 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p2">
|
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|
8010 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the woman was not formed immediately by God. For no individual is produced immediately by God from another
|
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|
8011 individual alike in species. But the woman was made from a man who is of the same species. Therefore she was not made immediately
|
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|
8012 by God.
|
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|
8013 </p>
|
|
|
8014 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p3">
|
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|
8015 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine (De Trin. iii, 4) says that corporeal things are governed by God through the angels. But the woman's body
|
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|
8016 was formed from corporeal matter. Therefore it was made through the ministry of the angels, and not immediately by God.
|
|
|
8017 </p>
|
|
|
8018 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p4">
|
|
|
8019 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, those things which pre-exist in creatures as to their causal virtues are produced by the power of some creature,
|
|
|
8020 and not immediately by God. But the woman's body was produced in its causal virtues among the first created works, as Augustine
|
|
|
8021 says (Gen. ad lit. ix, 15). Therefore it was not produced immediately by God.
|
|
|
8022 </p>
|
|
|
8023 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p5">
|
|
|
8024 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says, in the same work: "God alone, to Whom all nature owes its existence, could form or build up the woman from
|
|
|
8025 the man's rib."
|
|
|
8026 </p>
|
|
|
8027 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p6">
|
|
|
8028 <b>I answer that,</b> As was said above (A[2], ad 2), the natural generation of every species is from some determinate matter. Now the matter whence
|
|
|
8029 man is naturally begotten is the human semen of man or woman. Wherefore from any other matter an individual of the human species
|
|
|
8030 cannot naturally be generated. Now God alone, the Author of nature, can produce an effect into existence outside the ordinary
|
|
|
8031 course of nature. Therefore God alone could produce either a man from the slime
|
|
|
8032 of the earth, or a woman from the rib of man.
|
|
|
8033 </p>
|
|
|
8034 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p7">
|
|
|
8035 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument is verified when an individual is begotten, by natural generation, from that which is like it in the same species.
|
|
|
8036 </p>
|
|
|
8037 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p8">
|
|
|
8038 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ix, 15), we do not know whether the angels were employed by God in the formation of the woman;
|
|
|
8039 but it is certain that, as the body of man was not formed by the angels from the slime of the earth, so neither was the body
|
|
|
8040 of the woman formed by them from the man's rib.
|
|
|
8041 </p>
|
|
|
8042 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p9">
|
|
|
8043 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ix, 18): "The first creation of things did not demand that woman should be made thus; it
|
|
|
8044 made it possible for her to be thus made." Therefore the body of the woman did indeed pre-exist in these causal virtues, in
|
|
|
8045 the things first created; not as regards active potentiality, but as regards a potentiality passive in relation to the active
|
|
|
8046 potentiality of the Creator.
|
|
|
8047 </p>
|
|
|
8048 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
8049 <p id="FP_Q92_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8050 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
8051 <a href="summa.FP_Q93.html"></a>
|
|
|
8052 </div>
|
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|
8053 <a href="summa.FP_Q91_A4.html"></a>
|
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8054 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8055 </div>
|
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|
8056 <div id="FP_Q93" class="div3">
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8057 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
8058 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
8059 <h3 id="FP_Q93-p0.1">THE END OR TERM OF THE PRODUCTION OF MAN (NINE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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|
8060 <p id="FP_Q93-p1"></p>
|
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|
8061 <p id="FP_Q93-p2"> We now treat of the end or term of man's production, inasmuch as he is said to be made "to the image and likeness of God."
|
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|
8062 There are under this head nine points of inquiry:
|
|
|
8063 </p>
|
|
|
8064 <p id="FP_Q93-p3"> (1) Whether the image of God is in man?</p>
|
|
|
8065 <p id="FP_Q93-p4"> (2) Whether the image of God is in irrational creatures?</p>
|
|
|
8066 <p id="FP_Q93-p5"> (3) Whether the image of God is in the angels more than in man?</p>
|
|
|
8067 <p id="FP_Q93-p6"> (4) Whether the image of God is in every man?</p>
|
|
|
8068 <p id="FP_Q93-p7"> (5) Whether the image of God is in man by comparison with the Essence, or with all the Divine Persons, or with one of them?</p>
|
|
|
8069 <p id="FP_Q93-p8"> (6) Whether the image of God is in man, as to his mind only?</p>
|
|
|
8070 <p id="FP_Q93-p9"> (7) Whether the image of God is in man's power or in his habits and acts?</p>
|
|
|
8071 <p id="FP_Q93-p10"> (8) Whether the image of God is in man by comparison with every object?</p>
|
|
|
8072 <p id="FP_Q93-p11"> (9) Of the difference between "image" and "likeness."</p>
|
|
|
8073 <div id="FP_Q93_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
8074 <a href="summa.FP_Q93.html"></a>
|
|
|
8075 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8076 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A1-p0.1">Whether the image of God is in man?</h4>
|
|
|
8077 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8078 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p2">
|
|
|
8079 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God is not in man. For it is written (
|
|
|
8080 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.40.18" target="asv">Is. 40:18</a>): "To whom have you likened God? or what image will you make for Him?"
|
|
|
8081 </p>
|
|
|
8082 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p3">
|
|
|
8083 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to be the image of God is the property of the First-Begotten, of Whom the Apostle says (
|
|
|
8084 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Col.1.15" target="asv">Col. 1:15</a>): "Who is the image of the invisible God, the First-Born of every creature." Therefore the image of God is not to be found
|
|
|
8085 in man.
|
|
|
8086 </p>
|
|
|
8087 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p4">
|
|
|
8088 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Hilary says (De Synod [*Super i can. Synod. Ancyr.]) that "an image is of the same species as that which it represents";
|
|
|
8089 and he also says that "an image is the undivided and united likeness of one thing adequately representing another." But there
|
|
|
8090 is no species common to both God and man; nor can there be a comparison of equality between God and man. Therefore there can
|
|
|
8091 be no image of God in man.
|
|
|
8092 </p>
|
|
|
8093 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p5">
|
|
|
8094 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
8095 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.26" target="asv">Gn. 1:26</a>): "Let Us make man to Our own image and likeness."
|
|
|
8096 </p>
|
|
|
8097 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p6">
|
|
|
8098 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 74): "Where an image exists, there forthwith is likeness; but where there is likeness, there
|
|
|
8099 is not necessarily an image." Hence it is clear that likeness is essential to an image; and that an image adds something to
|
|
|
8100 likeness---namely, that it is copied from something else. For an "image" is so called because it is produced as an imitation
|
|
|
8101 of something else; wherefore, for instance, an egg, however much like and equal to
|
|
|
8102 another egg, is not called an image of the other egg, because it is not copied from it.
|
|
|
8103 </p>
|
|
|
8104 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p7"> But equality does not belong to the essence of an image; for as Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 74): "Where there is an image
|
|
|
8105 there is not necessarily equality," as we see in a person's image reflected in a glass. Yet this is of the essence of a perfect
|
|
|
8106 image; for in a perfect image nothing is wanting that is to be found in that of which it is a copy. Now it is manifest that
|
|
|
8107 in man there is some likeness to God, copied from God as from an exemplar; yet this likeness is not one of
|
|
|
8108 equality, for such an exemplar infinitely excels its copy. Therefore there is in man a likeness to God; not, indeed, a perfect
|
|
|
8109 likeness, but imperfect. And Scripture implies the same when it says that man was made "to" God's likeness; for the preposition
|
|
|
8110 "to" signifies a certain approach, as of something at a distance.
|
|
|
8111 </p>
|
|
|
8112 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p8">
|
|
|
8113 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Prophet speaks of bodily images made by man. Therefore he says pointedly: "What image will you make for Him?" But God
|
|
|
8114 made a spiritual image to Himself in man.
|
|
|
8115 </p>
|
|
|
8116 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p9">
|
|
|
8117 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The First-Born of creatures is the perfect Image of God, reflecting perfectly that of which He is the Image, and so He is
|
|
|
8118 said to be the "Image," and never "to the image." But man is said to be both "image" by reason of the likeness; and "to the
|
|
|
8119 image" by reason of the imperfect likeness. And since the perfect likeness to God cannot be except in an identical nature,
|
|
|
8120 the Image of God exists in His first-born Son; as the image of the king is in his son,
|
|
|
8121 who is of the same nature as himself: whereas it exists in man as in an alien nature, as the image of the king is in a silver
|
|
|
8122 coin, as Augustine says explains in De decem Chordis (Serm. ix, al, xcvi, De Tempore).
|
|
|
8123 </p>
|
|
|
8124 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p10">
|
|
|
8125 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As unity means absence of division, a species is said to be the same as far as it is one. Now a thing is said to be one not
|
|
|
8126 only numerically, specifically, or generically, but also according to a certain analogy or proportion. In this sense a creature
|
|
|
8127 is one with God, or like to Him; but when Hilary says "of a thing which adequately represents another," this is to be understood
|
|
|
8128 of a perfect image.
|
|
|
8129 </p>
|
|
|
8130 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8131 <p id="FP_Q93_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8132 <a href="summa.FP_Q93.html"></a>
|
|
|
8133 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8134 </div>
|
|
|
8135 <div id="FP_Q93_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
8136 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8137 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8138 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A2-p0.1">Whether the image of God is to be found in irrational creatures?</h4>
|
|
|
8139 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8140 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p2">
|
|
|
8141 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God is to be found in irrational creatures. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. ii): "Effects are
|
|
|
8142 contingent images of their causes." But God is the cause not only of rational, but also of irrational creatures. Therefore
|
|
|
8143 the image of God is to be found in irrational creatures.
|
|
|
8144 </p>
|
|
|
8145 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p3">
|
|
|
8146 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the more distinct a likeness is, the nearer it approaches to the nature of an image. But Dionysius says (Div. Nom.
|
|
|
8147 iv) that "the solar ray has a very great similitude to the Divine goodness." Therefore it is made to the image of God.
|
|
|
8148 </p>
|
|
|
8149 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p4">
|
|
|
8150 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the more perfect anything is in goodness, the more it is like God. But the whole universe is more perfect in goodness
|
|
|
8151 than man; for though each individual thing is good, all things together are called "very good" (
|
|
|
8152 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.31" target="asv">Gn. 1:31</a>). Therefore the whole universe is to the image of God, and not only man.
|
|
|
8153 </p>
|
|
|
8154 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p5">
|
|
|
8155 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Boethius (De Consol. iii) says of God: "Holding the world in His mind, and forming it into His image." Therefore
|
|
|
8156 the whole world is to the image of God, and not only the rational creature.
|
|
|
8157 </p>
|
|
|
8158 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p6">
|
|
|
8159 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. vi, 12): "Man's excellence consists in the fact that God made him to His own image by giving
|
|
|
8160 him an intellectual soul, which raises him above the beasts of the field." Therefore things without intellect are not made
|
|
|
8161 to God's image.
|
|
|
8162 </p>
|
|
|
8163 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p7">
|
|
|
8164 <b>I answer that,</b> Not every likeness, not even what is copied from something else, is sufficient to make an image; for if the likeness be only
|
|
|
8165 generic, or existing by virtue of some common accident, this does not suffice for one thing to be the image of another. For
|
|
|
8166 instance, a worm, though from man it may originate, cannot be called man's image, merely because of the generic likeness.
|
|
|
8167 Nor, if anything is made white like something else, can we say that it is the image of that
|
|
|
8168 thing; for whiteness is an accident belonging to many species. But the nature of an image requires likeness in species; thus
|
|
|
8169 the image of the king exists in his son: or, at least, in some specific accident, and chiefly in the shape; thus, we speak
|
|
|
8170 of a man's image in copper. Whence Hilary says pointedly that "an image is of the same species."
|
|
|
8171 </p>
|
|
|
8172 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p8"> Now it is manifest that specific likeness follows the ultimate difference. But some things are like to God first and most
|
|
|
8173 commonly because they exist; secondly, because they live; and thirdly because they know or understand; and these last, as
|
|
|
8174 Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 51) "approach so near to God in likeness, that among all creatures nothing comes nearer to Him."
|
|
|
8175 It is clear, therefore, that intellectual creatures alone, properly speaking, are made to God's image.
|
|
|
8176 </p>
|
|
|
8177 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p9">
|
|
|
8178 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Everything imperfect is a participation of what is perfect. Therefore even what falls short of the nature of an image, so
|
|
|
8179 far as it possesses any sort of likeness to God, participates in some degree the nature of an image. So Dionysius says that
|
|
|
8180 effects are "contingent images of their causes"; that is, as much as they happen [contingit] to be so, but not absolutely.
|
|
|
8181 </p>
|
|
|
8182 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p10">
|
|
|
8183 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Dionysius compares the solar ray to Divine goodness, as regards its causality; not as regards its natural dignity which is
|
|
|
8184 involved in the idea of an image.
|
|
|
8185 </p>
|
|
|
8186 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p11">
|
|
|
8187 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The universe is more perfect in goodness than the intellectual creature as regards extension and diffusion; but intensively
|
|
|
8188 and collectively the likeness to the Divine goodness is found rather in the intellectual creature, which has a capacity for
|
|
|
8189 the highest good. Or else we may say that a part is not rightly divided against the whole, but only against another part.
|
|
|
8190 Wherefore, when we say that the intellectual nature alone is to the image of God, we
|
|
|
8191 do not mean that the universe in any part is not to God's image, but that the other parts are excluded.
|
|
|
8192 </p>
|
|
|
8193 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p12">
|
|
|
8194 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Boethius here uses the word "image" to express the likeness which the product of an art bears to the artistic species in
|
|
|
8195 the mind of the artist. Thus every creature is an image of the exemplar type thereof in the Divine mind. We are not, however,
|
|
|
8196 using the word "image" in this sense; but as it implies a likeness in nature, that is, inasmuch as all things, as being, are
|
|
|
8197 like to the First Being; as living, like to the First Life; and as intelligent,
|
|
|
8198 like to the Supreme Wisdom.
|
|
|
8199 </p>
|
|
|
8200 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
8201 <p id="FP_Q93_A2-p14"></p>
|
|
|
8202 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8203 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8204 </div>
|
|
|
8205 <div id="FP_Q93_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
8206 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8207 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8208 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A3-p0.1">Whether the angels are more to the image of God than man is?</h4>
|
|
|
8209 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8210 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p2">
|
|
|
8211 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the angels are not more to the image of God than man is. For Augustine says in a sermon de Imagine xliii
|
|
|
8212 (de verbis Apost. xxvii) that God granted to no other creature besides man to be to His image. Therefore it is not true to
|
|
|
8213 say that the angels are more than man to the image of God.
|
|
|
8214 </p>
|
|
|
8215 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p3">
|
|
|
8216 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Augustine (QQ. 83, qu. 51), "man is so much to God's image that God did not make any creature to be
|
|
|
8217 between Him and man: and therefore nothing is more akin to Him." But a creature is called God's image so far as it is akin
|
|
|
8218 to God. Therefore the angels are not more to the image of God than man.
|
|
|
8219 </p>
|
|
|
8220 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p4">
|
|
|
8221 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a creature is said to be to God's image so far as it is of an intellectual nature. But the intellectual nature does
|
|
|
8222 not admit of intensity or remissness; for it is not an accidental thing, since it is a substance. Therefore the angels are
|
|
|
8223 not more to the image of God than man.
|
|
|
8224 </p>
|
|
|
8225 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p5">
|
|
|
8226 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Hom. in Evang. xxxiv): "The angel is called a "seal of resemblance" [
|
|
|
8227 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.28.12" target="asv">Ezech. 28:12</a>] because in him the resemblance of the Divine image is wrought with greater expression."
|
|
|
8228 </p>
|
|
|
8229 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p6">
|
|
|
8230 <b>I answer that,</b> We may speak of God's image in two ways. First, we may consider in it that in which the image chiefly consists, that is,
|
|
|
8231 the intellectual nature. Thus the image of God is more perfect in the angels than in man, because their intellectual nature
|
|
|
8232 is more perfect, as is clear from what has been said (
|
|
|
8233 <a id="FP_Q93_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q58_A3.html">Q[58], A[3]</a>;
|
|
|
8234 <a id="FP_Q93_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A8.html">Q[79], A[8]</a>). Secondly, we may consider the image of God in man as regards its accidental qualities,
|
|
|
8235 so far as to observe in man a certain imitation of God, consisting in the fact that man proceeds from man, as God from God;
|
|
|
8236 and also in the fact that the whole human soul is in the whole body, as God from God; and also in the fact that the whole
|
|
|
8237 human soul is in the whole body, and again, in every part, as God is in regard to the whole world. In these and the like things
|
|
|
8238 the image of God is more perfect in man than it is in the angels. But these do not of themselves belong to the nature of the
|
|
|
8239 Divine image in man, unless we presuppose the first likeness, which is in the intellectual nature; otherwise even brute animals
|
|
|
8240 would be to God's image. Therefore, as in their intellectual nature, the angels are more to the image of God than man is,
|
|
|
8241 we must grant that, absolutely speaking, the angels are more to the image of God than man is, but that in some respects man
|
|
|
8242 is more like to God.
|
|
|
8243 </p>
|
|
|
8244 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p7">
|
|
|
8245 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine excludes the inferior creatures bereft of reason from the image of God; but not the angels.
|
|
|
8246 </p>
|
|
|
8247 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p8">
|
|
|
8248 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As fire is said to be specifically the most subtle of bodies, while, nevertheless, one kind of fire is more subtle than another;
|
|
|
8249 so we say that nothing is more like to God than the human soul in its generic and intellectual nature, because as Augustine
|
|
|
8250 had said previously, "things which have knowledge, are so near to Him in likeness that of all creatures none are nearer."
|
|
|
8251 Wherefore this does not mean that the angels are not more to God's image.
|
|
|
8252 </p>
|
|
|
8253 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p9">
|
|
|
8254 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When we say that substance does not admit of more or less, we do not mean that one species of substance is not more perfect
|
|
|
8255 than another; but that one and the same individual does not participate in its specific nature at one time more than at another;
|
|
|
8256 nor do we mean that a species of substance is shared among different individuals in a greater or lesser degree.
|
|
|
8257 </p>
|
|
|
8258 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
8259 <p id="FP_Q93_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8260 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8261 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8262 </div>
|
|
|
8263 <div id="FP_Q93_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
8264 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8265 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
8266 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A4-p0.1">Whether the image of God is found in every man?</h4>
|
|
|
8267 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8268 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p2">
|
|
|
8269 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God is not found in every man. For the Apostle says that "man is the image of God, but woman
|
|
|
8270 is the image [Vulg. glory] of man" (
|
|
|
8271 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.7" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:7</a>). Therefore, as woman is an individual of the human species, it is clear that every individual is not an image of God.
|
|
|
8272 </p>
|
|
|
8273 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p3">
|
|
|
8274 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Apostle says (
|
|
|
8275 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.29" target="asv">Rom. 8:29</a>): "Whom God foreknew, He also predestined to be made conformable to the image of His Son." But all men are not predestined.
|
|
|
8276 Therefore all men have not the conformity of image.
|
|
|
8277 </p>
|
|
|
8278 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p4">
|
|
|
8279 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, likeness belongs to the nature of the image, as above explained
|
|
|
8280 <a id="FP_Q93_A4-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But by sin man becomes unlike God. Therefore he loses the image of God.
|
|
|
8281 </p>
|
|
|
8282 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p5">
|
|
|
8283 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
8284 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.38.7" target="asv">Ps. 38:7</a>): "Surely man passeth as an image."
|
|
|
8285 </p>
|
|
|
8286 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p6">
|
|
|
8287 <b>I answer that,</b> Since man is said to be the image of God by reason of his intellectual nature, he is the most perfectly like God according
|
|
|
8288 to that in which he can best imitate God in his intellectual nature. Now the intellectual nature imitates God chiefly in this,
|
|
|
8289 that God understands and loves Himself. Wherefore we see that the image of God is in man in three ways. First, inasmuch as
|
|
|
8290 man possesses a natural aptitude for understanding and loving God; and this aptitude
|
|
|
8291 consists in the very nature of the mind, which is common to all men. Secondly, inasmuch as man actually and habitually knows
|
|
|
8292 and loves God, though imperfectly; and this image consists in the conformity of grace. Thirdly, inasmuch as man knows and
|
|
|
8293 loves God perfectly; and this image consists in the likeness of glory. Wherefore on the words, "The light of Thy countenance,
|
|
|
8294 O Lord, is signed upon us" (
|
|
|
8295 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.4.7" target="asv">Ps. 4:7</a>), the gloss distinguishes a threefold image of "creation," of
|
|
|
8296 "re-creation," and of "likeness." The first is found in all men, the second only in the just, the third only in the blessed.
|
|
|
8297 </p>
|
|
|
8298 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p7">
|
|
|
8299 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The image of God, in its principal signification, namely the intellectual nature, is found both in man and in woman. Hence
|
|
|
8300 after the words, "To the image of God He created him," it is added, "Male and female He created them" (
|
|
|
8301 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.27" target="asv">Gn. 1:27</a>). Moreover it is said "them" in the plural, as Augustine (Gen. ad lit. iii, 22) remarks, lest it should be thought that both
|
|
|
8302 sexes were united in one individual. But in a secondary sense the image of
|
|
|
8303 God is found in man, and not in woman: for man is the beginning and end of woman; as God is the beginning and end of every
|
|
|
8304 creature. So when the Apostle had said that "man is the image and glory of God, but woman is the glory of man," he adds his
|
|
|
8305 reason for saying this: "For man is not of woman, but woman of man; and man was not created for woman, but woman for man."
|
|
|
8306 </p>
|
|
|
8307 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p8"> Reply OBJ 2 and 3: These reasons refer to the image consisting in the conformity of grace and glory.</p>
|
|
|
8308 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p9"></p>
|
|
|
8309 <p id="FP_Q93_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
8310 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8311 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
8312 </div>
|
|
|
8313 <div id="FP_Q93_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
8314 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8315 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
8316 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A5-p0.1">Whether the image of God is in man according to the Trinity of Persons?</h4>
|
|
|
8317 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8318 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p2">
|
|
|
8319 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God does not exist in man as to the Trinity of Persons. For Augustine says (Fulgentius De
|
|
|
8320 Fide ad Petrum i): "One in essence is the Godhead of the Holy Trinity; and one is the image to which man was made." And Hilary
|
|
|
8321 (De Trin. v) says: "Man is made to the image of that which is common in the Trinity." Therefore the image of God in man is
|
|
|
8322 of the Divine Essence, and not of the Trinity of Persons.
|
|
|
8323 </p>
|
|
|
8324 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p3">
|
|
|
8325 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is said (De Eccl. Dogmat.) that the image of God in man is to be referred to eternity. Damascene also says (De
|
|
|
8326 Fide Orth. ii, 12) that the image of God in man belongs to him as "an intelligent being endowed with free-will and self-movement."
|
|
|
8327 Gregory of Nyssa (De Homin. Opificio xvi) also asserts that, when Scripture says that "man was made to the image of God, it
|
|
|
8328 means that human nature was made a participator of all good: for the Godhead is the
|
|
|
8329 fulness of goodness." Now all these things belong more to the unity of the Essence than to the distinction of the Persons.
|
|
|
8330 Therefore the image of God in man regards, not the Trinity of Persons, but the unity of the Essence.
|
|
|
8331 </p>
|
|
|
8332 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p4">
|
|
|
8333 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an image leads to the knowledge of that of which it is the image. Therefore, if there is in man the image of God
|
|
|
8334 as to the Trinity of Persons; since man can know himself by his natural reason, it follows that by his natural knowledge man
|
|
|
8335 could know the Trinity of the Divine Persons; which is untrue, as was shown above (
|
|
|
8336 <a id="FP_Q93_A5-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q32_A1.html">Q[32], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
8337 </p>
|
|
|
8338 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p5">
|
|
|
8339 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the name of Image is not applicable to any of the Three Persons, but only to the Son; for Augustine says (De Trin.
|
|
|
8340 vi, 2) that "the Son alone is the image of the Father." Therefore, if in man there were an image of God as regards the Person,
|
|
|
8341 this would not be an image of the Trinity, but only of the Son.
|
|
|
8342 </p>
|
|
|
8343 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p6">
|
|
|
8344 <b>On the contrary,</b> Hilary says (De Trin. iv): "The plurality of the Divine Persons is proved from the fact that man is said to have been made
|
|
|
8345 to the image of God."
|
|
|
8346 </p>
|
|
|
8347 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p7">
|
|
|
8348 <b>I answer that,</b> as we have seen (
|
|
|
8349 <a id="FP_Q93_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q40_A2.html">Q[40], A[2]</a>), the distinction of the Divine Persons is only according to origin, or, rather, relations of origin. Now the mode of origin
|
|
|
8350 is not the same in all things, but in each thing is adapted to the nature thereof; animated things being produced in one way,
|
|
|
8351 and inanimate in another; animals in one way, and plants in another. Wherefore it is manifest that the distinction of the
|
|
|
8352 Divine Persons is suitable to the
|
|
|
8353 Divine Nature; and therefore to be to the image of God by imitation of the Divine Nature does not exclude being to the same
|
|
|
8354 image by the representation of the Divine Persons: but rather one follows from the other. We must, therefore, say that in
|
|
|
8355 man there exists the image of God, both as regards the Divine Nature and as regards the Trinity of Persons; for also in God
|
|
|
8356 Himself there is one Nature in Three Persons.
|
|
|
8357 </p>
|
|
|
8358 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p8"> Thus it is clear how to solve the first two objections.</p>
|
|
|
8359 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p9">
|
|
|
8360 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument would avail if the image of God in man represented God in a perfect manner. But, as Augustine says (De Trin.
|
|
|
8361 xv, 6), there is a great difference between the trinity within ourselves and the Divine Trinity. Therefore, as he there says:
|
|
|
8362 "We see, rather than believe, the trinity which is in ourselves; whereas we believe rather than see that God is Trinity."
|
|
|
8363 </p>
|
|
|
8364 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p10">
|
|
|
8365 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Some have said that in man there is an image of the Son only. Augustine rejects this opinion (De Trin. xii, 5,6). First,
|
|
|
8366 because as the Son is like to the Father by a likeness of essence, it would follow of necessity if man were made in likeness
|
|
|
8367 to the Son, that he is made to the likeness of the Father. Secondly, because if man were made only to the image of the Son,
|
|
|
8368 the Father would not have said, "Let Us make man to Our own image and likeness"; but
|
|
|
8369 "to Thy image." When, therefore, it is written, "He made him to the image of God," the sense is not that the Father made man
|
|
|
8370 to the image of the Son only, Who is God, as some explained it, but that the Divine Trinity made man to Its image, that is,
|
|
|
8371 of the whole Trinity. When it is said that God "made man to His image," this can be understood in two ways: first, so that
|
|
|
8372 this preposition "to" points to the term of the making, and then the sense is, "Let Us make man in such a way that Our image
|
|
|
8373 may be in him." Secondly, this preposition 'to' may point to the exemplar cause, as when we say, "This book is made (like)
|
|
|
8374 to that one." Thus the image of God is the very Essence of God, Which is incorrectly called an image forasmuch as image is
|
|
|
8375 put for the exemplar. Or, as some say, the Divine Essence is called an image because thereby one Person imitates another.
|
|
|
8376 </p>
|
|
|
8377 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8378 <p id="FP_Q93_A5-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8379 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8380 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
8381 </div>
|
|
|
8382 <div id="FP_Q93_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
8383 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
8384 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
8385 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A6-p0.1">Whether the image of God is in man as regards the mind only?</h4>
|
|
|
8386 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8387 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p2">
|
|
|
8388 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God is not only in man's mind. For the Apostle says (
|
|
|
8389 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.7" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:7</a>) that "the man is the image . . . of God." But man is not only mind. Therefore the image of God is to be observed not only
|
|
|
8390 in his mind.
|
|
|
8391 </p>
|
|
|
8392 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p3">
|
|
|
8393 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written (
|
|
|
8394 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.27" target="asv">Gn. 1:27</a>): "God created man to His own image; to the image of God He created him; male and female He created them." But the distinction
|
|
|
8395 of male and female is in the body. Therefore the image of God is also in the body, and not only in the mind.
|
|
|
8396 </p>
|
|
|
8397 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p4">
|
|
|
8398 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an image seems to apply principally to the shape of a thing. But shape belongs to the body. Therefore the image
|
|
|
8399 of God is to be seen in man's body also, and not in his mind.
|
|
|
8400 </p>
|
|
|
8401 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p5">
|
|
|
8402 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, according to Augustine (Gen. ad lit. xii, 7,24) there is a threefold vision in us, "corporeal," "spiritual," or
|
|
|
8403 imaginary, and "intellectual." Therefore, if in the intellectual vision that belongs to the mind there exists in us a trinity
|
|
|
8404 by reason of which we are made to the image of God, for the like reason there must be another trinity in the others.
|
|
|
8405 </p>
|
|
|
8406 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p6">
|
|
|
8407 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says (
|
|
|
8408 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.23" target="asv">Eph. 4:23,24</a>): "Be renewed in the spirit of your mind, and put on the new man." Whence we are given to understand that our renewal which
|
|
|
8409 consists in putting on the new man, belongs to the mind. Now, he says (
|
|
|
8410 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Col.3.10" target="asv">Col. 3:10</a>): "Putting on the new" man; "him who is renewed unto knowledge" of God, "according to the image of Him that created him,"
|
|
|
8411 where the renewal which consists in putting on the new man
|
|
|
8412 is ascribed to the image of God. Therefore to be to the image of God belongs to the mind only.
|
|
|
8413 </p>
|
|
|
8414 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p7">
|
|
|
8415 <b>I answer that,</b> While in all creatures there is some kind of likeness to God, in the rational creature alone we find a likeness of "image"
|
|
|
8416 as we have explained above (
|
|
|
8417 <a id="FP_Q93_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2); whereas in other creatures we find a likeness by way of a "trace." Now the intellect or mind is that whereby the rational
|
|
|
8418 creature excels other creatures; wherefore this image of God is not found even in the rational creature except in the mind;
|
|
|
8419 while in the other parts,
|
|
|
8420 which the rational creature may happen to possess, we find the likeness of a "trace," as in other creatures to which, in reference
|
|
|
8421 to such parts, the rational creature can be likened. We may easily understand the reason of this if we consider the way in
|
|
|
8422 which a "trace," and the way in which an "image," represents anything. An "image" represents something by likeness in species,
|
|
|
8423 as we have said; while a "trace" represents something by way of an effect, which represents the cause in such a way as
|
|
|
8424 not to attain to the likeness of species. For imprints which are left by the movements of animals are called "traces": so
|
|
|
8425 also ashes are a trace of fire, and desolation of the land a trace of a hostile army.
|
|
|
8426 </p>
|
|
|
8427 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p8"> Therefore we may observe this difference between rational creatures and others, both as to the representation of the likeness
|
|
|
8428 of the Divine Nature in creatures, and as to the representation in them of the uncreated Trinity. For as to the likeness of
|
|
|
8429 the Divine Nature, rational creatures seem to attain, after a fashion, to the representation of the species, inasmuch as they
|
|
|
8430 imitate God, not only in being and life, but also in intelligence, as above explained
|
|
|
8431 <a id="FP_Q93_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html">(A[2])</a>; whereas other creatures do not understand, although we observe in them a certain trace of the Intellect that created them,
|
|
|
8432 if we consider their disposition. Likewise as the uncreated Trinity is distinguished by the procession of the Word from the
|
|
|
8433 Speaker, and of Love from both of these, as we have seen (
|
|
|
8434 <a id="FP_Q93_A6-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q28_A3.html">Q[28], A[3]</a>); so we may say that in rational creatures wherein we find a procession of the word in the intellect, and a procession of
|
|
|
8435 the
|
|
|
8436 love in the will, there exists an image of the uncreated Trinity, by a certain representation of the species. In other creatures,
|
|
|
8437 however, we do not find the principle of the word, and the word and love; but we do see in them a certain trace of the existence
|
|
|
8438 of these in the Cause that produced them. For in the fact that a creature has a modified and finite nature, proves that it
|
|
|
8439 proceeds from a principle; while its species points to the (mental) word of the maker, just as the shape of a house
|
|
|
8440 points to the idea of the architect; and order points to the maker's love by reason of which he directs the effect to a good
|
|
|
8441 end; as also the use of the house points to the will of the architect. So we find in man a likeness to God by way of an "image"
|
|
|
8442 in his mind; but in the other parts of his being by way of a "trace."
|
|
|
8443 </p>
|
|
|
8444 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p9">
|
|
|
8445 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Man is called to the image of God; not that he is essentially an image; but that the image of God is impressed on his mind;
|
|
|
8446 as a coin is an image of the king, as having the image of the king. Wherefore there is no need to consider the image of God
|
|
|
8447 as existing in every part of man.
|
|
|
8448 </p>
|
|
|
8449 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p10">
|
|
|
8450 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 5), some have thought that the image of God was not in man individually, but severally.
|
|
|
8451 They held that "the man represents the Person of the Father; those born of man denote the person of the Son; and that the
|
|
|
8452 woman is a third person in likeness to the Holy Ghost, since she so proceeded from man as not to be his son or daughter."
|
|
|
8453 All of this is manifestly absurd; first, because it would follow that the Holy Ghost is
|
|
|
8454 the principle of the Son, as the woman is the principle of the man's offspring; secondly, because one man would be only the
|
|
|
8455 image of one Person; thirdly, because in that case Scripture should not have mentioned the image of God in man until after
|
|
|
8456 the birth of the offspring. Therefore we must understand that when Scripture had said, "to the image of God He created him,"
|
|
|
8457 it added, "male and female He created them," not to imply that the image of God came through the distinction of sex, but that
|
|
|
8458 the image of God belongs to both sexes, since it is in the mind, wherein there is no sexual distinction of sex, but that the
|
|
|
8459 image of God belongs to both sexes, since it is in the mind, wherein there is no sexual distinction. Wherefore the Apostle
|
|
|
8460 (
|
|
|
8461 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Col.3.10" target="asv">Col. 3:10</a>), after saying, "According to the image of Him that created him," added, "Where there is neither male nor female" [*these
|
|
|
8462 words are in reality from
|
|
|
8463 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A6-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.3.28" target="asv"> Gal. 3:28</a>] (Vulg. "neither Gentile nor Jew").
|
|
|
8464 </p>
|
|
|
8465 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p11">
|
|
|
8466 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although the image of God in man is not to be found in his bodily shape, yet because "the body of man alone among terrestrial
|
|
|
8467 animals is not inclined prone to the ground, but is adapted to look upward to heaven, for this reason we may rightly say that
|
|
|
8468 it is made to God's image and likeness, rather than the bodies of other animals," as Augustine remarks (QQ. 83, qu. 51). But
|
|
|
8469 this is not to be understood as though the image of God were in man's body;
|
|
|
8470 but in the sense that the very shape of the human body represents the image of God in the soul by way of a trace.
|
|
|
8471 </p>
|
|
|
8472 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p12">
|
|
|
8473 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Both in the corporeal and in the imaginary vision we may find a trinity, as Augustine says (De Trin. xi, 2). For in corporeal
|
|
|
8474 vision there is first the species of the exterior body; secondly, the act of vision, which occurs by the impression on the
|
|
|
8475 sight of a certain likeness of the said species; thirdly, the intention of the will applying the sight to see, and to rest
|
|
|
8476 on what is seen.
|
|
|
8477 </p>
|
|
|
8478 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p13"> Likewise, in the imaginary vision we find first the species kept in the memory; secondly, the vision itself, which is caused
|
|
|
8479 by the penetrative power of the soul, that is, the faculty of imagination, informed by the species; and thirdly, we find the
|
|
|
8480 intention of the will joining both together. But each of these trinities falls short of the Divine image. For the species
|
|
|
8481 of the external body is extrinsic to the essence of the soul; while the species in the memory, though not
|
|
|
8482 extrinsic to the soul, is adventitious to it; and thus in both cases the species falls short of representing the connaturality
|
|
|
8483 and co-eternity of the Divine Persons. The corporeal vision, too, does not proceed only from the species of the external body,
|
|
|
8484 but from this, and at the same time from the sense of the seer; in like manner imaginary vision is not from the species only
|
|
|
8485 which is preserved in the memory, but also from the imagination. For these reasons the procession of the Son from the
|
|
|
8486 Father alone is not suitably represented. Lastly the intention of the will joining the two together, does not proceed from
|
|
|
8487 them either in corporeal or spiritual vision. Wherefore the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son is not
|
|
|
8488 thus properly represented.
|
|
|
8489 </p>
|
|
|
8490 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p14"></p>
|
|
|
8491 <p id="FP_Q93_A6-p15"></p>
|
|
|
8492 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
8493 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
8494 </div>
|
|
|
8495 <div id="FP_Q93_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
8496 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
8497 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
8498 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A7-p0.1">Whether the image of God is to be found in the acts of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
8499 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8500 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p2">
|
|
|
8501 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of God is not found in the acts of the soul. For Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xi, 26), that "man
|
|
|
8502 was made to God's image, inasmuch as we exist and know that we exist, and love this existence and knowledge." But to exist
|
|
|
8503 does not signify an act. Therefore the image of God is not to be found in the soul's acts.
|
|
|
8504 </p>
|
|
|
8505 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p3">
|
|
|
8506 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine (De Trin. ix, 4) assigns God's image in the soul to these three things---mind, knowledge, and love. But
|
|
|
8507 mind does not signify an act, but rather the power or the essence of the intellectual soul. Therefore the image of God does
|
|
|
8508 not extend to the acts of the soul.
|
|
|
8509 </p>
|
|
|
8510 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p4">
|
|
|
8511 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine (De Trin. x, 11) assigns the image of the Trinity in the soul to "memory, understanding, and will." But
|
|
|
8512 these three are "natural powers of the soul," as the Master of the Sentences says (1 Sent. D iii). Therefore the image of
|
|
|
8513 God is in the powers, and does not extend to the acts of the soul.
|
|
|
8514 </p>
|
|
|
8515 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p5">
|
|
|
8516 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the image of the Trinity always remains in the soul. But an act does not always remain. Therefore the image of God
|
|
|
8517 does not extend to the acts.
|
|
|
8518 </p>
|
|
|
8519 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p6">
|
|
|
8520 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (De Trin. xi, 2 seqq.) assigns the trinity in the lower part of the soul, in relation to the actual vision, whether
|
|
|
8521 sensible or imaginative. Therefore, also, the trinity in the mind, by reason of which man is like to God's image, must be
|
|
|
8522 referred to actual vision.
|
|
|
8523 </p>
|
|
|
8524 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p7">
|
|
|
8525 <b>I answer that,</b> As above explained
|
|
|
8526 <a id="FP_Q93_A7-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, a certain representation of the species belongs to the nature of an image. Hence, if the image of the Divine Trinity is
|
|
|
8527 to be found in the soul, we must look for it where the soul approaches the nearest to a representation of the species of the
|
|
|
8528 Divine Persons. Now the Divine Persons are distinct from each other by reason of the procession of the Word from the Speaker,
|
|
|
8529 and the procession of Love connecting
|
|
|
8530 Both. But in our soul word "cannot exist without actual thought," as Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 7). Therefore, first and
|
|
|
8531 chiefly, the image of the Trinity is to be found in the acts of the soul, that is, inasmuch as from the knowledge which we
|
|
|
8532 possess, by actual thought we form an internal word; and thence break forth into love. But, since the principles of acts are
|
|
|
8533 the habits and powers, and everything exists virtually in its principle, therefore, secondarily and consequently, the image
|
|
|
8534 of
|
|
|
8535 the Trinity may be considered as existing in the powers, and still more in the habits, forasmuch as the acts virtually exist
|
|
|
8536 therein.
|
|
|
8537 </p>
|
|
|
8538 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p8">
|
|
|
8539 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Our being bears the image of God so far as if is proper to us, and excels that of the other animals, that is to say, in so
|
|
|
8540 far as we are endowed with a mind. Therefore, this trinity is the same as that which Augustine mentions (De Trin. ix, 4),
|
|
|
8541 and which consists in mind, knowledge, and love.
|
|
|
8542 </p>
|
|
|
8543 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p9">
|
|
|
8544 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Augustine observed this trinity, first, as existing in the mind. But because the mind, though it knows itself entirely in
|
|
|
8545 a certain degree, yet also in a way does not know itself---namely, as being distinct from others (and thus also it searches
|
|
|
8546 itself, as Augustine subsequently proves---De Trin. x, 3,4); therefore, as though knowledge were not in equal proportion to
|
|
|
8547 mind, he takes three things in the soul which are proper to the mind, namely, memory,
|
|
|
8548 understanding, and will; which everyone is conscious of possessing; and assigns the image of the Trinity pre-eminently to
|
|
|
8549 these three, as though the first assignation were in part deficient.
|
|
|
8550 </p>
|
|
|
8551 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p10">
|
|
|
8552 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine proves (De Trin. xiv, 7), we may be said to understand, will, and to love certain things, both when we actually
|
|
|
8553 consider them, and when we do not thing of them. When they are not under our actual consideration, they are objects of our
|
|
|
8554 memory only, which, in his opinion, is nothing else than habitual retention of knowledge and love [*Cf.
|
|
|
8555 <a id="FP_Q93_A7-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A7.html">Q[79], A[7]</a>, ad 1]. "But since," as he says, "a word cannot be there without
|
|
|
8556 actual thought (for we think everything that we say, even if we speak with that interior word belonging to no nation's tongue),
|
|
|
8557 this image chiefly consists in these three things, memory, understanding, and will. And by understanding I mean here that
|
|
|
8558 whereby we understand with actual thought; and by will, love, or dilection I mean that which unites this child with its parent."
|
|
|
8559 From which it is clear that he places the image of the Divine Trinity more in actual understanding and will, than in
|
|
|
8560 these as existing in the habitual retention of the memory; although even thus the image of the Trinity exists in the soul
|
|
|
8561 in a certain degree, as he says in the same place. Thus it is clear that memory, understanding, and will are not three powers
|
|
|
8562 as stated in the Sentences.
|
|
|
8563 </p>
|
|
|
8564 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p11">
|
|
|
8565 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Someone might answer by referring to Augustine's statement (De Trin. xiv, 6), that "the mind ever remembers itself, ever
|
|
|
8566 understands itself, ever loves itself"; which some take to mean that the soul ever actually understands, and loves itself.
|
|
|
8567 But he excludes this interpretation by adding that "it does not always think of itself as actually distinct from other things."
|
|
|
8568 Thus it is clear that the soul always understands and loves itself, not actually
|
|
|
8569 but habitually; though we might say that by perceiving its own act, it understands itself whenever it understands anything.
|
|
|
8570 But since it is not always actually understanding, as in the case of sleep, we must say that these acts, although not always
|
|
|
8571 actually existing, yet ever exist in their principles, the habits and powers. Wherefore, Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 4):
|
|
|
8572 "If the rational soul is made to the image of God in the sense that it can make use of reason and intellect to understand
|
|
|
8573 and
|
|
|
8574 consider God, then the image of God was in the soul from the beginning of its existence."
|
|
|
8575 </p>
|
|
|
8576 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8577 <p id="FP_Q93_A7-p13"></p>
|
|
|
8578 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
8579 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
8580 </div>
|
|
|
8581 <div id="FP_Q93_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
8582 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
8583 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
8584 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A8-p0.1">Whether the image of the Divine Trinity is in the soul only by comparison with God as its object?</h4>
|
|
|
8585 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8586 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p2">
|
|
|
8587 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the image of the Divine Trinity is in the soul not only by comparison with God as its object. For the
|
|
|
8588 image of the Divine Trinity is to be found in the soul, as shown above
|
|
|
8589 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A7.html">(A[7])</a>, according as the word in us proceeds from the speaker; and love from both. But this is to be found in us as regards any
|
|
|
8590 object. Therefore the image of the Divine Trinity is in our mind as regards any object.
|
|
|
8591 </p>
|
|
|
8592 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p3">
|
|
|
8593 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 4) that "when we seek trinity in the soul, we seek it in the whole of the soul, without
|
|
|
8594 separating the process of reasoning in temporal matters from the consideration of things eternal." Therefore the image of
|
|
|
8595 the Trinity is to be found in the soul, even as regards temporal objects.
|
|
|
8596 </p>
|
|
|
8597 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p4">
|
|
|
8598 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is by grace that we can know and love God. If, therefore, the image of the Trinity is found in the soul by reason
|
|
|
8599 of the memory, understanding, and will or love of God, this image is not in man by nature but by grace, and thus is not common
|
|
|
8600 to all.
|
|
|
8601 </p>
|
|
|
8602 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p5">
|
|
|
8603 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the saints in heaven are most perfectly conformed to the image of God by the beatific vision; wherefore it is written
|
|
|
8604 (
|
|
|
8605 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q93_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.3.18" target="asv">2 Cor. 3:18</a>): "We . . . are transformed into the same image from glory to glory." But temporal things are known by the beatific vision.
|
|
|
8606 Therefore the image of God exists in us even according to temporal things.
|
|
|
8607 </p>
|
|
|
8608 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p6">
|
|
|
8609 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 12): "The image of God exists in the mind, not because it has a remembrance of itself, loves
|
|
|
8610 itself, and understands itself; but because it can also remember, understand, and love God by Whom it was made." Much less,
|
|
|
8611 therefore, is the image of God in the soul, in respect of other objects.
|
|
|
8612 </p>
|
|
|
8613 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p7">
|
|
|
8614 <b>I answer that,</b> As above explained (
|
|
|
8615 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,7), image means a likeness which in some degree, however small, attains to a representation of the species. Wherefore we
|
|
|
8616 need to seek in the image of the Divine Trinity in the soul some kind of representation of species of the Divine Persons,
|
|
|
8617 so far as this is possible to a creature. Now the Divine Persons, as above stated (
|
|
|
8618 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A6.html">AA[6]</a>,7), are distinguished from each other according to the
|
|
|
8619 procession of the word from the speaker, and the procession of love from both. Moreover the Word of God is born of God by
|
|
|
8620 the knowledge of Himself; and Love proceeds from God according as He loves Himself. But it is clear that diversity of objects
|
|
|
8621 diversifies the species of word and love; for in the human mind the species of a stone is specifically different from that
|
|
|
8622 of a horse, which also the love regarding each of them is specifically different. Hence we refer the Divine image in man to
|
|
|
8623 the
|
|
|
8624 verbal concept born of the knowledge of God, and to the love derived therefrom. Thus the image of God is found in the soul
|
|
|
8625 according as the soul turns to God, or possesses a nature that enables it to turn to God. Now the mind may turn towards an
|
|
|
8626 object in two ways: directly and immediately, or indirectly and mediately; as, for instance, when anyone sees a man reflected
|
|
|
8627 in a looking-glass he may be said to be turned towards that man. So Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 8), the "the mind remembers
|
|
|
8628 itself, understands itself, and loves itself. If we perceive this, we perceive a trinity, not, indeed, God, but, nevertheless,
|
|
|
8629 rightly called the image of God." But this is due to the fact, not that the mind reflects on itself absolutely, but that thereby
|
|
|
8630 it can furthermore turn to God, as appears from the authority quoted above (Arg. On the contrary).
|
|
|
8631 </p>
|
|
|
8632 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p8">
|
|
|
8633 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> For the notion of an image it is not enough that something proceed from another, but it is also necessary to observe what
|
|
|
8634 proceeds and whence it proceeds; namely, that what is Word of God proceeds from knowledge of God.
|
|
|
8635 </p>
|
|
|
8636 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p9">
|
|
|
8637 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In all the soul we may see a kind of trinity, not, however, as though besides the action of temporal things and the contemplation
|
|
|
8638 of eternal things, "any third thing should be required to make up the trinity," as he adds in the same passage. But in that
|
|
|
8639 part of the reason which is concerned with temporal things, "although a trinity may be found; yet the image of God is not
|
|
|
8640 to be seen there," as he says farther on; forasmuch as this knowledge of
|
|
|
8641 temporal things is adventitious to the soul. Moreover even the habits whereby temporal things are known are not always present;
|
|
|
8642 but sometimes they are actually present, and sometimes present only in memory even after they begin to exist in the soul.
|
|
|
8643 Such is clearly the case with faith, which comes to us temporally for this present life; while in the future life faith will
|
|
|
8644 no longer exist, but only the remembrance of faith.
|
|
|
8645 </p>
|
|
|
8646 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p10">
|
|
|
8647 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The meritorious knowledge and love of God can be in us only by grace. Yet there is a certain natural knowledge and love as
|
|
|
8648 seen above (
|
|
|
8649 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q12_A12.html">Q[12], A[12]</a>;
|
|
|
8650 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p10.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q56_A3.html">Q[56], A[3]</a>;
|
|
|
8651 <a id="FP_Q93_A8-p10.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q60_A5.html">Q[60], A[5]</a>). This, too, is natural that the mind, in order to understand God, can make use of reason, in which sense we have already
|
|
|
8652 said that the image of God abides ever in the soul; "whether this image of God be
|
|
|
8653 so obsolete," as it were clouded, "as almost to amount to nothing," as in those who have not the use of reason; "or obscured
|
|
|
8654 and disfigured," as in sinners; or "clear and beautiful," as in the just; as Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 6).
|
|
|
8655 </p>
|
|
|
8656 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p11">
|
|
|
8657 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> By the vision of glory temporal things will be seen in God Himself; and such a vision of things temporal will belong to the
|
|
|
8658 image of God. This is what Augustine means (De Trin. xiv, 6), when he says that "in that nature to which the mind will blissfully
|
|
|
8659 adhere, whatever it sees it will see as unchangeable"; for in the Uncreated Word are the types of all creatures.
|
|
|
8660 </p>
|
|
|
8661 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8662 <p id="FP_Q93_A8-p13"></p>
|
|
|
8663 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
8664 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
8665 </div>
|
|
|
8666 <div id="FP_Q93_A9" class="div4">
|
|
|
8667 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
8668 <a href="summa.FP_Q94.html"></a>
|
|
|
8669 <h4 id="FP_Q93_A9-p0.1">Whether "likeness" is properly distinguished from "image"?</h4>
|
|
|
8670 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8671 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p2">
|
|
|
8672 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that "likeness" is not properly distinguished from "image." For "genus" is not properly distinguished from
|
|
|
8673 "species." Now, "likeness" is to "image" as genus to species: because, "where there is image, forthwith there is likeness,
|
|
|
8674 but not conversely" as Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 74). Therefore "likeness" is not properly to be distinguished from "image."
|
|
|
8675 </p>
|
|
|
8676 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p3">
|
|
|
8677 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the nature of the image consists not only in the representation of the Divine Persons, but also in the representation
|
|
|
8678 of the Divine Essence, to which representation belong immortality and indivisibility. So it is not true to say that the "likeness
|
|
|
8679 is in the essence because it is immortal and indivisible; whereas the image is in other things" (Sent. ii, D, xvi).
|
|
|
8680 </p>
|
|
|
8681 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p4">
|
|
|
8682 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the image of God in man is threefold---the image of nature, of grace, and of glory, as above explained
|
|
|
8683 <a id="FP_Q93_A9-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. But innocence and righteousness belong to grace. Therefore it is incorrectly said (Sent. ii, D, xvi) "that the image is
|
|
|
8684 taken from the memory, the understanding and the will, while the likeness is from innocence and righteousness."
|
|
|
8685 </p>
|
|
|
8686 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p5">
|
|
|
8687 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, knowledge of truth belongs to the intellect, and love of virtue to the will; which two things are parts of the image.
|
|
|
8688 Therefore it is incorrect to say (Sent. ii, D, xvi) that "the image consists in the knowledge of truth, and the likeness in
|
|
|
8689 the love of virtue."
|
|
|
8690 </p>
|
|
|
8691 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p6">
|
|
|
8692 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 51): "Some consider that these two were mentioned not without reason, namely "image" and "likeness,"
|
|
|
8693 since, if they meant the same, one would have sufficed."
|
|
|
8694 </p>
|
|
|
8695 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p7">
|
|
|
8696 <b>I answer that,</b> Likeness is a kind of unity, for oneness in quality causes likeness, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, Did. iv, 15). Now,
|
|
|
8697 since "one" is a transcendental, it is both common to all, and adapted to each single thing, just as the good and the true.
|
|
|
8698 Wherefore, as the good can be compared to each individual thing both as its preamble, and as subsequent to it, as signifying
|
|
|
8699 some perfection in it, so also in the same way there exists a kind of comparison between
|
|
|
8700 "likeness" and "image." For the good is a preamble to man, inasmuch as man is an individual good; and, again, the good is
|
|
|
8701 subsequent to man, inasmuch as we may say of a certain man that he is good, by reason of his perfect virtue. In like manner,
|
|
|
8702 likeness may be considered in the light of a preamble to image, inasmuch as it is something more general than image, as we
|
|
|
8703 have said above
|
|
|
8704 <a id="FP_Q93_A9-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html">(A[1])</a>: and, again, it may be considered as subsequent to image, inasmuch as it
|
|
|
8705 signifies a certain perfection of image. For we say that an image is like or unlike what it represents, according as the representation
|
|
|
8706 is perfect or imperfect. Thus likeness may be distinguished from image in two ways: first as its preamble and existing in
|
|
|
8707 more things, and in this sense likeness regards things which are more common than the intellectual properties, wherein the
|
|
|
8708 image is properly to be seen. In this sense it is stated (QQ. 83, qu. 51) that "the spirit" (namely, the mind) without
|
|
|
8709 doubt was made to the image of God. "But the other parts of man," belonging to the soul's inferior faculties, or even to the
|
|
|
8710 body, "are in the opinion of some made to God's likeness." In this sense he says (De Quant. Animae ii) that the likeness of
|
|
|
8711 God is found in the soul's incorruptibility; for corruptible and incorruptible are differences of universal beings. But likeness
|
|
|
8712 may be considered in another way, as signifying the expression and perfection of the image. In this sense Damascene says
|
|
|
8713 (De Fide Orth. ii, 12) that the image implies "an intelligent being, endowed with free-will and self-movement, whereas likeness
|
|
|
8714 implies a likeness of power, as far as this may be possible in man." In the same sense "likeness" is said to belong to "the
|
|
|
8715 love of virtue": for there is no virtue without love of virtue.
|
|
|
8716 </p>
|
|
|
8717 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p8">
|
|
|
8718 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> "Likeness" is not distinct from "image" in the general notion of "likeness" (for thus it is included in "image"); but so
|
|
|
8719 far as any "likeness" falls short of "image," or again, as it perfects the idea of "image."
|
|
|
8720 </p>
|
|
|
8721 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p9">
|
|
|
8722 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The soul's essence belongs to the "image," as representing the Divine Essence in those things which belong to the intellectual
|
|
|
8723 nature; but not in those conditions subsequent to general notions of being, such as simplicity and indissolubility.
|
|
|
8724 </p>
|
|
|
8725 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p10">
|
|
|
8726 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Even certain virtues are natural to the soul, at least, in their seeds, by reason of which we may say that a natural "likeness"
|
|
|
8727 exists in the soul. Nor it is unfitting to us the term "image" from one point of view and from another the term "likeness."
|
|
|
8728 </p>
|
|
|
8729 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p11">
|
|
|
8730 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Love of the word, which is knowledge loved, belongs to the nature of "image"; but love of virtue belongs to "likeness," as
|
|
|
8731 virtue itself belongs to likeness.
|
|
|
8732 </p>
|
|
|
8733 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8734 <p id="FP_Q93_A9-p13"></p>
|
|
|
8735 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
8736 <a href="summa.FP_Q94.html"></a>
|
|
|
8737 </div>
|
|
|
8738 <a href="summa.FP_Q92_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8739 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8740 </div>
|
|
|
8741 <div id="FP_Q94" class="div3">
|
|
|
8742 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
8743 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8744 <h3 id="FP_Q94-p0.1">OF THE STATE AND CONDITION OF THE FIRST MAN AS REGARDS HIS INTELLECT (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
8745 <p id="FP_Q94-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8746 <p id="FP_Q94-p2"> We next consider the state or condition of the first man; first, as regards his soul; secondly, as regards his body. Concerning
|
|
|
8747 the first there are two things to be considered: (1) The condition of man as to his intellect; (2) the condition of man as
|
|
|
8748 to his will.
|
|
|
8749 </p>
|
|
|
8750 <p id="FP_Q94-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
8751 <p id="FP_Q94-p4"> (1) Whether the first man saw the Essence of God?</p>
|
|
|
8752 <p id="FP_Q94-p5"> (2) Whether he could see the separate substances, that is, the angels?</p>
|
|
|
8753 <p id="FP_Q94-p6"> (3) Whether he possessed all knowledge?</p>
|
|
|
8754 <p id="FP_Q94-p7"> (4) Whether he could err or be deceived?</p>
|
|
|
8755 <div id="FP_Q94_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
8756 <a href="summa.FP_Q94.html"></a>
|
|
|
8757 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8758 <h4 id="FP_Q94_A1-p0.1">Whether the first man saw God through His Essence?</h4>
|
|
|
8759 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8760 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p2">
|
|
|
8761 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the first man saw God through His Essence. For man's happiness consists in the vision of the Divine Essence.
|
|
|
8762 But the first man, "while established in paradise, led a life of happiness in the enjoyment of all things," as Damascene says
|
|
|
8763 (De Fide Orth. ii, 11). And Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 10): "If man was gifted with the same tastes as now, how happy
|
|
|
8764 must he have been in paradise, that place of ineffable happiness!" Therefore the first
|
|
|
8765 man in paradise saw God through His Essence.
|
|
|
8766 </p>
|
|
|
8767 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p3">
|
|
|
8768 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, loc. cit.) that "the first man lacked nothing which his good-will might obtain."
|
|
|
8769 But our good-will can obtain nothing better than the vision of the Divine Essence. Therefore man saw God through His Essence.
|
|
|
8770 </p>
|
|
|
8771 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p4">
|
|
|
8772 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the vision of God is His Essence is whereby God is seen without a medium or enigma. But man in the state of innocence
|
|
|
8773 "saw God immediately," as the Master of the Sentences asserts (Sent. iv, D, i). He also saw without an enigma, for an enigma
|
|
|
8774 implies obscurity, as Augustine says (De Trin. xv, 9). Now, obscurity resulted from sin. Therefore man in the primitive state
|
|
|
8775 saw God through His Essence.
|
|
|
8776 </p>
|
|
|
8777 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p5">
|
|
|
8778 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says (
|
|
|
8779 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.46" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:46</a>): "That was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural." But to see God through His Essence is most spiritual.
|
|
|
8780 Therefore the first man in the primitive state of his natural life did not see God through His Essence.
|
|
|
8781 </p>
|
|
|
8782 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p6">
|
|
|
8783 <b>I answer that,</b> The first man did not see God through His Essence if we consider the ordinary state of that life; unless, perhaps, it be
|
|
|
8784 said that he saw God in a vision, when "God cast a deep sleep upon Adam" (
|
|
|
8785 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.21" target="asv">Gn. 2:21</a>). The reason is because, since in the Divine Essence is beatitude itself, the intellect of a man who sees the Divine Essence
|
|
|
8786 has the same relation to God as a man has to beatitude. Now it is clear that man cannot willingly be turned away from beatitude,
|
|
|
8787 since naturally and necessarily he desires it, and shuns unhappiness. Wherefore no one who sees the Essence of God can willingly
|
|
|
8788 turn away from God, which means to sin. Hence all who see God through His Essence are so firmly established in the love of
|
|
|
8789 God, that for eternity they can never sin. Therefore, as Adam did sin, it is clear that he did not see God through His Essence.
|
|
|
8790 </p>
|
|
|
8791 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p7"> Nevertheless he knew God with a more perfect knowledge than we do now. Thus in a sense his knowledge was midway between our
|
|
|
8792 knowledge in the present state, and the knowledge we shall have in heaven, when we see God through His Essence. To make this
|
|
|
8793 clear, we must consider that the vision of God through His Essence is contradistinguished from the vision of God through His
|
|
|
8794 creatures. Now the higher the creature is, and the more like it is to God, the more clearly is God seen in
|
|
|
8795 it; for instance, a man is seen more clearly through a mirror in which his image is the more clearly expressed. Thus God is
|
|
|
8796 seen in a much more perfect manner through His intelligible effects than through those which are only sensible or corporeal.
|
|
|
8797 But in his present state man is impeded as regards the full and clear consideration of intelligible creatures, because he
|
|
|
8798 is distracted by and occupied with sensible things. Now, it is written (
|
|
|
8799 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.30" target="asv">Eccles. 7:30</a>): "God made man
|
|
|
8800 right." And man was made right by God in this sense, that in him the lower powers were subjected to the higher, and the higher
|
|
|
8801 nature was made so as not to be impeded by the lower. Wherefore the first man was not impeded by exterior things from a clear
|
|
|
8802 and steady contemplation of the intelligible effects which he perceived by the radiation of the first truth, whether by a
|
|
|
8803 natural or by a gratuitous knowledge. Hence Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xi, 33) that, "perhaps God used to speak to the
|
|
|
8804 first man as He speaks to the angels; by shedding on his mind a ray of the unchangeable truth, yet without bestowing on him
|
|
|
8805 the experience of which the angels are capable in the participation of the Divine Essence." Therefore, through these intelligible
|
|
|
8806 effects of God, man knew God then more clearly than we know Him now.
|
|
|
8807 </p>
|
|
|
8808 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p8">
|
|
|
8809 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Man was happy in paradise, but not with that perfect happiness to which he was destined, which consists in the vision of
|
|
|
8810 the Divine Essence. He was, however, endowed with "a life of happiness in a certain measure," as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit.
|
|
|
8811 xi, 18), so far as he was gifted with natural integrity and perfection.
|
|
|
8812 </p>
|
|
|
8813 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p9">
|
|
|
8814 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A good will is a well-ordered will; but the will of the first man would have been ill-ordered had he wished to have, while
|
|
|
8815 in the state of merit, what had been promised to him as a reward.
|
|
|
8816 </p>
|
|
|
8817 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p10">
|
|
|
8818 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A medium (of knowledge) is twofold; one through which, and, at the same time, in which, something is seen, as, for example,
|
|
|
8819 a man is seen through a mirror, and is seen with the mirror: another kind of medium is that whereby we attain to the knowledge
|
|
|
8820 of something unknown; such as the medium in a demonstration. God was seen without this second kind of medium, but not without
|
|
|
8821 the first kind. For there was no need for the first man to attain to the
|
|
|
8822 knowledge of God by demonstration drawn from an effect, such as we need; since he knew God simultaneously in His effects,
|
|
|
8823 especially in the intelligible effects, according to His capacity. Again, we must remark that the obscurity which is implied
|
|
|
8824 in the word enigma may be of two kinds: first, so far as every creature is something obscure when compared with the immensity
|
|
|
8825 of the Divine light; and thus Adam saw God in an enigma, because he saw Him in a created effect: secondly, we may take
|
|
|
8826 obscurity as an effect of sin, so far as man is impeded in the consideration of intelligible things by being preoccupied with
|
|
|
8827 sensible things; in which sense Adam did not see God in an enigma.
|
|
|
8828 </p>
|
|
|
8829 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8830 <p id="FP_Q94_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8831 <a href="summa.FP_Q94.html"></a>
|
|
|
8832 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8833 </div>
|
|
|
8834 <div id="FP_Q94_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
8835 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8836 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8837 <h4 id="FP_Q94_A2-p0.1">Whether Adam in the state of innocence saw the angels through their essence?</h4>
|
|
|
8838 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8839 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p2">
|
|
|
8840 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that Adam, in the state of innocence, saw the angels through their essence. For Gregory says (Dialog. iv, 1):
|
|
|
8841 "In paradise man was accustomed to enjoy the words of God; and by purity of heart and loftiness of vision to have the company
|
|
|
8842 of the good angels."
|
|
|
8843 </p>
|
|
|
8844 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p3">
|
|
|
8845 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the soul in the present state is impeded from the knowledge of separate substances by union with a corruptible body
|
|
|
8846 which "is a load upon the soul," as is written
|
|
|
8847 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.9.15" target="asv"> Wis. 9:15.</a> Wherefore the separate soul can see separate substances, as above explained (
|
|
|
8848 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A2.html">Q[89], A[2]</a>). But the body of the first man was not a load upon his soul; for the latter was not corruptible. Therefore he was able to
|
|
|
8849 see separate
|
|
|
8850 substances.
|
|
|
8851 </p>
|
|
|
8852 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p4">
|
|
|
8853 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one separate substance knows another separate substance, by knowing itself (De Causis xiii). But the soul of the
|
|
|
8854 first man knew itself. Therefore it knew separate substances.
|
|
|
8855 </p>
|
|
|
8856 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p5">
|
|
|
8857 <b>On the contrary,</b> The soul of Adam was of the same nature as ours. But our souls cannot now understand separate substances. Therefore neither
|
|
|
8858 could Adam's soul.
|
|
|
8859 </p>
|
|
|
8860 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p6">
|
|
|
8861 <b>I answer that,</b> The state of the human soul may be distinguished in two ways. First, from a diversity of mode in its natural existence; and
|
|
|
8862 in this point the state of the separate soul is distinguished from the state of the soul joined to the body. Secondly, the
|
|
|
8863 state of the soul is distinguished in relation to integrity and corruption, the state of natural existence remaining the same:
|
|
|
8864 and thus the state of innocence is distinct from the state of man after sin. For man's
|
|
|
8865 soul, in the state of innocence, was adapted to perfect and govern the body; wherefore the first man is said to have been
|
|
|
8866 made into a "living soul"; that is, a soul giving life to the body---namely animal life. But he was endowed with integrity
|
|
|
8867 as to this life, in that the body was entirely subject to the soul, hindering it in no way, as we have said above
|
|
|
8868 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q94_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Now it is clear from what has been already said (
|
|
|
8869 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>;
|
|
|
8870 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A1.html">Q[85], A[1]</a>;
|
|
|
8871 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p6.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q89_A1.html">Q[89], A[1]</a>) that since the soul is adapted to perfect and govern the body, as regards animal life, it is fitting that it should have
|
|
|
8872 that mode of understanding which is by turning to phantasms. Wherefore this mode of understanding was becoming to the soul
|
|
|
8873 of the first man also.
|
|
|
8874 </p>
|
|
|
8875 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p7"> Now, in virtue of this mode of understanding, there are three degrees of movement in the soul, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom.
|
|
|
8876 iv). The first is by the soul "passing from exterior things to concentrate its powers on itself"; the second is by the soul
|
|
|
8877 ascending "so as to be associated with the united superior powers," namely the angels; the third is when the soul is "led
|
|
|
8878 on" yet further "to the supreme good," that is, to God.
|
|
|
8879 </p>
|
|
|
8880 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p8"> In virtue of the first movement of the soul from exterior things to itself, the soul's knowledge is perfected. This is because
|
|
|
8881 the intellectual operation of the soul has a natural order to external things, as we have said above (
|
|
|
8882 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A3.html">Q[87], A[3]</a>): and so by the knowledge thereof, our intellectual operation can be known perfectly, as an act through its object. And through
|
|
|
8883 the intellectual operation itself, the human intellect can be known perfectly, as a power
|
|
|
8884 through its proper act. But in the second movement we do not find perfect knowledge. Because, since the angel does not understand
|
|
|
8885 by turning to phantasms, but by a far more excellent process, as we have said above (
|
|
|
8886 <a id="FP_Q94_A2-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q55_A2.html">Q[55], A[2]</a>); the above-mentioned mode of knowledge, by which the soul knows itself, is not sufficient to lead it to the knowledge of
|
|
|
8887 an angel. Much less does the third movement lead to perfect knowledge: for even the angels themselves, by the fact that they
|
|
|
8888 know themselves, are not able to arrive at the knowledge of the Divine Substance, by reason of its surpassing excellence.
|
|
|
8889 Therefore the soul of the first man could not see the angels in their essence. Nevertheless he had a more excellent mode of
|
|
|
8890 knowledge regarding the angels than we possess, because his knowledge of intelligible things within him was more certain and
|
|
|
8891 fixed than our knowledge. And it was on account of this excellence of knowledge that Gregory says that "he enjoyed the company
|
|
|
8892 of the angelic spirits."
|
|
|
8893 </p>
|
|
86
|
8894 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p9"><b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This makes clear the reply to the first objection.</p>
|
|
64
|
8895 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p10">
|
|
|
8896 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That the soul of the first man fell short of the knowledge regarding separate substances, was not owing to the fact that
|
|
|
8897 the body was a load upon it; but to the fact that its connatural object fell short of the excellence of separate substances.
|
|
|
8898 We, in our present state, fall short on account of both these reasons.
|
|
|
8899 </p>
|
|
|
8900 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p11">
|
|
|
8901 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The soul of the first man was not able to arrive at knowledge of separate substances by means of its self-knowledge, as we
|
|
|
8902 have shown above; for even each separate substance knows others in its own measure.
|
|
|
8903 </p>
|
|
|
8904 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8905 <p id="FP_Q94_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
8906 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
8907 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8908 </div>
|
|
|
8909 <div id="FP_Q94_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
8910 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8911 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8912 <h4 id="FP_Q94_A3-p0.1">Whether the first man knew all things?</h4>
|
|
|
8913 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8914 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p2">
|
|
|
8915 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the first man did not know all things. For if he had such knowledge it would be either by acquired species,
|
|
|
8916 or by connatural species, or by infused species. Not, however, by acquired species; for this kind of knowledge is acquired
|
|
|
8917 by experience, as stated in Metaph. i, 1; and the first man had not then gained experience of all things. Nor through connatural
|
|
|
8918 species, because he was of the same nature as we are; and our soul, as Aristotle says
|
|
|
8919 (De Anima iii, 4), is "like a clean tablet on which nothing is written." And if his knowledge came by infused species, it
|
|
|
8920 would have been of a different kind from ours, which we acquire from things themselves.
|
|
|
8921 </p>
|
|
|
8922 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p3">
|
|
|
8923 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, individuals of the same species have the same way of arriving at perfection. Now other men have not, from the beginning,
|
|
|
8924 knowledge of all things, but they acquire it in the course of time according to their capacity. Therefore neither did Adam
|
|
|
8925 know all things when he was first created.
|
|
|
8926 </p>
|
|
|
8927 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p4">
|
|
|
8928 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the present state of life is given to man in order that his soul may advance in knowledge and merit; indeed, the
|
|
|
8929 soul seems to be united to the body for that purpose. Now man would have advanced in merit in that state of life; therefore
|
|
|
8930 also in knowledge. Therefore he was not endowed with knowledge of all things.
|
|
|
8931 </p>
|
|
|
8932 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p5">
|
|
|
8933 <b>On the contrary,</b> Man named the animals (
|
|
|
8934 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.20" target="asv">Gn. 2:20</a>). But names should be adapted to the nature of things. Therefore Adam knew the animals' natures; and in like manner he was
|
|
|
8935 possessed of the knowledge of all other things.
|
|
|
8936 </p>
|
|
|
8937 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p6">
|
|
|
8938 <b>I answer that,</b> In the natural order, perfection comes before imperfection, as act precedes potentiality; for whatever is in potentiality
|
|
|
8939 is made actual only by something actual. And since God created things not only for their own existence, but also that they
|
|
|
8940 might be the principles of other things; so creatures were produced in their perfect state to be the principles as regards
|
|
|
8941 others. Now man can be the principle of another man, not only by generation of the body, but
|
|
|
8942 also by instruction and government. Hence, as the first man was produced in his perfect state, as regards his body, for the
|
|
|
8943 work of generation, so also was his soul established in a perfect state to instruct and govern others.
|
|
|
8944 </p>
|
|
|
8945 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p7"> Now no one can instruct others unless he has knowledge, and so the first man was established by God in such a manner as to
|
|
|
8946 have knowledge of all those things for which man has a natural aptitude. And such are whatever are virtually contained in
|
|
|
8947 the first self-evident principles, that is, whatever truths man is naturally able to know. Moreover, in order to direct his
|
|
|
8948 own life and that of others, man needs to know not only those things which can be naturally known, but also things
|
|
|
8949 surpassing natural knowledge; because the life of man is directed to a supernatural end: just as it is necessary for us to
|
|
|
8950 know the truths of faith in order to direct our own lives. Wherefore the first man was endowed with such a knowledge of these
|
|
|
8951 supernatural truths as was necessary for the direction of human life in that state. But those things which cannot be known
|
|
|
8952 by merely human effort, and which are not necessary for the direction of human life, were not known by the first man; such
|
|
|
8953 as
|
|
|
8954 the thoughts of men, future contingent events, and some individual facts, as for instance the number of pebbles in a stream;
|
|
|
8955 and the like.
|
|
|
8956 </p>
|
|
|
8957 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p8">
|
|
|
8958 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The first man had knowledge of all things by divinely infused species. Yet his knowledge was not different from ours; as
|
|
|
8959 the eyes which Christ gave to the man born blind were not different from those given by nature.
|
|
|
8960 </p>
|
|
|
8961 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p9">
|
|
|
8962 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> To Adam, as being the first man, was due to a degree of perfection which was not due to other men, as is clear from what
|
|
|
8963 is above explained.
|
|
|
8964 </p>
|
|
|
8965 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p10">
|
|
|
8966 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Adam would have advanced in natural knowledge, not in the number of things known, but in the manner of knowing; because what
|
|
|
8967 he knew speculatively he would subsequently have known by experience. But as regards supernatural knowledge, he would also
|
|
|
8968 have advanced as regards the number of things known, by further revelation; as the angels advance by further enlightenment.
|
|
|
8969 Moreover there is no comparison between advance in knowledge and advance in merit;
|
|
|
8970 since one man cannot be a principle of merit to another, although he can be to another a principle of knowledge.
|
|
|
8971 </p>
|
|
|
8972 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
8973 <p id="FP_Q94_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
8974 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
8975 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
8976 </div>
|
|
|
8977 <div id="FP_Q94_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
8978 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
8979 <a href="summa.FP_Q95.html"></a>
|
|
|
8980 <h4 id="FP_Q94_A4-p0.1">Whether man in his first state could be deceived?</h4>
|
|
|
8981 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
8982 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p2">
|
|
|
8983 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man in his primitive state could have been deceived. For the Apostle says (
|
|
|
8984 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q94_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.2.14" target="asv">1 Tim. 2:14</a>) that "the woman being seduced was in the transgression."
|
|
|
8985 </p>
|
|
|
8986 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p3">
|
|
|
8987 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Master says (Sent. ii, D, xxi) that, "the woman was not frightened at the serpent speaking, because she thought
|
|
|
8988 that he had received the faculty of speech from God." But this was untrue. Therefore before sin the woman was deceived.
|
|
|
8989 </p>
|
|
|
8990 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p4">
|
|
|
8991 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is natural that the farther off anything is from us, the smaller it seems to be. Now, the nature of the eyes
|
|
|
8992 is not changed by sin. Therefore this would have been the case in the state of innocence. Wherefore man would have been deceived
|
|
|
8993 in the size of what he saw, just as he is deceived now.
|
|
|
8994 </p>
|
|
|
8995 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p5">
|
|
|
8996 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 2) that, in sleep the soul adheres to the images of things as if they were the
|
|
|
8997 things themselves. But in the state of innocence man would have eaten and consequently have slept and dreamed. Therefore he
|
|
|
8998 would have been deceived, adhering to images as to realities.
|
|
|
8999 </p>
|
|
|
9000 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p6">
|
|
|
9001 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the first man would have been ignorant of other men's thoughts, and of future contingent events, as stated above
|
|
|
9002
|
|
|
9003 <a id="FP_Q94_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. So if anyone had told him what was false about these things, he would have been deceived.
|
|
|
9004 </p>
|
|
|
9005 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p7">
|
|
|
9006 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Lib. Arb. iii, 18): "To regard what is true as false, is not natural to man as created; but is a punishment
|
|
|
9007 of man condemned."
|
|
|
9008 </p>
|
|
|
9009 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p8">
|
|
|
9010 <b>I answer that,</b> in the opinion of some, deception may mean two things; namely, any slight surmise, in which one adheres to what is false,
|
|
|
9011 as though it were true, but without the assent of belief---or it may mean a firm belief. Thus before sin Adam could not be
|
|
|
9012 deceived in either of these ways as regards those things to which his knowledge extended; but as regards things to which his
|
|
|
9013 knowledge did not extend, he might have been deceived, if we take deception in the wide
|
|
|
9014 sense of the term for any surmise without assent of belief. This opinion was held with the idea that it is not derogatory
|
|
|
9015 to man to entertain a false opinion in such matters, and that provided he does not assent rashly, he is not to be blamed.
|
|
|
9016 </p>
|
|
|
9017 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p9"> Such an opinion, however, is not fitting as regards the integrity of the primitive state of life; because, as Augustine says
|
|
|
9018 (De Civ. Dei xiv, 10), in that state of life "sin was avoided without struggle, and while it remained so, no evil could exist."
|
|
|
9019 Now it is clear that as truth is the good of the intellect, so falsehood is its evil, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi,
|
|
|
9020 2). So that, as long as the state of innocence continued, it was impossible for the human intellect to
|
|
|
9021 assent to falsehood as if it were truth. For as some perfections, such as clarity, were lacking in the bodily members of the
|
|
|
9022 first man, though no evil could be therein; so there could be in his intellect the absence of some knowledge, but no false
|
|
|
9023 opinion.
|
|
|
9024 </p>
|
|
|
9025 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p10"> This is clear also from the very rectitude of the primitive state, by virtue of which, while the soul remained subject to
|
|
|
9026 God, the lower faculties in man were subject to the higher, and were no impediment to their action. And from what has preceded
|
|
|
9027 (
|
|
|
9028 <a id="FP_Q94_A4-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A6.html">Q[85], A[6]</a>), it is clear that as regards its proper object the intellect is ever true; and hence it is never deceived of itself; but
|
|
|
9029 whatever deception occurs must be ascribed to some lower faculty, such as
|
|
|
9030 the imagination or the like. Hence we see that when the natural power of judgment is free we are not deceived by such images,
|
|
|
9031 but only when it is not free, as is the case in sleep. Therefore it is clear that the rectitude of the primitive state was
|
|
|
9032 incompatible with deception of the intellect.
|
|
|
9033 </p>
|
|
|
9034 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p11">
|
|
|
9035 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Though the woman was deceived before she sinned in deed, still it was not till she had already sinned by interior pride.
|
|
|
9036 For Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xi, 30) that "the woman could not have believed the words of the serpent, had she not already
|
|
|
9037 acquiesced in the love of her own power, and in a presumption of self-conceit."
|
|
|
9038 </p>
|
|
|
9039 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p12">
|
|
|
9040 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The woman thought that the serpent had received this faculty, not as acting in accordance with nature, but by virtue of some
|
|
|
9041 supernatural operation. We need not, however, follow the Master of the Sentences in this point.
|
|
|
9042 </p>
|
|
|
9043 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p13">
|
|
|
9044 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Were anything presented to the imagination or sense of the first man, not in accordance with the nature of things, he would
|
|
|
9045 not have been deceived, for his reason would have enabled him to judge the truth.
|
|
|
9046 </p>
|
|
|
9047 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p14">
|
|
|
9048 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> A man is not accountable for what occurs during sleep; as he has not then the use of his reason, wherein consists man's proper
|
|
|
9049 action.
|
|
|
9050 </p>
|
|
|
9051 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p15">
|
|
|
9052 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> If anyone had said something untrue as regards future contingencies, or as regards secret thoughts, man in the primitive
|
|
|
9053 state would not have believed it was so: but he might have believed that such a thing was possible; which would not have been
|
|
|
9054 to entertain a false opinion.
|
|
|
9055 </p>
|
|
|
9056 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p16"> It might also be said that he would have been divinely guided from above, so as not to be deceived in a matter to which his
|
|
|
9057 knowledge did not extend.
|
|
|
9058 </p>
|
|
|
9059 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p17"> If any object, as some do, that he was not guided, when tempted, though he was then most in need of guidance, we reply that
|
|
|
9060 man had already sinned in his heart, and that he failed to have recourse to the Divine aid.
|
|
|
9061 </p>
|
|
|
9062 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p18"></p>
|
|
|
9063 <p id="FP_Q94_A4-p19"></p>
|
|
|
9064 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9065 <a href="summa.FP_Q95.html"></a>
|
|
|
9066 </div>
|
|
|
9067 <a href="summa.FP_Q93_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
9068 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9069 </div>
|
|
|
9070 <div id="FP_Q95" class="div3">
|
|
|
9071 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9072 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9073 <h3 id="FP_Q95-p0.1">OF THINGS PERTAINING TO THE FIRST MAN'S WILL---NAMELY, GRACE AND RIGHTEOUSNESS (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
9074 <p id="FP_Q95-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9075 <p id="FP_Q95-p2"> We next consider what belongs to the will of the first man; concerning which there are two points of treatment: (1) the grace
|
|
|
9076 and righteousness of the first man; (2) the use of righteousness as regards his dominion over other things.
|
|
|
9077 </p>
|
|
|
9078 <p id="FP_Q95-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
9079 <p id="FP_Q95-p4"> (1) Whether the first man was created in grace?</p>
|
|
|
9080 <p id="FP_Q95-p5"> (2) Whether in the state of innocence he had passions of the soul?</p>
|
|
|
9081 <p id="FP_Q95-p6"> (3) Whether he had all virtues?</p>
|
|
|
9082 <p id="FP_Q95-p7"> (4) Whether what he did would have been as meritorious as now?</p>
|
|
|
9083 <div id="FP_Q95_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
9084 <a href="summa.FP_Q95.html"></a>
|
|
|
9085 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9086 <h4 id="FP_Q95_A1-p0.1">Whether the first man was created in grace?</h4>
|
|
|
9087 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9088 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p2">
|
|
|
9089 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the first man was not created in grace. For the Apostle, distinguishing between Adam and Christ, says
|
|
|
9090 (
|
|
|
9091 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q95_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.45" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:45</a>): "The first Adam was made into a living soul; the last Adam into a quickening spirit." But the spirit is quickened by grace.
|
|
|
9092 Therefore Christ alone was made in grace.
|
|
|
9093 </p>
|
|
|
9094 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p3">
|
|
|
9095 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (QQ. Vet. et Nov. Test., qu. 123) [*Work of an anonymous author, among the supposititious works of
|
|
|
9096 St. Augustine] that "Adam did not possess the Holy Ghost." But whoever possesses grace has the Holy Ghost. Therefore Adam
|
|
|
9097 was not created in grace.
|
|
|
9098 </p>
|
|
|
9099 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p4">
|
|
|
9100 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Correp. et Grat. x) that "God so ordered the life of the angels and men, as to show first what
|
|
|
9101 they could do by free-will, then what they could do by His grace, and by the discernment of righteousness." God thus first
|
|
|
9102 created men and angels in the state of natural free-will only; and afterwards bestowed grace on them.
|
|
|
9103 </p>
|
|
|
9104 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p5">
|
|
|
9105 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Master says (Sent. ii, D, xxiv): "When man was created he was given sufficient help to stand, but not sufficient
|
|
|
9106 to advance." But whoever has grace can advance by merit. Therefore the first man was not created in grace.
|
|
|
9107 </p>
|
|
|
9108 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p6">
|
|
|
9109 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the reception of grace requires the consent of the recipient, since thereby a kind of spiritual marriage takes place
|
|
|
9110 between God and the soul. But consent presupposes existence. Therefore man did not receive grace in the first moment of his
|
|
|
9111 creation.
|
|
|
9112 </p>
|
|
|
9113 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p7">
|
|
|
9114 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, nature is more distant from grace than grace is from glory, which is but grace consummated. But in man grace precedes
|
|
|
9115 glory. Therefore much more did nature precede grace.
|
|
|
9116 </p>
|
|
|
9117 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p8">
|
|
|
9118 <b>On the contrary,</b> Man and angel are both ordained to grace. But the angels were created in grace, for Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xii, 9):
|
|
|
9119 "God at the same time fashioned their nature and endowed them with grace." Therefore man also was created in grace.
|
|
|
9120 </p>
|
|
|
9121 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p9">
|
|
|
9122 <b>I answer that,</b> Some say that man was not created in grace; but that it was bestowed on him subsequently before sin: and many authorities
|
|
|
9123 of the Saints declare that man possessed grace in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9124 </p>
|
|
|
9125 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p10"> But the very rectitude of the primitive state, wherewith man was endowed by God, seems to require that, as others say, he
|
|
|
9126 was created in grace, according to
|
|
|
9127 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q95_A1-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.30" target="asv"> Eccles. 7:30, </a> "God made man right." For this rectitude consisted in his reason being subject to God, the lower powers to reason, and the
|
|
|
9128 body to the soul: and the first subjection was the cause of both the second and the third; since while reason was subject
|
|
|
9129 to God, the lower powers remained subject to
|
|
|
9130 reason, as Augustine says [*Cf. De Civ. Dei xiii, 13; De Pecc. Merit. et Remiss. i, 16]. Now it is clear that such a subjection
|
|
|
9131 of the body to the soul and of the lower powers to reason, was not from nature; otherwise it would have remained after sin;
|
|
|
9132 since even in the demons the natural gifts remained after sin, as Dionysius declared (Div. Nom. iv). Hence it is clear that
|
|
|
9133 also the primitive subjection by virtue of which reason was subject to God, was not a merely natural gift, but a
|
|
|
9134 supernatural endowment of grace; for it is not possible that the effect should be of greater efficiency than the cause. Hence
|
|
|
9135 Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiii, 13) that, "as soon as they disobeyed the Divine command, and forfeited Divine grace, they
|
|
|
9136 were ashamed of their nakedness, for they felt the impulse of disobedience in the flesh, as though it were a punishment corresponding
|
|
|
9137 to their own disobedience." Hence if the loss of grace dissolved the obedience of the flesh to the soul, we may
|
|
|
9138 gather that the inferior powers were subjected to the soul through grace existing therein.
|
|
|
9139 </p>
|
|
|
9140 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p11">
|
|
|
9141 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle in these words means to show that there is a spiritual body, if there is an animal body, inasmuch as the spiritual
|
|
|
9142 life of the body began in Christ, who is "the firstborn of the dead," as the body's animal life began in Adam. From the Apostle's
|
|
|
9143 words, therefore, we cannot gather that Adam had no spiritual life in his soul; but that he had not spiritual life as regards
|
|
|
9144 the body.
|
|
|
9145 </p>
|
|
|
9146 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p12">
|
|
|
9147 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says in the same passage, it is not disputed that Adam, like other just souls, was in some degree gifted with
|
|
|
9148 the Holy Ghost; but "he did not possess the Holy Ghost, as the faithful possess Him now," who are admitted to eternal happiness
|
|
|
9149 directly after death.
|
|
|
9150 </p>
|
|
|
9151 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p13">
|
|
|
9152 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This passage from Augustine does not assert that angels or men were created with natural free-will before they possessed
|
|
|
9153 grace; but that God shows first what their free-will could do before being confirmed in grace, and what they acquired afterwards
|
|
|
9154 by being so confirmed.
|
|
|
9155 </p>
|
|
|
9156 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p14">
|
|
|
9157 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The Master here speaks according to the opinion of those who held that man was not created in grace, but only in a state
|
|
|
9158 of nature. We may also say that, though man was created in grace, yet it was not by virtue of the nature wherein he was created
|
|
|
9159 that he could advance by merit, but by virtue of the grace which was added.
|
|
|
9160 </p>
|
|
|
9161 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p15">
|
|
|
9162 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> As the motion of the will is not continuous there is nothing against the first man having consented to grace even in the
|
|
|
9163 first moment of his existence.
|
|
|
9164 </p>
|
|
|
9165 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p16">
|
|
|
9166 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> We merit glory by an act of grace; but we do not merit grace by an act of nature; hence the comparison fails.
|
|
|
9167 </p>
|
|
|
9168 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p17"></p>
|
|
|
9169 <p id="FP_Q95_A1-p18"></p>
|
|
|
9170 <a href="summa.FP_Q95.html"></a>
|
|
|
9171 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9172 </div>
|
|
|
9173 <div id="FP_Q95_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
9174 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9175 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9176 <h4 id="FP_Q95_A2-p0.1">Whether passions existed in the soul of the first man?</h4>
|
|
|
9177 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9178 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p2">
|
|
|
9179 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the first man's soul had no passions. For by the passions of the soul "the flesh lusteth against the spirit"
|
|
|
9180 (
|
|
|
9181 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q95_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.7" target="asv">Gal. 5:7</a>). But this did not happen in the state of innocence. Therefore in the state of innocence there were no passions of the soul.
|
|
|
9182 </p>
|
|
|
9183 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p3">
|
|
|
9184 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Adam's soul was nobler than his body. But his body was impassible. Therefore no passions were in his soul.
|
|
|
9185 </p>
|
|
|
9186 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p4">
|
|
|
9187 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the passions of the soul are restrained by the moral virtues. But in Adam the moral virtues were perfect. Therefore
|
|
|
9188 the passions were entirely excluded from him.
|
|
|
9189 </p>
|
|
|
9190 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p5">
|
|
|
9191 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 10) that "in our first parents there was undisturbed love of God," and other passions of
|
|
|
9192 the soul.
|
|
|
9193 </p>
|
|
|
9194 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p6">
|
|
|
9195 <b>I answer that,</b> The passions of the soul are in the sensual appetite, the object of which is good and evil. Wherefore some passions of the
|
|
|
9196 soul are directed to what is good, as love and joy; others to what is evil, as fear and sorrow. And since in the primitive
|
|
|
9197 state, evil was neither present nor imminent, nor was any good wanting which a good-will could desire to have then, as Augustine
|
|
|
9198 says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 10), therefore Adam had no passion with evil as its object; such
|
|
|
9199 as fear, sorrow, and the like; neither had he passions in respect of good not possessed, but to be possessed then, as burning
|
|
|
9200 concupiscence. But those passions which regard present good, as joy and love; or which regard future good to be had at the
|
|
|
9201 proper time, as desire and hope that casteth not down, existed in the state of innocence; otherwise, however, than as they
|
|
|
9202 exist in ourselves. For our sensual appetite, wherein the passions reside, is not entirely subject to reason; hence at times
|
|
|
9203 our passions forestall and hinder reason's judgment; at other times they follow reason's judgment, accordingly as the sensual
|
|
|
9204 appetite obeys reason to some extent. But in the state of innocence the inferior appetite was wholly subject to reason: so
|
|
|
9205 that in that state the passions of the soul existed only as consequent upon the judgment of reason.
|
|
|
9206 </p>
|
|
|
9207 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p7">
|
|
|
9208 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The flesh lusts against the spirit by the rebellion of the passions against reason; which could not occur in the state of
|
|
|
9209 innocence.
|
|
|
9210 </p>
|
|
|
9211 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p8">
|
|
|
9212 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The human body was impassible in the state of innocence as regards the passions which alter the disposition of nature, as
|
|
|
9213 will be explained later on (
|
|
|
9214 <a id="FP_Q95_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A2.html">Q[97], A[2]</a>); likewise the soul was impassible as regards the passions which impede the free use of reason.
|
|
|
9215 </p>
|
|
|
9216 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p9">
|
|
|
9217 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Perfection of moral virtue does not wholly take away the passions, but regulates them; for the temperate man desires as he
|
|
|
9218 ought to desire, and what he ought to desire, as stated in Ethic. iii, 11.
|
|
|
9219 </p>
|
|
|
9220 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
9221 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
9222 <p id="FP_Q95_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
9223 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9224 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9225 </div>
|
|
|
9226 <div id="FP_Q95_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
9227 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9228 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9229 <h4 id="FP_Q95_A3-p0.1">Whether Adam had all the virtues?</h4>
|
|
|
9230 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9231 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p2">
|
|
|
9232 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that Adam had not all the virtues. For some virtues are directed to curb passions: thus immoderate concupiscence
|
|
|
9233 is restrained by temperance, and immoderate fear by fortitude. But in the state of innocence no immoderation existed in the
|
|
|
9234 passions. Therefore neither did these virtues then exist.
|
|
|
9235 </p>
|
|
|
9236 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p3">
|
|
|
9237 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, some virtues are concerned with the passions which have evil as their object; as meekness with anger; fortitude
|
|
|
9238 with fear. But these passions did not exist in the state of innocence, as stated above
|
|
|
9239 <a id="FP_Q95_A3-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Therefore neither did those virtues exist then.
|
|
|
9240 </p>
|
|
|
9241 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p4">
|
|
|
9242 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, penance is a virtue that regards sin committed. Mercy, too, is a virtue concerned with unhappiness. But in the state
|
|
|
9243 of innocence neither sin nor unhappiness existed. Therefore neither did those virtues exist.
|
|
|
9244 </p>
|
|
|
9245 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p5">
|
|
|
9246 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, perseverance is a virtue. But Adam possessed it not; as proved by his subsequent sin. Therefore he possessed not
|
|
|
9247 every virtue.
|
|
|
9248 </p>
|
|
|
9249 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p6">
|
|
|
9250 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, faith is a virtue. But it did not exist in the state of innocence; for it implies an obscurity of knowledge which
|
|
|
9251 seems to be incompatible with the perfection of the primitive state.
|
|
|
9252 </p>
|
|
|
9253 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p7">
|
|
|
9254 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says, in a homily (Serm. contra Judaeos): "The prince of sin overcame Adam who was made from the slime of the earth
|
|
|
9255 to the image of God, adorned with modesty, restrained by temperance, refulgent with brightness."
|
|
|
9256 </p>
|
|
|
9257 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p8">
|
|
|
9258 <b>I answer that,</b> in the state of innocence man in a certain sense possessed all the virtues; and this can be proved from what precedes. For
|
|
|
9259 it was shown above
|
|
|
9260 <a id="FP_Q95_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that such was the rectitude of the primitive state, that reason was subject to God, and the lower powers to reason. Now the
|
|
|
9261 virtues are nothing but those perfections whereby reason is directed to God, and the inferior powers regulated according to
|
|
|
9262 the dictate of reason, as will be
|
|
|
9263 explained in the Treatise on the Virtues (FS,
|
|
|
9264 <a id="FP_Q95_A3-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q63_A2.html">Q[63], A[2]</a>). Wherefore the rectitude of the primitive state required that man should in a sense possess every virtue.
|
|
|
9265 </p>
|
|
|
9266 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p9"> It must, however, be noted that some virtues of their very nature do not involve imperfection, such as charity and justice;
|
|
|
9267 and these virtues did exist in the primitive state absolutely, both in habit and in act. But other virtues are of such a nature
|
|
|
9268 as to imply imperfection either in their act, or on the part of the matter. If such imperfection be consistent with the perfection
|
|
|
9269 of the primitive state, such virtues necessarily existed in that state; as faith, which is of things
|
|
|
9270 not seen, and hope which is of things not yet possessed. For the perfection of that state did not extend to the vision of
|
|
|
9271 the Divine Essence, and the possession of God with the enjoyment of final beatitude. Hence faith and hope could exist in the
|
|
|
9272 primitive state, both as to habit and as to act. But any virtue which implies imperfection incompatible with the perfection
|
|
|
9273 of the primitive state, could exist in that state as a habit, but not as to the act; for instance, penance, which is sorrow
|
|
|
9274 for
|
|
|
9275 sin committed; and mercy, which is sorrow for others' unhappiness; because sorrow, guilt, and unhappiness are incompatible
|
|
|
9276 with the perfection of the primitive state. Wherefore such virtues existed as habits in the first man, but not as to their
|
|
|
9277 acts; for he was so disposed that he would repent, if there had been a sin to repent for; and had he seen unhappiness in his
|
|
|
9278 neighbor, he would have done his best to remedy it. This is in accordance with what the Philosopher says, "Shame, which regards
|
|
|
9279 what is ill done, may be found in a virtuous man, but only conditionally; as being so disposed that he would be ashamed if
|
|
|
9280 he did wrong" (Ethic. iv, 9).
|
|
|
9281 </p>
|
|
|
9282 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p10">
|
|
|
9283 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is accidental to temperance and fortitude to subdue superabundant passion, in so far as they are in a subject which happens
|
|
|
9284 to have superabundant passions, and yet those virtues are 'per se' competent to moderate the passions.
|
|
|
9285 </p>
|
|
|
9286 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p11">
|
|
|
9287 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Passions which have evil for their object were incompatible with the perfection of the primitive state, if that evil be in
|
|
|
9288 the one affected by the passion; such as fear and sorrow. But passions which relate to evil in another are not incompatible
|
|
|
9289 with the perfection of the primitive state; for in that state man could hate the demons' malice, as he could love God's goodness.
|
|
|
9290 Thus the virtues which relate to such passions could exist in the primitive
|
|
|
9291 state, in habit and in act. Virtues, however, relating to passions which regard evil in the same subject, if relating to such
|
|
|
9292 passions only, could not exist in the primitive state in act, but only in habit, as we have said above of penance and of mercy.
|
|
|
9293 But other virtues there are which have relation not to such passions only, but to others; such as temperance, which relates
|
|
|
9294 not only to sorrow, but also to joy; and fortitude, which relates not only to fear, but also to daring and hope. Thus the
|
|
|
9295 act of temperance could exist in the primitive state, so far as it moderates pleasure; and in like manner, fortitude, as moderating
|
|
|
9296 daring and hope, but not as moderating sorrow and fear.
|
|
|
9297 </p>
|
|
|
9298 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p12">
|
|
|
9299 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> appears from what has been said above.
|
|
|
9300 </p>
|
|
|
9301 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p13">
|
|
|
9302 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Perseverance may be taken in two ways: in one sense as a particular virtue, signifying a habit whereby a man makes a choice
|
|
|
9303 of persevering in good; in that sense Adam possessed perseverance. In another sense it is taken as a circumstance of virtue;
|
|
|
9304 signifying a certain uninterrupted continuation of virtue; in which sense Adam did not possess perseverance.
|
|
|
9305 </p>
|
|
|
9306 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p14">
|
|
|
9307 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> appears from what has been said above.
|
|
|
9308 </p>
|
|
|
9309 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p15"></p>
|
|
|
9310 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p16"></p>
|
|
|
9311 <p id="FP_Q95_A3-p17"></p>
|
|
|
9312 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9313 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9314 </div>
|
|
|
9315 <div id="FP_Q95_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
9316 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9317 <a href="summa.FP_Q96.html"></a>
|
|
|
9318 <h4 id="FP_Q95_A4-p0.1">Whether the actions of the first man were less meritorious than ours are?</h4>
|
|
|
9319 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9320 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p2">
|
|
|
9321 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the actions of the first man were less meritorious than ours are. For grace is given to us through the
|
|
|
9322 mercy of God, Who succors most those who are most in need. Now we are more in need of grace than was man in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9323 Therefore grace is more copiously poured out upon us; and since grace is the source of merit, our actions are more meritorious.
|
|
|
9324 </p>
|
|
|
9325 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p3">
|
|
|
9326 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, struggle and difficulty are required for merit; for it is written (
|
|
|
9327 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q95_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.5" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:5</a>): "He . . . is not crowned except he strive lawfully" and the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 3): "The object of virtue is the
|
|
|
9328 difficult and the good." But there is more strife and difficulty now. Therefore there is greater efficacy for merit.
|
|
|
9329 </p>
|
|
|
9330 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p4">
|
|
|
9331 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Master says (Sent. ii., D, xxiv) that "man would not have merited in resisting temptation; whereas he does merit
|
|
|
9332 now, when he resists." Therefore our actions are more meritorious than in the primitive state.
|
|
|
9333 </p>
|
|
|
9334 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p5">
|
|
|
9335 <b>On the contrary,</b> if such were the case, man would be better off after sinning.
|
|
|
9336 </p>
|
|
|
9337 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p6">
|
|
|
9338 <b>I answer that,</b> Merit as regards degree may be gauged in two ways. First, in its root, which is grace and charity. Merit thus measured corresponds
|
|
|
9339 in degree to the essential reward, which consists in the enjoyment of God; for the greater the charity whence our actions
|
|
|
9340 proceed, the more perfectly shall we enjoy God. Secondly, the degree of merit is measured by the degree of the action itself.
|
|
|
9341 This degree is of two kinds, absolute and proportional. The widow who put two mites
|
|
|
9342 into the treasury performed a deed of absolutely less degree than the others who put great sums therein. But in proportionate
|
|
|
9343 degree the widow gave more, as Our Lord said; because she gave more in proportion to her means. In each of these cases the
|
|
|
9344 degree of merit corresponds to the accidental reward, which consists in rejoicing for created good.
|
|
|
9345 </p>
|
|
|
9346 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p7"> We conclude therefore that in the state of innocence man's works were more meritorious than after sin was committed, if we
|
|
|
9347 consider the degree of merit on the part of grace, which would have been more copious as meeting with no obstacle in human
|
|
|
9348 nature: and in like manner, if we consider the absolute degree of the work done; because, as man would have had greater virtue,
|
|
|
9349 he would have performed greater works. But if we consider the proportionate degree, a greater reason for
|
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|
9350 merit exists after sin, on account of man's weakness; because a small deed is more beyond the capacity of one who works with
|
|
|
9351 difficulty than a great deed is beyond one who performs it easily.
|
|
|
9352 </p>
|
|
|
9353 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p8">
|
|
|
9354 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> After sin man requires grace for more things than before sin; but he does not need grace more; forasmuch as man even before
|
|
|
9355 sin required grace to obtain eternal life, which is the chief reason for the need of grace. But after sin man required grace
|
|
|
9356 also for the remission of sin, and for the support of his weakness.
|
|
|
9357 </p>
|
|
|
9358 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p9">
|
|
|
9359 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Difficulty and struggle belong to the degree of merit according to the proportionate degree of the work done, as above explained.
|
|
|
9360 It is also a sign of the will's promptitude striving after what is difficult to itself: and the promptitude of the will is
|
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|
9361 caused by the intensity of charity. Yet it may happen that a person performs an easy deed with as prompt a will as another
|
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|
9362 performs an arduous deed; because he is ready to do even what may be difficult
|
|
|
9363 to him. But the actual difficulty, by its penal character, enables the deed to satisfy for sin.
|
|
|
9364 </p>
|
|
|
9365 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p10">
|
|
|
9366 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The first man would not have gained merit in resisting temptation, according to the opinion of those who say that he did
|
|
|
9367 not possess grace; even as now there is no merit to those who have not grace. But in this point there is a difference, inasmuch
|
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|
9368 as in the primitive state there was no interior impulse to evil, as in our present state. Hence man was more able then than
|
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|
9369 now to resist temptation even without grace.
|
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|
9370 </p>
|
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9371 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p11"></p>
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9372 <p id="FP_Q95_A4-p12"></p>
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9373 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A3.html"></a>
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9374 <a href="summa.FP_Q96.html"></a>
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|
9375 </div>
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9376 <a href="summa.FP_Q94_A4.html"></a>
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9377 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html"></a>
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9378 </div>
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9379 <div id="FP_Q96" class="div3">
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9380 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A4.html"></a>
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9381 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A1.html"></a>
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|
9382 <h3 id="FP_Q96-p0.1">OF THE MASTERSHIP BELONGING TO MAN IN THE STATE OF INNOCENCE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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|
9383 <p id="FP_Q96-p1"></p>
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|
9384 <p id="FP_Q96-p2"> We next consider the mastership which belonged to man in the state of innocence. Under this head there are four points of
|
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|
9385 inquiry:
|
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|
9386 </p>
|
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|
9387 <p id="FP_Q96-p3"> (1) Whether man in the state of innocence was master over the animals?</p>
|
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|
9388 <p id="FP_Q96-p4"> (2) Whether he was master over all creatures?</p>
|
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|
9389 <p id="FP_Q96-p5"> (3) Whether in the state of innocence all men were equal?</p>
|
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|
9390 <p id="FP_Q96-p6"> (4) Whether in that state man would have been master over men?</p>
|
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|
9391 <div id="FP_Q96_A1" class="div4">
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9392 <a href="summa.FP_Q96.html"></a>
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9393 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A2.html"></a>
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9394 <h4 id="FP_Q96_A1-p0.1">Whether Adam in the state of innocence had mastership over the animals?</h4>
|
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9395 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p1"></p>
|
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|
9396 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p2">
|
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|
9397 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence Adam had no mastership over the animals. For Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ix,
|
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|
9398 14), that the animals were brought to Adam, under the direction of the angels, to receive their names from him. But the angels
|
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|
9399 need not have intervened thus, if man himself were master over the animals. Therefore in the state of innocence man had no
|
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|
9400 mastership of the animals.
|
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|
9401 </p>
|
|
|
9402 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p3">
|
|
|
9403 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is unfitting that elements hostile to one another should be brought under the mastership of one. But many animals
|
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|
9404 are hostile to one another, as the sheep and the wolf. Therefore all animals were not brought under the mastership of man.
|
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|
9405 </p>
|
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|
9406 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p4">
|
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|
9407 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Jerome says [*The words quoted are not in St. Jerome's works. St. Thomas may have had in mind Bede, Hexaem., as
|
|
|
9408 quoted in the Glossa ordinaria on
|
|
|
9409 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.26" target="asv"> Gn. 1:26</a>]: "God gave man mastership over the animals, although before sin he had no need of them: for God foresaw that after sin animals
|
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|
9410 would become useful to man." Therefore, at least before sin, it was unfitting for man to make use of his mastership.
|
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|
9411 </p>
|
|
|
9412 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p5">
|
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|
9413 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it is proper to a master to command. But a command is not given rightly save to a rational being. Therefore man
|
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|
9414 had no mastership over the irrational animals.
|
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|
9415 </p>
|
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9416 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p6">
|
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|
9417 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9418 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.26" target="asv">Gn. 1:26</a>): "Let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and the birds of the air, and the beasts of the earth" [Vulg."and the
|
|
|
9419 whole earth"].
|
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|
9420 </p>
|
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|
9421 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p7">
|
|
|
9422 <b>I answer that,</b> As above stated (
|
|
|
9423 <a id="FP_Q96_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html">Q[95], A[1]</a>) for his disobedience to God, man was punished by the disobedience of those creatures which should be subject to him. Therefore
|
|
|
9424 in the state of innocence, before man had disobeyed, nothing disobeyed him that was naturally subject to him. Now all animals
|
|
|
9425 are naturally subject to man. This can be proved in three ways. First, from the order observed by nature; for just as in the
|
|
|
9426 generation of things we
|
|
|
9427 perceive a certain order of procession of the perfect from the imperfect (thus matter is for the sake of form; and the imperfect
|
|
|
9428 form, for the sake of the perfect), so also is there order in the use of natural things; thus the imperfect are for the use
|
|
|
9429 of the perfect; as the plants make use of the earth for their nourishment, and animals make use of plants, and man makes use
|
|
|
9430 of both plants and animals. Therefore it is in keeping with the order of nature, that man should be master over animals.
|
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|
9431 Hence the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 5) that the hunting of wild animals is just and natural, because man thereby exercises
|
|
|
9432 a natural right. Secondly, this is proved by the order of Divine Providence which always governs inferior things by the superior.
|
|
|
9433 Wherefore, as man, being made to the image of God, is above other animals, these are rightly subject to his government. Thirdly,
|
|
|
9434 this is proved from a property of man and of other animals. For we see in the latter a certain participated
|
|
|
9435 prudence of natural instinct, in regard to certain particular acts; whereas man possesses a universal prudence as regards
|
|
|
9436 all practical matters. Now whatever is participated is subject to what is essential and universal. Therefore the subjection
|
|
|
9437 of other animals to man is proved to be natural.
|
|
|
9438 </p>
|
|
|
9439 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p8">
|
|
|
9440 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A higher power can do many things that an inferior power cannot do to those which are subject to them. Now an angel is naturally
|
|
|
9441 higher than man. Therefore certain things in regard to animals could be done by angels, which could not be done by man; for
|
|
|
9442 instance, the rapid gathering together of all the animals.
|
|
|
9443 </p>
|
|
|
9444 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p9">
|
|
|
9445 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In the opinion of some, those animals which now are fierce and kill others, would, in that state, have been tame, not only
|
|
|
9446 in regard to man, but also in regard to other animals. But this is quite unreasonable. For the nature of animals was not changed
|
|
|
9447 by man's sin, as if those whose nature now it is to devour the flesh of others, would then have lived on herbs, as the lion
|
|
|
9448 and falcon. Nor does Bede's gloss on
|
|
|
9449 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.30" target="asv">Gn. 1:30</a>, say that trees and herbs were
|
|
|
9450 given as food to all animals and birds, but to some. Thus there would have been a natural antipathy between some animals.
|
|
|
9451 They would not, however, on this account have been excepted from the mastership of man: as neither at present are they for
|
|
|
9452 that reason excepted from the mastership of God, Whose Providence has ordained all this. Of this Providence man would have
|
|
|
9453 been the executor, as appears even now in regard to domestic animals, since fowls are given by men as food to the trained
|
|
|
9454 falcon.
|
|
|
9455 </p>
|
|
|
9456 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p10">
|
|
|
9457 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In the state of innocence man would not have had any bodily need of animals---neither for clothing, since then they were
|
|
|
9458 naked and not ashamed, there being no inordinate motions of concupiscence---nor for food, since they fed on the trees of paradise---nor
|
|
|
9459 to carry him about, his body being strong enough for that purpose. But man needed animals in order to have experimental knowledge
|
|
|
9460 of their natures. This is signified by the fact that God led the
|
|
|
9461 animals to man, that he might give them names expressive of their respective natures.
|
|
|
9462 </p>
|
|
|
9463 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p11">
|
|
|
9464 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> All animals by their natural instinct have a certain participation of prudence and reason: which accounts for the fact that
|
|
|
9465 cranes follow their leader, and bees obey their queen. So all animals would have obeyed man of their own accord, as in the
|
|
|
9466 present state some domestic animals obey him.
|
|
|
9467 </p>
|
|
|
9468 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
9469 <p id="FP_Q96_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
9470 <a href="summa.FP_Q96.html"></a>
|
|
|
9471 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9472 </div>
|
|
|
9473 <div id="FP_Q96_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
9474 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9475 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9476 <h4 id="FP_Q96_A2-p0.1">Whether man had mastership over all other creatures?</h4>
|
|
|
9477 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9478 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p2">
|
|
|
9479 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence man would not have had mastership over all other creatures. For an angel naturally
|
|
|
9480 has a greater power than man. But, as Augustine says (De Trin. iii, 8), "corporeal matter would not have obeyed even the holy
|
|
|
9481 angels." Much less therefore would it have obeyed man in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9482 </p>
|
|
|
9483 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p3">
|
|
|
9484 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the only powers of the soul existing in plants are nutritive, augmentative, and generative. Now these doe not naturally
|
|
|
9485 obey reason; as we can see in the case of any one man. Therefore, since it is by his reason that man is competent to have
|
|
|
9486 mastership, it seems that in the state of innocence man had no dominion over plants.
|
|
|
9487 </p>
|
|
|
9488 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p4">
|
|
|
9489 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whosoever is master of a thing, can change it. But man could not have changed the course of the heavenly bodies;
|
|
|
9490 for this belongs to God alone, as Dionysius says (Ep. ad Polycarp. vii). Therefore man had no dominion over them.
|
|
|
9491 </p>
|
|
|
9492 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p5">
|
|
|
9493 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9494 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.26" target="asv">Gn. 1:26</a>): "That he may have dominion over . . . every creature."
|
|
|
9495 </p>
|
|
|
9496 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p6">
|
|
|
9497 <b>I answer that,</b> Man in a certain sense contains all things; and so according as he is master of what is within himself, in the same way he
|
|
|
9498 can have mastership over other things. Now we may consider four things in man: his "reason," which makes him like to the angels';
|
|
|
9499 his "sensitive powers," whereby he is like the animals; his "natural forces," which liken him to the plants; and "the body
|
|
|
9500 itself," wherein he is like to inanimate things. Now in man reason has the position of
|
|
|
9501 a master and not of a subject. Wherefore man had no mastership over the angels in the primitive state; so when we read "all
|
|
|
9502 creatures," we must understand the creatures which are not made to God's image. Over the sensitive powers, as the irascible
|
|
|
9503 and concupiscible, which obey reason in some degree, the soul has mastership by commanding. So in the state of innocence man
|
|
|
9504 had mastership over the animals by commanding them. But of the natural powers and the body itself man is master not by
|
|
|
9505 commanding, but by using them. Thus also in the state of innocence man's mastership over plants and inanimate things consisted
|
|
|
9506 not in commanding or in changing them, but in making use of them without hindrance.
|
|
|
9507 </p>
|
|
|
9508 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p7"> The answers to the objections appear from the above.</p>
|
|
|
9509 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p8"></p>
|
|
|
9510 <p id="FP_Q96_A2-p9"></p>
|
|
|
9511 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9512 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9513 </div>
|
|
|
9514 <div id="FP_Q96_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
9515 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9516 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9517 <h4 id="FP_Q96_A3-p0.1">Whether men were equal in the state of innocence?</h4>
|
|
|
9518 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9519 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p2">
|
|
|
9520 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence all would have been equal. For Gregory says (Moral. xxi): "Where there is no
|
|
|
9521 sin, there is no inequality." But in the state of innocence there was no sin. Therefore all were equal.
|
|
|
9522 </p>
|
|
|
9523 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p3">
|
|
|
9524 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, likeness and equality are the basis of mutual love, according to
|
|
|
9525 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.13.19" target="asv"> Ecclus. 13:19, </a> "Every beast loveth its like; so also every man him that is nearest to himself." Now in that state there was among men an
|
|
|
9526 abundance of love, which is the bond of peace. Therefore all were equal in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9527 </p>
|
|
|
9528 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p4">
|
|
|
9529 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the cause ceasing, the effect also ceases. But the cause of present inequality among men seems to arise, on the
|
|
|
9530 part of God, from the fact that He rewards some and punishes others; and on the part of nature, from the fact that some, through
|
|
|
9531 a defect of nature, are born weak and deficient, others strong and perfect, which would not have been the case in the primitive
|
|
|
9532 state. Therefore, etc.
|
|
|
9533 </p>
|
|
|
9534 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p5">
|
|
|
9535 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9536 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.13.1" target="asv">Rom. 13:1</a>): "The things which are of God, are well ordered" [Vulg."Those that are, are ordained of God"]. But order chiefly consists
|
|
|
9537 in inequality; for Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, 13): "Order disposes things equal and unequal in their proper place."
|
|
|
9538 Therefore in the primitive state, which was most proper and orderly, inequality would have existed.
|
|
|
9539 </p>
|
|
|
9540 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p6">
|
|
|
9541 <b>I answer that,</b> We must needs admit that in the primitive state there would have been some inequality, at least as regards sex, because generation
|
|
|
9542 depends upon diversity of sex: and likewise as regards age; for some would have been born of others; nor would sexual union
|
|
|
9543 have been sterile.
|
|
|
9544 </p>
|
|
|
9545 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p7"> Moreover, as regards the soul, there would have been inequality as to righteousness and knowledge. For man worked not of
|
|
|
9546 necessity, but of his own free-will, by virtue of which man can apply himself, more or less, to action, desire, or knowledge;
|
|
|
9547 hence some would have made a greater advance in virtue and knowledge than others.
|
|
|
9548 </p>
|
|
|
9549 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p8"> There might also have been bodily disparity. For the human body was not entirely exempt from the laws of nature, so as not
|
|
|
9550 to receive from exterior sources more or less advantage and help: since indeed it was dependent on food wherewith to sustain
|
|
|
9551 life.
|
|
|
9552 </p>
|
|
|
9553 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p9"> So we may say that, according to the climate, or the movement of the stars, some would have been born more robust in body
|
|
|
9554 than others, and also greater, and more beautiful, and all ways better disposed; so that, however, in those who were thus
|
|
|
9555 surpassed, there would have been no defect or fault either in soul or body.
|
|
|
9556 </p>
|
|
|
9557 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p10">
|
|
|
9558 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By those words Gregory means to exclude such inequality as exists between virtue and vice; the result of which is that some
|
|
|
9559 are placed in subjection to others as a penalty.
|
|
|
9560 </p>
|
|
|
9561 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p11">
|
|
|
9562 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Equality is the cause of equality in mutual love. Yet between those who are unequal there can be a greater love than between
|
|
|
9563 equals; although there be not an equal response: for a father naturally loves his son more than a brother loves his brother;
|
|
|
9564 although the son does not love his father as much as he is loved by him.
|
|
|
9565 </p>
|
|
|
9566 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p12">
|
|
|
9567 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The cause of inequality could be on the part of God; not indeed that He would punish some and reward others, but that He
|
|
|
9568 would exalt some above others; so that the beauty of order would the more shine forth among men. Inequality might also arise
|
|
|
9569 on the part of nature as above described, without any defect of nature.
|
|
|
9570 </p>
|
|
|
9571 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p13"></p>
|
|
|
9572 <p id="FP_Q96_A3-p14"></p>
|
|
|
9573 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9574 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9575 </div>
|
|
|
9576 <div id="FP_Q96_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
9577 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9578 <a href="summa.FP_Q97.html"></a>
|
|
|
9579 <h4 id="FP_Q96_A4-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence man would have been master over man?</h4>
|
|
|
9580 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9581 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p2">
|
|
|
9582 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence man would not have been master over man. For Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix,
|
|
|
9583 15): "God willed that man, who was endowed with reason and made to His image, should rule over none but irrational creatures;
|
|
|
9584 not over men, but over cattle."
|
|
|
9585 </p>
|
|
|
9586 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p3">
|
|
|
9587 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, what came into the world as a penalty for sin would not have existed in the state of innocence. But man was made
|
|
|
9588 subject to man as a penalty; for after sin it was said to the woman (
|
|
|
9589 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.3.16" target="asv">Gn. 3:16</a>): "Thou shalt be under thy husband's power." Therefore in the state of innocence man would not have been subject to man.
|
|
|
9590 </p>
|
|
|
9591 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p4">
|
|
|
9592 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, subjection is opposed to liberty. But liberty is one of the chief blessings, and would not have been lacking in
|
|
|
9593 the state of innocence, "where nothing was wanting that man's good-will could desire," as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv,
|
|
|
9594 10). Therefore man would not have been master over man in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9595 </p>
|
|
|
9596 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p5">
|
|
|
9597 <b>On the contrary,</b> The condition of man in the state of innocence was not more exalted than the condition of the angels. But among the angels
|
|
|
9598 some rule over others; and so one order is called that of "Dominations." Therefore it was not beneath the dignity of the state
|
|
|
9599 of innocence that one man should be subject to another.
|
|
|
9600 </p>
|
|
|
9601 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p6">
|
|
|
9602 <b>I answer that,</b> Mastership has a twofold meaning. First, as opposed to slavery, in which sense a master means one to whom another is subject
|
|
|
9603 as a slave. In another sense mastership is referred in a general sense to any kind of subject; and in this sense even he who
|
|
|
9604 has the office of governing and directing free men, can be called a master. In the state of innocence man could have been
|
|
|
9605 a master of men, not in the former but in the latter sense. This distinction is founded on
|
|
|
9606 the reason that a slave differs from a free man in that the latter has the disposal of himself, as is stated in the beginning
|
|
|
9607 of the Metaphysics, whereas a slave is ordered to another. So that one man is master of another as his slave when he refers
|
|
|
9608 the one whose master he is, to his own---namely the master's use. And since every man's proper good is desirable to himself,
|
|
|
9609 and consequently it is a grievous matter to anyone to yield to another what ought to be one's own, therefore such dominion
|
|
|
9610 implies of necessity a pain inflicted on the subject; and consequently in the state of innocence such a mastership could not
|
|
|
9611 have existed between man and man.
|
|
|
9612 </p>
|
|
|
9613 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p7"> But a man is the master of a free subject, by directing him either towards his proper welfare, or to the common good. Such
|
|
|
9614 a kind of mastership would have existed in the state of innocence between man and man, for two reasons. First, because man
|
|
|
9615 is naturally a social being, and so in the state of innocence he would have led a social life. Now a social life cannot exist
|
|
|
9616 among a number of people unless under the presidency of one to look after the common good; for many, as such,
|
|
|
9617 seek many things, whereas one attends only to one. Wherefore the Philosopher says, in the beginning of the Politics, that
|
|
|
9618 wherever many things are directed to one, we shall always find one at the head directing them. Secondly, if one man surpassed
|
|
|
9619 another in knowledge and virtue, this would not have been fitting unless these gifts conduced to the benefit of others, according
|
|
|
9620 to
|
|
|
9621 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q96_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iPet.4.10" target="asv">1 Pet. 4:10, </a> "As every man hath received grace, ministering the same one to another." Wherefore
|
|
|
9622 Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, 14): "Just men command not by the love of domineering, but by the service of counsel": and
|
|
|
9623 (De Civ. Dei xix, 15): "The natural order of things requires this; and thus did God make man."
|
|
|
9624 </p>
|
|
|
9625 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p8"> From this appear the replies to the objections which are founded on the first-mentioned mode of mastership.</p>
|
|
|
9626 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p9"></p>
|
|
|
9627 <p id="FP_Q96_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
9628 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9629 <a href="summa.FP_Q97.html"></a>
|
|
|
9630 </div>
|
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|
9631 <a href="summa.FP_Q95_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
9632 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
9633 </div>
|
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|
9634 <div id="FP_Q97" class="div3">
|
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|
9635 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
9636 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9637 <h3 id="FP_Q97-p0.1">OF THE PRESERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE PRIMITIVE STATE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
9638 <p id="FP_Q97-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9639 <p id="FP_Q97-p2"> We next consider what belongs to the bodily state of the first man: first, as regards the preservation of the individual;
|
|
|
9640 secondly, as regards the preservation of the species.
|
|
|
9641 </p>
|
|
|
9642 <p id="FP_Q97-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
9643 <p id="FP_Q97-p4"> (1) Whether man in the state of innocence was immortal?</p>
|
|
|
9644 <p id="FP_Q97-p5"> (2) Whether he was impassible?</p>
|
|
|
9645 <p id="FP_Q97-p6"> (3) Whether he stood in need of food?</p>
|
|
|
9646 <p id="FP_Q97-p7"> (4) Whether he would have obtained immortality by the tree of life?</p>
|
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|
9647 <p id="FP_Q97-p8"></p>
|
|
|
9648 <div id="FP_Q97_A1" class="div4">
|
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|
9649 <a href="summa.FP_Q97.html"></a>
|
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|
9650 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
9651 <h4 id="FP_Q97_A1-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence man would have been immortal?</h4>
|
|
|
9652 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9653 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p2">
|
|
|
9654 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence man was not immortal. For the term "mortal" belongs to the definition of man.
|
|
|
9655 But if you take away the definition, you take away the thing defined. Therefore as long as man was man he could not be immortal.
|
|
|
9656 </p>
|
|
|
9657 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p3">
|
|
|
9658 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, corruptible and incorruptible are generically distinct, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. x, Did. ix, 10). But there
|
|
|
9659 can be no passing from one genus to another. Therefore if the first man was incorruptible, man could not be corruptible in
|
|
|
9660 the present state.
|
|
|
9661 </p>
|
|
|
9662 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p4">
|
|
|
9663 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if man were immortal in the state of innocence, this would have been due either to nature or to grace. Not to nature,
|
|
|
9664 for since nature does not change within the same species, he would also have been immortal now. Likewise neither would this
|
|
|
9665 be owing to grace; for the first man recovered grace by repentance, according to
|
|
|
9666 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.10.2" target="asv"> Wis. 10:2</a>: "He brought him out of his sins." Hence he would have regained his immortality; which is clearly not
|
|
|
9667 the case. Therefore man was not immortal in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9668 </p>
|
|
|
9669 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p5">
|
|
|
9670 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, immortality is promised to man as a reward, according to
|
|
|
9671 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rev.21.4" target="asv"> Apoc. 21:4</a>: "Death shall be no more." But man was not created in the state of reward, but that he might deserve the reward. Therefore
|
|
|
9672 man was not immortal in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9673 </p>
|
|
|
9674 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p6">
|
|
|
9675 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9676 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.12" target="asv">Rom. 5:12</a>): "By sin death came into the world." Therefore man was immortal before sin.
|
|
|
9677 </p>
|
|
|
9678 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p7">
|
|
|
9679 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing may be incorruptible in three ways. First, on the part of matter---that is to say, either because it possesses no
|
|
|
9680 matter, like an angel; or because it possesses matter that is in potentiality to one form only, like the heavenly bodies.
|
|
|
9681 Such things as these are incorruptible by their very nature. Secondly, a thing is incorruptible in its form, inasmuch as being
|
|
|
9682 by nature corruptible, yet it has an inherent disposition which preserves it wholly from
|
|
|
9683 corruption; and this is called incorruptibility of glory; because as Augustine says (Ep. ad Dioscor.): "God made man's soul
|
|
|
9684 of such a powerful nature, that from its fulness of beatitude, there redounds to the body a fulness of health, with the vigor
|
|
|
9685 of incorruption." Thirdly, a thing may be incorruptible on the part of its efficient cause; in this sense man was incorruptible
|
|
|
9686 and immortal in the state of innocence. For, as Augustine says (QQ. Vet. et Nov. Test. qu. 19 [*Work of an anonymous
|
|
|
9687 author, among the supposititious works of St. Augustine]): "God made man immortal as long as he did not sin; so that he might
|
|
|
9688 achieve for himself life or death." For man's body was indissoluble not by reason of any intrinsic vigor of immortality, but
|
|
|
9689 by reason of a supernatural force given by God to the soul, whereby it was enabled to preserve the body from all corruption
|
|
|
9690 so long as it remained itself subject to God. This entirely agrees with reason; for since the rational soul surpasses the
|
|
|
9691 capacity of corporeal matter, as above explained (
|
|
|
9692 <a id="FP_Q97_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q76_A1.html">Q[76], A[1]</a>), it was most properly endowed at the beginning with the power of preserving the body in a manner surpassing the capacity
|
|
|
9693 of corporeal matter.
|
|
|
9694 </p>
|
|
|
9695 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p8"> Reply OBJ 1 and 2: These objections are founded on natural incorruptibility and immortality.</p>
|
|
|
9696 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p9">
|
|
|
9697 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This power of preserving the body was not natural to the soul, but was the gift of grace. And though man recovered grace
|
|
|
9698 as regards remission of guilt and the merit of glory; yet he did not recover immortality, the loss of which was an effect
|
|
|
9699 of sin; for this was reserved for Christ to accomplish, by Whom the defect of nature was to be restored into something better,
|
|
|
9700 as we shall explain further on (TP,
|
|
|
9701 <a id="FP_Q97_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A4.html">Q[14] , A[4]</a>, ad 1).
|
|
|
9702 </p>
|
|
|
9703 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p10">
|
|
|
9704 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The promised reward of the immortality of glory differs from the immortality which was bestowed on man in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9705 </p>
|
|
|
9706 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
9707 <p id="FP_Q97_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
9708 <a href="summa.FP_Q97.html"></a>
|
|
|
9709 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9710 </div>
|
|
|
9711 <div id="FP_Q97_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
9712 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9713 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9714 <h4 id="FP_Q97_A2-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence man would have been passible?</h4>
|
|
|
9715 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9716 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p2">
|
|
|
9717 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence man was passible. For "sensation is a kind of passion." But in the state of
|
|
|
9718 innocence man would have been sensitive. Therefore he would have been passible.
|
|
|
9719 </p>
|
|
|
9720 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p3">
|
|
|
9721 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sleep is a kind of passion. Now, man slept in the state of innocence, according to
|
|
|
9722 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.21" target="asv"> Gn. 2:21, </a> "God cast a deep sleep upon Adam." Therefore he would have been passible.
|
|
|
9723 </p>
|
|
|
9724 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p4">
|
|
|
9725 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the same passage goes on to say that "He took a rib out of Adam." Therefore he was passible even to the degree of
|
|
|
9726 the cutting out of part of his body.
|
|
|
9727 </p>
|
|
|
9728 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p5">
|
|
|
9729 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, man's body was soft. But a soft body is naturally passible as regards a hard body; therefore if a hard body had
|
|
|
9730 come in contact with the soft body of the first man, the latter would have suffered from the impact. Therefore the first man
|
|
|
9731 was passible.
|
|
|
9732 </p>
|
|
|
9733 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p6">
|
|
|
9734 <b>On the contrary,</b> Had man been passible, he would have been also corruptible, because, as the Philosopher says (Top. vi, 3): "Excessive suffering
|
|
|
9735 wastes the very substance."
|
|
|
9736 </p>
|
|
|
9737 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p7">
|
|
|
9738 <b>I answer that,</b> "Passion" may be taken in two senses. First, in its proper sense, and thus a thing is said to suffer when changed from its
|
|
|
9739 natural disposition. For passion is the effect of action; and in nature contraries are mutually active or passive, according
|
|
|
9740 as one thing changes another from its natural disposition. Secondly, "passion" can be taken in a general sense for any kind
|
|
|
9741 of change, even if belonging to the perfecting process of nature. Thus understanding and
|
|
|
9742 sensation are said to be passions. In this second sense, man was passible in the state of innocence, and was passive both
|
|
|
9743 in soul and body. In the first sense, man was impassible, both in soul and body, as he was likewise immortal; for he could
|
|
|
9744 curb his passion, as he could avoid death, so long as he refrained from sin.
|
|
|
9745 </p>
|
|
|
9746 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p8"> Thus it is clear how to reply to the first two objections; since sensation and sleep do not remove from man his natural disposition,
|
|
|
9747 but are ordered to his natural welfare.
|
|
|
9748 </p>
|
|
|
9749 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p9">
|
|
|
9750 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As already explained (
|
|
|
9751 <a id="FP_Q97_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q92_A3.html">Q[92], A[3]</a>, ad 2), the rib was in Adam as the principle of the human race, as the semen in man, who is a principle through generation.
|
|
|
9752 Hence as man does not suffer any natural deterioration by seminal issue; so neither did he through the separation of the rib.
|
|
|
9753 </p>
|
|
|
9754 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p10">
|
|
|
9755 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Man's body in the state of innocence could be preserved from suffering injury from a hard body; partly by the use of his
|
|
|
9756 reason, whereby he could avoid what was harmful; and partly also by Divine Providence, so preserving him, that nothing of
|
|
|
9757 a harmful nature could come upon him unawares.
|
|
|
9758 </p>
|
|
|
9759 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
9760 <p id="FP_Q97_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
9761 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9762 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
9763 </div>
|
|
|
9764 <div id="FP_Q97_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
9765 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9766 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9767 <h4 id="FP_Q97_A3-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence man had need of food?</h4>
|
|
|
9768 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9769 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p2">
|
|
|
9770 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence man did not require food. For food is necessary for man to restore what he has
|
|
|
9771 lost. But Adam's body suffered no loss, as being incorruptible. Therefore he had no need of food.
|
|
|
9772 </p>
|
|
|
9773 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p3">
|
|
|
9774 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, food is needed for nourishment. But nourishment involves passibility. Since, then, man's body was impassible; it
|
|
|
9775 does not appear how food could be needful to him.
|
|
|
9776 </p>
|
|
|
9777 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p4">
|
|
|
9778 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, we need food for the preservation of life. But Adam could preserve his life otherwise; for had he not sinned, he
|
|
|
9779 would not have died. Therefore he did not require food.
|
|
|
9780 </p>
|
|
|
9781 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p5">
|
|
|
9782 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the consumption of food involves voiding of the surplus, which seems unsuitable to the state of innocence. Therefore
|
|
|
9783 it seems that man did not take food in the primitive state.
|
|
|
9784 </p>
|
|
|
9785 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p6">
|
|
|
9786 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9787 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A3-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.16" target="asv">Gn. 2:16</a>): "Of every tree in paradise ye shall [Vulg. 'thou shalt'] eat."
|
|
|
9788 </p>
|
|
|
9789 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p7">
|
|
|
9790 <b>I answer that,</b> In the state of innocence man had an animal life requiring food; but after the resurrection he will have a spiritual life
|
|
|
9791 needing no food. In order to make this clear, we must observe that the rational soul is both soul and spirit. It is called
|
|
|
9792 a soul by reason of what it possesses in common with other souls---that is, as giving life to the body; whence it is written
|
|
|
9793 (
|
|
|
9794 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.7" target="asv">Gn. 2:7</a>): "Man was made into a living soul"; that is, a soul giving
|
|
|
9795 life to the body. But the soul is called a spirit according to what properly belongs to itself, and not to other souls, as
|
|
|
9796 possessing an intellectual immaterial power.
|
|
|
9797 </p>
|
|
|
9798 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p8"> Thus in the primitive state, the rational soul communicated to the body what belonged to itself as a soul; and so the body
|
|
|
9799 was called "animal" [*From 'anima', a soul; Cf.
|
|
|
9800 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.44" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:44 </a>seqq.], through having its life from the soul. Now the first principle of life in these inferior creatures as the Philosopher
|
|
|
9801 says (De Anima ii, 4) is the vegetative soul: the operations of which are the use of food, generation, and growth. Wherefore
|
|
|
9802 such operations befitted
|
|
|
9803 man in the state of innocence. But in the final state, after the resurrection, the soul will, to a certain extent, communicate
|
|
|
9804 to the body what properly belongs to itself as a spirit; immortality to everyone; impassibility, glory, and power to the good,
|
|
|
9805 whose bodies will be called "spiritual." So, after the resurrection, man will not require food; whereas he required it in
|
|
|
9806 the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9807 </p>
|
|
|
9808 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p9">
|
|
|
9809 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (QQ. Vet. et Nov. Test. qu. 19 [*Works of an anonymous author, among the supposititious works of St. Augustine]):
|
|
|
9810 "How could man have an immortal body, which was sustained by food? Since an immortal being needs neither food nor drink."
|
|
|
9811 For we have explained
|
|
|
9812 <a id="FP_Q97_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that the immortality of the primitive state was based on a supernatural force in the soul, and not on any intrinsic disposition
|
|
|
9813 of the body: so
|
|
|
9814 that by the action of heat, the body might lose part of its humid qualities; and to prevent the entire consumption of the
|
|
|
9815 humor, man was obliged to take food.
|
|
|
9816 </p>
|
|
|
9817 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p10">
|
|
|
9818 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A certain passion and alteration attends nutriment, on the part of the food changed into the substance of the thing nourished.
|
|
|
9819 So we cannot thence conclude that man's body was passible, but that the food taken was passible; although this kind of passion
|
|
|
9820 conduced to the perfection of the nature.
|
|
|
9821 </p>
|
|
|
9822 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p11">
|
|
|
9823 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If man had not taken food he would have sinned; as he also sinned by taking the forbidden fruit. For he was told at the same
|
|
|
9824 time, to abstain from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and to eat of every other tree of Paradise.
|
|
|
9825 </p>
|
|
|
9826 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p12">
|
|
|
9827 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Some say that in the state of innocence man would not have taken more than necessary food, so that there would have been
|
|
|
9828 nothing superfluous; which, however, is unreasonable to suppose, as implying that there would have been no faecal matter.
|
|
|
9829 Wherefore there was need for voiding the surplus, yet so disposed by God as to be decorous and suitable to the state.
|
|
|
9830 </p>
|
|
|
9831 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p13"></p>
|
|
|
9832 <p id="FP_Q97_A3-p14"></p>
|
|
|
9833 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
9834 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9835 </div>
|
|
|
9836 <div id="FP_Q97_A4" class="div4">
|
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|
9837 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
9838 <a href="summa.FP_Q98.html"></a>
|
|
|
9839 <h4 id="FP_Q97_A4-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence man would have acquired immortality by the tree of life?</h4>
|
|
|
9840 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9841 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p2">
|
|
|
9842 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the tree of life could not be the cause of immortality. For nothing can act beyond its own species; as
|
|
|
9843 an effect does not exceed its cause. But the tree of life was corruptible, otherwise it could not be taken as food; since
|
|
|
9844 food is changed into the substance of the thing nourished. Therefore the tree of life could not give incorruptibility or immortality.
|
|
|
9845 </p>
|
|
|
9846 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p3">
|
|
|
9847 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, effects caused by the forces of plants and other natural agencies are natural. If therefore the tree of life caused
|
|
|
9848 immortality, this would have been natural immortality.
|
|
|
9849 </p>
|
|
|
9850 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p4">
|
|
|
9851 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, this would seem to be reduced to the ancient fable, that the gods, by eating a certain food, became immortal; which
|
|
|
9852 the Philosopher ridicules (Metaph. iii, Did. ii, 4).
|
|
|
9853 </p>
|
|
|
9854 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p5">
|
|
|
9855 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9856 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q97_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.3.22" target="asv">Gn. 3:22</a>): "Lest perhaps he put forth his hand, and take of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever." Further, Augustine says
|
|
|
9857 (QQ. Vet. et Nov. Test. qu. 19 [*Work of an anonymous author, among the supposititious works of St. Augustine]): "A taste
|
|
|
9858 of the tree of life warded off corruption of the body; and even after sin man would have remained immortal, had he been allowed
|
|
|
9859 to eat of the tree of life."
|
|
|
9860 </p>
|
|
|
9861 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p6">
|
|
|
9862 <b>I answer that,</b> The tree of life in a certain degree was the cause of immortality, but not absolutely. To understand this, we must observe
|
|
|
9863 that in the primitive state man possessed, for the preservation of life, two remedies, against two defects. One of these defects
|
|
|
9864 was the lost of humidity by the action of natural heat, which acts as the soul's instrument: as a remedy against such loss
|
|
|
9865 man was provided with food, taken from the other trees of paradise, as now we are
|
|
|
9866 provided with the food, which we take for the same purpose. The second defect, as the Philosopher says (De Gener. i, 5), arises
|
|
|
9867 from the fact that the humor which is caused from extraneous sources, being added to the humor already existing, lessens the
|
|
|
9868 specific active power: as water added to wine takes at first the taste of wine, then, as more water is added, the strength
|
|
|
9869 of the wine is diminished, till the wine becomes watery. In like manner, we may observe that at first the active force of
|
|
|
9870 the species is so strong that it is able to transform so much of the food as is required to replace the lost tissue, as well
|
|
|
9871 as what suffices for growth; later on, however, the assimilated food does not suffice for growth, but only replaces what is
|
|
|
9872 lost. Last of all, in old age, it does not suffice even for this purpose; whereupon the body declines, and finally dies from
|
|
|
9873 natural causes. Against this defect man was provided with a remedy in the tree of life; for its effect was to strengthen the
|
|
|
9874 force of the species against the weakness resulting from the admixture of extraneous nutriment. Wherefore Augustine says (De
|
|
|
9875 Civ. Dei xiv, 26): "Man had food to appease his hunger, drink to slake his thirst; and the tree of life to banish the breaking
|
|
|
9876 up of old age"; and (QQ. Vet. et Nov. Test. qu. 19 [*Work of an anonymous author, among the supposititious works of St. Augustine])
|
|
|
9877 "The tree of life, like a drug, warded off all bodily corruption."
|
|
|
9878 </p>
|
|
|
9879 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p7"> Yet it did not absolutely cause immortality; for neither was the soul's intrinsic power of preserving the body due to the
|
|
|
9880 tree of life, nor was it of such efficiency as to give the body a disposition to immortality, whereby it might become indissoluble;
|
|
|
9881 which is clear from the fact that every bodily power is finite; so the power of the tree of life could not go so far as to
|
|
|
9882 give the body the prerogative of living for an infinite time, but only for a definite time. For it is
|
|
|
9883 manifest that the greater a force is, the more durable is its effect; therefore, since the power of the tree of life was finite,
|
|
|
9884 man's life was to be preserved for a definite time by partaking of it once; and when that time had elapsed, man was to be
|
|
|
9885 either transferred to a spiritual life, or had need to eat once more of the tree of life.
|
|
|
9886 </p>
|
|
|
9887 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p8"> From this the replies to the objections clearly appear. For the first proves that the tree of life did not absolutely cause
|
|
|
9888 immortality; while the others show that it caused incorruption by warding off corruption, according to the explanation above
|
|
|
9889 given.
|
|
|
9890 </p>
|
|
|
9891 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p9"></p>
|
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|
9892 <p id="FP_Q97_A4-p10"></p>
|
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|
9893 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
9894 <a href="summa.FP_Q98.html"></a>
|
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|
9895 </div>
|
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|
9896 <a href="summa.FP_Q96_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9897 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9898 </div>
|
|
|
9899 <div id="FP_Q98" class="div3">
|
|
|
9900 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
9901 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9902 <h3 id="FP_Q98-p0.1">OF THE PRESERVATION OF THE SPECIES (TWO ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
9903 <p id="FP_Q98-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9904 <p id="FP_Q98-p2"> We next consider what belongs to the preservation of the species; and, first, of generation; secondly, of the state of the
|
|
|
9905 offspring. Under the first head there are two points of inquiry:
|
|
|
9906 </p>
|
|
|
9907 <p id="FP_Q98-p3"> (1) Whether in the state of innocence there would have been generation?</p>
|
|
|
9908 <p id="FP_Q98-p4"> (2) Whether generation would have been through coition?</p>
|
|
|
9909 <div id="FP_Q98_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
9910 <a href="summa.FP_Q98.html"></a>
|
|
|
9911 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9912 <h4 id="FP_Q98_A1-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence generation existed?</h4>
|
|
|
9913 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9914 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p2">
|
|
|
9915 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem there would have been no generation in the state of innocence. For, as stated in Phys. v, 5, "corruption is
|
|
|
9916 contrary to generation." But contraries affect the same subject: also there would have been no corruption in the state of
|
|
|
9917 innocence. Therefore neither would there have been generation.
|
|
|
9918 </p>
|
|
|
9919 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p3">
|
|
|
9920 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the object of generation is the preservation in the species of that which is corruptible in the individual. Wherefore
|
|
|
9921 there is no generation in those individual things which last for ever. But in the state of innocence man would have lived
|
|
|
9922 for ever. Therefore in the state of innocence there would have been no generation.
|
|
|
9923 </p>
|
|
|
9924 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p4">
|
|
|
9925 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by generation man is multiplied. But the multiplication of masters requires the division of property, to avoid confusion
|
|
|
9926 of mastership. Therefore, since man was made master of the animals, it would have been necessary to make a division of rights
|
|
|
9927 when the human race increased by generation. This is against the natural law, according to which all things are in common,
|
|
|
9928 as Isidore says (Etym. v, 4). Therefore there would have been no generation in the
|
|
|
9929 state of innocence.
|
|
|
9930 </p>
|
|
|
9931 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p5">
|
|
|
9932 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
9933 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.28" target="asv">Gn. 1:28</a>): "Increase and multiply, and fill the earth." But this increase could not come about save by generation, since the original
|
|
|
9934 number of mankind was two only. Therefore there would have been generation in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9935 </p>
|
|
|
9936 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p6">
|
|
|
9937 <b>I answer that,</b> In the state of innocence there would have been generation of offspring for the multiplication of the human race; otherwise
|
|
|
9938 man's sin would have been very necessary, for such a great blessing to be its result. We must, therefore, observe that man,
|
|
|
9939 by his nature, is established, as it were, midway between corruptible and incorruptible creatures, his soul being naturally
|
|
|
9940 incorruptible, while his body is naturally corruptible. We must also observe that nature's
|
|
|
9941 purpose appears to be different as regards corruptible and incorruptible things. For that seems to be the direct purpose of
|
|
|
9942 nature, which is invariable and perpetual; while what is only for a time is seemingly not the chief purpose of nature, but
|
|
|
9943 as it were, subordinate to something else; otherwise, when it ceased to exist, nature's purpose would become void.
|
|
|
9944 </p>
|
|
|
9945 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p7"> Therefore, since in things corruptible none is everlasting and permanent except the species, it follows that the chief purpose
|
|
|
9946 of nature is the good of the species; for the preservation of which natural generation is ordained. On the other hand, incorruptible
|
|
|
9947 substances survive, not only in the species, but also in the individual; wherefore even the individuals are included in the
|
|
|
9948 chief purpose of nature.
|
|
|
9949 </p>
|
|
|
9950 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p8"> Hence it belongs to man to beget offspring, on the part of the naturally corruptible body. But on the part of the soul, which
|
|
|
9951 is incorruptible, it is fitting that the multitude of individuals should be the direct purpose of nature, or rather of the
|
|
|
9952 Author of nature, Who alone is the Creator of the human soul. Wherefore, to provide for the multiplication of the human race,
|
|
|
9953 He established the begetting of offspring even in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
9954 </p>
|
|
|
9955 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p9">
|
|
|
9956 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the state of innocence the human body was in itself corruptible, but it could be preserved from corruption by the soul.
|
|
|
9957 Therefore, since generation belongs to things corruptible, man was not to be deprived thereof.
|
|
|
9958 </p>
|
|
|
9959 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p10">
|
|
|
9960 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although generation in the state of innocence might not have been required for the preservation of the species, yet it would
|
|
|
9961 have been required for the multiplication of the individual.
|
|
|
9962 </p>
|
|
|
9963 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p11">
|
|
|
9964 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In our present state a division of possessions is necessary on account of the multiplicity of masters, inasmuch as community
|
|
|
9965 of possession is a source of strife, as the Philosopher says (Politic. ii, 5). In the state of innocence, however, the will
|
|
|
9966 of men would have been so ordered that without any danger of strife they would have used in common, according to each one's
|
|
|
9967 need, those things of which they were masters---a state of things to be observed
|
|
|
9968 even now among many good men.
|
|
|
9969 </p>
|
|
|
9970 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
9971 <p id="FP_Q98_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
9972 <a href="summa.FP_Q98.html"></a>
|
|
|
9973 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
9974 </div>
|
|
|
9975 <div id="FP_Q98_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
9976 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
9977 <a href="summa.FP_Q99.html"></a>
|
|
|
9978 <h4 id="FP_Q98_A2-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence there would have been generation by coition?</h4>
|
|
|
9979 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
9980 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p2">
|
|
|
9981 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that generation by coition would not have existed in the state of innocence. For, as Damascene says (De Fide
|
|
|
9982 Orth. ii, 11; iv, 25), the first man in the terrestrial Paradise was "like an angel." But in the future state of the resurrection,
|
|
|
9983 when men will be like the angels, "they shall neither marry nor be married," as is written
|
|
|
9984 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.30" target="asv">Mat. 22:30</a>. Therefore neither in paradise would there have been generation by coition.
|
|
|
9985 </p>
|
|
|
9986 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p3">
|
|
|
9987 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, our first parents were created at the age of perfect development. Therefore, if generation by coition had existed
|
|
|
9988 before sin, they would have had intercourse while still in paradise: which was not the case according to Scripture (
|
|
|
9989 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.4.1" target="asv">Gn. 4:1</a>).
|
|
|
9990 </p>
|
|
|
9991 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p4">
|
|
|
9992 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in carnal intercourse, more than at any other time, man becomes like the beasts, on account of the vehement delight
|
|
|
9993 which he takes therein; whence contingency is praiseworthy, whereby man refrains from such pleasures. But man is compared
|
|
|
9994 to beasts by reason of sin, according to
|
|
|
9995 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.48.13" target="asv"> Ps. 48:13</a>: "Man, when he was in honor, did not understand; he is compared to senseless beasts, and is become like to them." Therefore,
|
|
|
9996 before sin, there
|
|
|
9997 would have been no such intercourse of man and woman.
|
|
|
9998 </p>
|
|
|
9999 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p5">
|
|
|
10000 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, in the state of innocence there would have been no corruption. But virginal integrity is corrupted by intercourse.
|
|
|
10001 Therefore there would have been no such thing in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
10002 </p>
|
|
|
10003 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p6">
|
|
|
10004 <b>On the contrary,</b> God made man and woman before sin (
|
|
|
10005 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1" target="asv">Gn. 1</a>,
|
|
|
10006 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Gen.2" target="asv">2</a>). But nothing is void in God's works. Therefore, even if man had not sinned, there would have been such intercourse, to which
|
|
|
10007 the distinction of sex is ordained. Moreover, we are told that woman was made to be a help to man (
|
|
|
10008 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.18" target="asv">Gn. 2:18</a>,
|
|
|
10009 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q98_A2-p6.4" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.20" target="asv">20</a>). But she is not fitted to help man except in generation, because another man would have proved a more effective help in
|
|
|
10010 anything else. Therefore there would
|
|
|
10011 have been such generation also in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
10012 </p>
|
|
|
10013 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p7">
|
|
|
10014 <b>I answer that,</b> Some of the earlier doctors, considering the nature of concupiscence as regards generation in our present state, concluded
|
|
|
10015 that in the state of innocence generation would not have been effected in the same way. Thus Gregory of Nyssa says (De Hom.
|
|
|
10016 Opif. xvii) that in paradise the human race would have been multiplied by some other means, as the angels were multiplied
|
|
|
10017 without coition by the operation of the Divine Power. He adds that God made man male and
|
|
|
10018 female before sin, because He foreknew the mode of generation which would take place after sin, which He foresaw. But this
|
|
|
10019 is unreasonable. For what is natural to man was neither acquired nor forfeited by sin. Now it is clear that generation by
|
|
|
10020 coition is natural to man by reason of his animal life, which he possessed even before sin, as above explained (
|
|
|
10021 <a id="FP_Q98_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A3.html">Q[97], A[3]</a>), just as it is natural to other perfect animals, as the corporeal members make it clear. So we cannot
|
|
|
10022 allow that these members would not have had a natural use, as other members had, before sin.
|
|
|
10023 </p>
|
|
|
10024 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p8"> Thus, as regards generation by coition, there are, in the present state of life, two things to be considered. One, which
|
|
|
10025 comes from nature, is the union of man and woman; for in every act of generation there is an active and a passive principle.
|
|
|
10026 Wherefore, since wherever there is distinction of sex, the active principle is male and the passive is female; the order of
|
|
|
10027 nature demands that for the purpose of generation there should be concurrence of male and female. The second
|
|
|
10028 thing to be observed is a certain deformity of excessive concupiscence, which in the state of innocence would not have existed,
|
|
|
10029 when the lower powers were entirely subject to reason. Wherefore Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 26): "We must be far from
|
|
|
10030 supposing that offspring could not be begotten without concupiscence. All the bodily members would have been equally moved
|
|
|
10031 by the will, without ardent or wanton incentive, with calmness of soul and body."
|
|
|
10032 </p>
|
|
|
10033 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p9">
|
|
|
10034 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In paradise man would have been like an angel in his spirituality of mind, yet with an animal life in his body. After the
|
|
|
10035 resurrection man will be like an angel, spiritualized in soul and body. Wherefore there is no parallel.
|
|
|
10036 </p>
|
|
|
10037 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p10">
|
|
|
10038 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ix, 4), our first parents did not come together in paradise, because on account of sin they
|
|
|
10039 were ejected from paradise shortly after the creation of the woman; or because, having received the general Divine command
|
|
|
10040 relative to generation, they awaited the special command relative to time.
|
|
|
10041 </p>
|
|
|
10042 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p11">
|
|
|
10043 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Beasts are without reason. In this way man becomes, as it were, like them in coition, because he cannot moderate concupiscence.
|
|
|
10044 In the state of innocence nothing of this kind would have happened that was not regulated by reason, not because delight of
|
|
|
10045 sense was less, as some say (rather indeed would sensible delight have been the greater in proportion to the greater purity
|
|
|
10046 of nature and the greater sensibility of the body), but because the force of
|
|
|
10047 concupiscence would not have so inordinately thrown itself into such pleasure, being curbed by reason, whose place it is not
|
|
|
10048 to lessen sensual pleasure, but to prevent the force of concupiscence from cleaving to it immoderately. By "immoderately"
|
|
|
10049 I mean going beyond the bounds of reason, as a sober person does not take less pleasure in food taken in moderation than the
|
|
|
10050 glutton, but his concupiscence lingers less in such pleasures. This is what Augustine means by the words quoted, which do
|
|
|
10051 not
|
|
|
10052 exclude intensity of pleasure from the state of innocence, but ardor of desire and restlessness of the mind. Therefore continence
|
|
|
10053 would not have been praiseworthy in the state of innocence, whereas it is praiseworthy in our present state, not because it
|
|
|
10054 removes fecundity, but because it excludes inordinate desire. In that state fecundity would have been without lust.
|
|
|
10055 </p>
|
|
|
10056 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p12">
|
|
|
10057 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 26): In that state "intercourse would have been without prejudice to virginal integrity;
|
|
|
10058 this would have remained intact, as it does in the menses. And just as in giving birth the mother was then relieved, not by
|
|
|
10059 groans of pain, but by the instigations of maturity; so in conceiving, the union was one, not of lustful desire, but of deliberate
|
|
|
10060 action."
|
|
|
10061 </p>
|
|
|
10062 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
10063 <p id="FP_Q98_A2-p14"></p>
|
|
|
10064 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10065 <a href="summa.FP_Q99.html"></a>
|
|
|
10066 </div>
|
|
|
10067 <a href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
10068 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10069 </div>
|
|
|
10070 <div id="FP_Q99" class="div3">
|
|
|
10071 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10072 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10073 <h3 id="FP_Q99-p0.1">OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS TO THE BODY (TWO ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
10074 <p id="FP_Q99-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10075 <p id="FP_Q99-p2"> We must now consider the condition of the offspring---first, as regards the body; secondly, as regards virtue; thirdly, in
|
|
|
10076 knowledge. Under the first head there are two points of inquiry:
|
|
|
10077 </p>
|
|
|
10078 <p id="FP_Q99-p3"> (1) Whether in the state of innocence children would have had full powers of the body immediately after birth?</p>
|
|
|
10079 <p id="FP_Q99-p4"> (2) Whether all infants would have been of the male sex?</p>
|
|
|
10080 <div id="FP_Q99_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
10081 <a href="summa.FP_Q99.html"></a>
|
|
|
10082 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10083 <h4 id="FP_Q99_A1-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence children would have had perfect strength of body as to the use of its members immediately
|
|
|
10084 after birth?
|
|
|
10085 </h4>
|
|
|
10086 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10087 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p2">
|
|
|
10088 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence children would have had perfect strength of the body, as to the use of its members,
|
|
|
10089 immediately after birth. For Augustine says (De Pecc. Merit. et Remiss. i, 38): "This weakness of the body befits their weakness
|
|
|
10090 of mind." But in the state of innocence there would have been no weakness of mind. Therefore neither would there have been
|
|
|
10091 weakness of body in infants.
|
|
|
10092 </p>
|
|
|
10093 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p3">
|
|
|
10094 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, some animals at birth have sufficient strength to use their members. But man is nobler than other animals. Therefore
|
|
|
10095 much more is it natural to man to have strength to use his members at birth; and thus it appears to be a punishment of sin
|
|
|
10096 that he has not that strength.
|
|
|
10097 </p>
|
|
|
10098 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p4">
|
|
|
10099 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, inability to secure a proffered pleasure causes affliction. But if children had not full strength in the use of
|
|
|
10100 their limbs, they would often have been unable to procure something pleasurable offered to them; and so they would have been
|
|
|
10101 afflicted, which was not possible before sin. Therefore, in the state of innocence, children would not have been deprived
|
|
|
10102 of the use of their limbs.
|
|
|
10103 </p>
|
|
|
10104 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p5">
|
|
|
10105 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the weakness of old age seems to correspond to that of infancy. But in the state of innocence there would have been
|
|
|
10106 no weakness of old age. Therefore neither would there have been such weakness in infancy.
|
|
|
10107 </p>
|
|
|
10108 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p6">
|
|
|
10109 <b>On the contrary,</b> Everything generated is first imperfect. But in the state of innocence children would have been begotten by generation. Therefore
|
|
|
10110 from the first they would have been imperfect in bodily size and power.
|
|
|
10111 </p>
|
|
|
10112 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p7">
|
|
|
10113 <b>I answer that,</b> By faith alone do we hold truths which are above nature, and what we believe rests on authority. Wherefore, in making any
|
|
|
10114 assertion, we must be guided by the nature of things, except in those things which are above nature, and are made known to
|
|
|
10115 us by Divine authority. Now it is clear that it is as natural as it is befitting to the principles of human nature that children
|
|
|
10116 should not have sufficient strength for the use of their limbs immediately after birth.
|
|
|
10117 Because in proportion to other animals man has naturally a larger brain. Wherefore it is natural, on account of the considerable
|
|
|
10118 humidity of the brain in children, that the nerves which are instruments of movement, should not be apt for moving the limbs.
|
|
|
10119 On the other hand, no Catholic doubts it possible for a child to have, by Divine power, the use of its limbs immediately after
|
|
|
10120 birth.
|
|
|
10121 </p>
|
|
|
10122 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p8"> Now we have it on the authority of Scripture that "God made man right" (
|
|
|
10123 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q99_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.30" target="asv">Eccles. 7:30</a>), which rightness, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 11), consists in the perfect subjection of the body to the soul. As,
|
|
|
10124 therefore, in the primitive state it was impossible to find in the human limbs anything repugnant to man's well-ordered will,
|
|
|
10125 so was it impossible for those limbs to fail in executing the will's commands. Now the human will is well ordered when it
|
|
|
10126 tends
|
|
|
10127 to acts which are befitting to man. But the same acts are not befitting to man at every season of life. We must, therefore,
|
|
|
10128 conclude that children would not have had sufficient strength for the use of their limbs for the purpose of performing every
|
|
|
10129 kind of act; but only for the acts befitting the state of infancy, such as suckling, and the like.
|
|
|
10130 </p>
|
|
|
10131 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p9">
|
|
|
10132 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of the weakness which we observe in children even as regards those acts which befit the state of infancy;
|
|
|
10133 as is clear from his preceding remark that "even when close to the breast, and longing for it, they are more apt to cry than
|
|
|
10134 to suckle."
|
|
|
10135 </p>
|
|
|
10136 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p10">
|
|
|
10137 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The fact that some animals have the use of their limbs immediately after birth, is due, not to their superiority, since more
|
|
|
10138 perfect animals are not so endowed; but to the dryness of the brain, and to the operations proper to such animals being imperfect,
|
|
|
10139 so that a small amount of strength suffices them.
|
|
|
10140 </p>
|
|
|
10141 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p11"> Reply OBJ 3 is clear from what we have said above. We may add that they would have desired nothing except with an ordinate
|
|
|
10142 will; and only what was befitting to their state of life.
|
|
|
10143 </p>
|
|
|
10144 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p12">
|
|
|
10145 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> In the state of innocence man would have been born, yet not subject to corruption. Therefore in that state there could have
|
|
|
10146 been certain infantile defects which result from birth; but not senile defects leading to corruption.
|
|
|
10147 </p>
|
|
|
10148 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p13"></p>
|
|
|
10149 <p id="FP_Q99_A1-p14"></p>
|
|
|
10150 <a href="summa.FP_Q99.html"></a>
|
|
|
10151 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10152 </div>
|
|
|
10153 <div id="FP_Q99_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
10154 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10155 <a href="summa.FP_Q100.html"></a>
|
|
|
10156 <h4 id="FP_Q99_A2-p0.1">Whether, in the primitive state, women would have been born?</h4>
|
|
|
10157 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10158 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p2">
|
|
|
10159 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the primitive state woman would not have been born. For the Philosopher says (De Gener. Animal. ii,
|
|
|
10160 3) that woman is a "misbegotten male," as though she were a product outside the purpose of nature. But in that state nothing
|
|
|
10161 would have been unnatural in human generation. Therefore in that state women would not have been born.
|
|
|
10162 </p>
|
|
|
10163 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p3">
|
|
|
10164 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every agent produces its like, unless prevented by insufficient power or ineptness of matter: thus a small fire
|
|
|
10165 cannot burn green wood. But in generation the active force is in the male. Since, therefore, in the state of innocence man's
|
|
|
10166 active force was not subject to defect, nor was there inept matter on the part of the woman, it seems that males would always
|
|
|
10167 have been born.
|
|
|
10168 </p>
|
|
|
10169 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p4">
|
|
|
10170 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in the state of innocence generation is ordered to the multiplication of the human race. But the race would have
|
|
|
10171 been sufficiently multiplied by the first man and woman, from the fact that they would have lived for ever. Therefore, in
|
|
|
10172 the state of innocence, there was no need for women to be born.
|
|
|
10173 </p>
|
|
|
10174 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p5">
|
|
|
10175 <b>On the contrary,</b> Nature's process in generation would have been in harmony with the manner in which it was established by God. But established
|
|
|
10176 male and female in human nature, as it is written (
|
|
|
10177 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q99_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1" target="asv">Gn. 1</a>,
|
|
|
10178 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q99_A2-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Gen.2" target="asv">2</a>). Therefore also in the state of innocence male and female would have been born.
|
|
|
10179 </p>
|
|
|
10180 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p6">
|
|
|
10181 <b>I answer that,</b> Nothing belonging to the completeness of human nature would have been lacking in the state of innocence. And as different
|
|
|
10182 grades belong to the perfection of the universe, so also diversity of sex belongs to the perfection of human nature. Therefore
|
|
|
10183 in the state of innocence, both sexes would have been begotten.
|
|
|
10184 </p>
|
|
|
10185 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p7">
|
|
|
10186 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Woman is said to be a "misbegotten male," as being a product outside the purpose of nature considered in the individual case:
|
|
|
10187 but not against the purpose of universal nature, as above explained (
|
|
|
10188 <a id="FP_Q99_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q92_A1.html">Q[92], A[1]</a>, ad 2).
|
|
|
10189 </p>
|
|
|
10190 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p8">
|
|
|
10191 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The generation of woman is not occasioned either by a defect of the active force or by inept matter, as the objection proposes;
|
|
|
10192 but sometimes by an extrinsic accidental cause; thus the Philosopher says (De Animal. Histor. vi, 19): "The northern wind
|
|
|
10193 favors the generation of males, and the southern wind that of females": sometimes also by some impression in the soul (of
|
|
|
10194 the parents), which may easily have some effect on the body (of the child).
|
|
|
10195 Especially was this the case in the state of innocence, when the body was more subject to the soul; so that by the mere will
|
|
|
10196 of the parent the sex of the offspring might be diversified.
|
|
|
10197 </p>
|
|
|
10198 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p9">
|
|
|
10199 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The offspring would have been begotten to an animal life, as to the use of food and generation. Hence it was fitting that
|
|
|
10200 all should generate, and not only the first parents. From this it seems to follow that males and females would have been in
|
|
|
10201 equal number.
|
|
|
10202 </p>
|
|
|
10203 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
10204 <p id="FP_Q99_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
10205 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10206 <a href="summa.FP_Q100.html"></a>
|
|
|
10207 </div>
|
|
|
10208 <a href="summa.FP_Q98_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10209 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10210 </div>
|
|
|
10211 <div id="FP_Q100" class="div3">
|
|
|
10212 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10213 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10214 <h3 id="FP_Q100-p0.1">OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS REGARDS RIGHTEOUSNESS (TWO ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
10215 <p id="FP_Q100-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10216 <p id="FP_Q100-p2"> We now have to consider the condition of the offspring as to righteousness. Under this head there are two points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
10217 <p id="FP_Q100-p3"> (1) Whether men would have been born in a state of righteousness?</p>
|
|
|
10218 <p id="FP_Q100-p4"> (2) Whether they would have been born confirmed in righteousness?</p>
|
|
|
10219 <div id="FP_Q100_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
10220 <a href="summa.FP_Q100.html"></a>
|
|
|
10221 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10222 <h4 id="FP_Q100_A1-p0.1">Whether men would have been born in a state of righteousness?</h4>
|
|
|
10223 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10224 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p2">
|
|
|
10225 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence men would not have been born in a state of righteousness. For Hugh of St. Victor
|
|
|
10226 says (De Sacram. i): "Before sin the first man would have begotten children sinless; but not heirs to their father's righteousness."
|
|
|
10227 </p>
|
|
|
10228 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p3">
|
|
|
10229 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, righteousness is effected by grace, as the Apostle says (
|
|
|
10230 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q100_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.16" target="asv">Rom. 5:16</a>,
|
|
|
10231 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q100_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.21" target="asv">21</a>). Now grace is not transfused from one to another, for thus it would be natural; but is infused by God alone. Therefore children
|
|
|
10232 would not have been born righteous.
|
|
|
10233 </p>
|
|
|
10234 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p4">
|
|
|
10235 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, righteousness is in the soul. But the soul is not transmitted from the parent. Therefore neither would righteousness
|
|
|
10236 have been transmitted from parents, to the children.
|
|
|
10237 </p>
|
|
|
10238 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p5">
|
|
|
10239 <b>On the contrary,</b> Anselm says (De Concep. Virg. x): "As long as man did not sin, he would have begotten children endowed with righteousness
|
|
|
10240 together with the rational soul."
|
|
|
10241 </p>
|
|
|
10242 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p6">
|
|
|
10243 <b>I answer that,</b> Man naturally begets a specific likeness to himself. Hence whatever accidental qualities result from the nature of the species,
|
|
|
10244 must be alike in parent and child, unless nature fails in its operation, which would not have occurred in the state of innocence.
|
|
|
10245 But individual accidents do not necessarily exist alike in parent and child. Now original righteousness, in which the first
|
|
|
10246 man was created, was an accident pertaining to the nature of the species, not as
|
|
|
10247 caused by the principles of the species, but as a gift conferred by God on the entire human nature. This is clear from the
|
|
|
10248 fact that opposites are of the same genus; and original sin, which is opposed to original righteousness, is called the sin
|
|
|
10249 of nature, wherefore it is transmitted from the parent to the offspring; and for this reason also, the children would have
|
|
|
10250 been assimilated to their parents as regards original righteousness.
|
|
|
10251 </p>
|
|
|
10252 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p7">
|
|
|
10253 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> These words of Hugh are to be understood as referring, not to the habit of righteousness, but to the execution of the act
|
|
|
10254 thereof.
|
|
|
10255 </p>
|
|
|
10256 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p8">
|
|
|
10257 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Some say that children would have been born, not with the righteousness of grace, which is the principle of merit, but with
|
|
|
10258 original righteousness. But since the root of original righteousness, which conferred righteousness on the first man when
|
|
|
10259 he was made, consists in the supernatural subjection of the reason to God, which subjection results from sanctifying grace,
|
|
|
10260 as above explained (
|
|
|
10261 <a id="FP_Q100_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html">Q[95], A[1]</a>), we must conclude that if
|
|
|
10262 children were born in original righteousness, they would also have been born in grace; thus we have said above that the first
|
|
|
10263 man was created in grace (
|
|
|
10264 <a id="FP_Q100_A1-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html">Q[95], A[1]</a>). This grace, however, would not have been natural, for it would not have been transfused by virtue of the semen; but would
|
|
|
10265 have been conferred on man immediately on his receiving a rational soul. In the same way the rational soul, which is not transmitted
|
|
|
10266 by the parent, is infused by God as soon as the human
|
|
|
10267 body is apt to receive it.
|
|
|
10268 </p>
|
|
|
10269 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p9"> From this the reply to the third objection is clear.</p>
|
|
|
10270 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
10271 <p id="FP_Q100_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
10272 <a href="summa.FP_Q100.html"></a>
|
|
|
10273 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10274 </div>
|
|
|
10275 <div id="FP_Q100_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
10276 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10277 <a href="summa.FP_Q101.html"></a>
|
|
|
10278 <h4 id="FP_Q100_A2-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence children would have been born confirmed in righteousness?</h4>
|
|
|
10279 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10280 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p2">
|
|
|
10281 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence children would have been born confirmed in righteousness. For Gregory says (Moral.
|
|
|
10282 iv) on the words of
|
|
|
10283 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q100_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Job.3.13" target="asv"> Job 3:13</a>: "For now I should have been asleep, etc.: If no sinful corruption had infected our first parent, he would not have begotten
|
|
|
10284 "children of hell"; no children would have been born of him but such as were destined to be saved by the Redeemer." Therefore
|
|
|
10285 all would have been born confirmed
|
|
|
10286 in righteousness.
|
|
|
10287 </p>
|
|
|
10288 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p3">
|
|
|
10289 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Anselm says (Cur Deus Homo i, 18): "If our first parents had lived so as not to yield to temptation, they would
|
|
|
10290 have been confirmed in grace, so that with their offspring they would have been unable to sin any more." Therefore the children
|
|
|
10291 would have been born confirmed in righteousness.
|
|
|
10292 </p>
|
|
|
10293 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p4">
|
|
|
10294 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, good is stronger than evil. But by the sin of the first man there resulted, in those born of him, the necessity
|
|
|
10295 of sin. Therefore, if the first man had persevered in righteousness, his descendants would have derived from him the necessity
|
|
|
10296 of preserving righteousness.
|
|
|
10297 </p>
|
|
|
10298 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p5">
|
|
|
10299 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the angels who remained faithful to God, while the others sinned, were at once confirmed in grace, so as to be unable
|
|
|
10300 henceforth to sin. In like manner, therefore, man would have been confirmed in grace if he had persevered. But he would have
|
|
|
10301 begotten children like himself. Therefore they also would have been born confirmed in righteousness.
|
|
|
10302 </p>
|
|
|
10303 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p6">
|
|
|
10304 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 10): "Happy would have been the whole human race if neither they---that is our first parents---had
|
|
|
10305 committed any evil to be transmitted to their descendants, nor any of their race had committed any sin for which they would
|
|
|
10306 have been condemned." From which words we gather that even if our first parents had not sinned, any of their descendants might
|
|
|
10307 have done evil; and therefore they would not have been born confirmed in
|
|
|
10308 righteousness.
|
|
|
10309 </p>
|
|
|
10310 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p7">
|
|
|
10311 <b>I answer that,</b> It does not seem possible that in the state of innocence children would have been born confirmed in righteousness. For it
|
|
|
10312 is clear that at their birth they would not have had greater perfection than their parents at the time of begetting. Now the
|
|
|
10313 parents, as long as they begot children, would not have been confirmed in righteousness. For the rational creature is confirmed
|
|
|
10314 in righteousness through the beatitude given by the clear vision of God; and when once
|
|
|
10315 it has seen God, it cannot but cleave to Him Who is the essence of goodness, wherefrom no one can turn away, since nothing
|
|
|
10316 is desired or loved but under the aspect of good. I say this according to the general law; for it may be otherwise in the
|
|
|
10317 case of special privilege, such as we believe was granted to the Virgin Mother of God. And as soon as Adam had attained to
|
|
|
10318 that happy state of seeing God in His Essence, he would have become spiritual in soul and body; and his animal life would
|
|
|
10319 have
|
|
|
10320 ceased, wherein alone there is generation. Hence it is clear that children would not have been born confirmed in righteousness.
|
|
|
10321 </p>
|
|
|
10322 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p8">
|
|
|
10323 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If Adam had not sinned, he would not have begotten "children of hell" in the sense that they would contract from him sin
|
|
|
10324 which is the cause of hell: yet by sinning of their own free-will they could have become "children of hell." If, however,
|
|
|
10325 they did not become "children of hell" by falling into sin, this would not have been owing to their being confirmed in righteousness,
|
|
|
10326 but to Divine Providence preserving them free from sin.
|
|
|
10327 </p>
|
|
|
10328 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p9">
|
|
|
10329 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Anselm does not say this by way of assertion, but only as an opinion, which is clear from his mode of expression as follows:
|
|
|
10330 "It seems that if they had lived, etc."
|
|
|
10331 </p>
|
|
|
10332 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p10">
|
|
|
10333 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument is not conclusive, though Anselm seems to have been influenced by it, as appears from his words above quoted.
|
|
|
10334 For the necessity of sin incurred by the descendants would not have been such that they could not return to righteousness,
|
|
|
10335 which is the case only with the damned. Wherefore neither would the parents have transmitted to their descendants the necessity
|
|
|
10336 of not sinning, which is only in the blessed.
|
|
|
10337 </p>
|
|
|
10338 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p11">
|
|
|
10339 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> There is no comparison between man and the angels; for man's free-will is changeable, both before and after choice; whereas
|
|
|
10340 the angel's is not changeable, as we have said above in treating of the angels (
|
|
|
10341 <a id="FP_Q100_A2-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q64_A2.html">Q[64], A[2]</a>).
|
|
|
10342 </p>
|
|
|
10343 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
10344 <p id="FP_Q100_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
10345 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10346 <a href="summa.FP_Q101.html"></a>
|
|
|
10347 </div>
|
|
|
10348 <a href="summa.FP_Q99_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10349 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10350 </div>
|
|
|
10351 <div id="FP_Q101" class="div3">
|
|
|
10352 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10353 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10354 <h3 id="FP_Q101-p0.1">OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS REGARDS KNOWLEDGE (TWO ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
10355 <p id="FP_Q101-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10356 <p id="FP_Q101-p2"> We next consider the condition of the offspring as to knowledge. Under this head there are two points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
10357 <p id="FP_Q101-p3"> (1) Whether in the state of innocence children would have been born with perfect knowledge?</p>
|
|
|
10358 <p id="FP_Q101-p4"> (2) Whether they would have had perfect use of reason at the moment of birth?</p>
|
|
|
10359 <div id="FP_Q101_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
10360 <a href="summa.FP_Q101.html"></a>
|
|
|
10361 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10362 <h4 id="FP_Q101_A1-p0.1">Whether in the state of innocence children would have been born with perfect knowledge?</h4>
|
|
|
10363 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10364 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p2">
|
|
|
10365 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the state of innocence children would have been born with perfect knowledge. For Adam would have begotten
|
|
|
10366 children like himself. But Adam was gifted with perfect knowledge (
|
|
|
10367 <a id="FP_Q101_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q94_A3.html">Q[94], A[3]</a>). Therefore children would have been born of him with perfect knowledge.
|
|
|
10368 </p>
|
|
|
10369 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p3">
|
|
|
10370 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, ignorance is a result of sin, as Bede says (Cf. FS,
|
|
|
10371 <a id="FP_Q101_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A3.html">Q[85], A[3]</a>). But ignorance is privation of knowledge. Therefore before sin children would have had perfect knowledge as soon as they
|
|
|
10372 were born.
|
|
|
10373 </p>
|
|
|
10374 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p4">
|
|
|
10375 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, children would have been gifted with righteousness from birth. But knowledge is required for righteousness, since
|
|
|
10376 it directs our actions. Therefore they would also have been gifted with knowledge.
|
|
|
10377 </p>
|
|
|
10378 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p5">
|
|
|
10379 <b>On the contrary,</b> The human soul is naturally "like a blank tablet on which nothing is written," as the Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 4).
|
|
|
10380 But the nature of the soul is the same now as it would have been in the state of innocence. Therefore the souls of children
|
|
|
10381 would have been without knowledge at birth.
|
|
|
10382 </p>
|
|
|
10383 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p6">
|
|
|
10384 <b>I answer that,</b> As above stated (
|
|
|
10385 <a id="FP_Q101_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html">Q[99], A[1]</a>), as regards belief in matters which are above nature, we rely on authority alone; and so, when authority is wanting, we
|
|
|
10386 must be guided by the ordinary course of nature. Now it is natural for man to acquire knowledge through the senses, as above
|
|
|
10387 explained (
|
|
|
10388 <a id="FP_Q101_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q55_A2.html">Q[55], A[2]</a>;
|
|
|
10389 <a id="FP_Q101_A1-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html">Q[84], A[6]</a>); and for this reason is the soul united to the body, that it needs it for
|
|
|
10390 its proper operation; and this would not be so if the soul were endowed at birth with knowledge not acquired through the sensitive
|
|
|
10391 powers. We must conclude then, that, in the state of innocence, children would not have been born with perfect knowledge;
|
|
|
10392 but in course of time they would have acquired knowledge without difficulty by discovery or learning.
|
|
|
10393 </p>
|
|
|
10394 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p7">
|
|
|
10395 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The perfection of knowledge was an individual accident of our first parent, so far as he was established as the father and
|
|
|
10396 instructor of the whole human race. Therefore he begot children like himself, not in that respect, but only in those accidents
|
|
|
10397 which were natural or conferred gratuitously on the whole nature.
|
|
|
10398 </p>
|
|
|
10399 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p8">
|
|
|
10400 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Ignorance is privation of knowledge due at some particular time; and this would not have been in children from their birth,
|
|
|
10401 for they would have possessed the knowledge due to them at that time. Hence, no ignorance would have been in them, but only
|
|
|
10402 nescience in regard to certain matters. Such nescience was even in the holy angels, according to Dionysius (Coel. Hier. vii).
|
|
|
10403 </p>
|
|
|
10404 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p9">
|
|
|
10405 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Children would have had sufficient knowledge to direct them to deeds of righteousness, in which men are guided by universal
|
|
|
10406 principles of right; and this knowledge of theirs would have been much more complete than what we have now by nature, as likewise
|
|
|
10407 their knowledge of other universal principles.
|
|
|
10408 </p>
|
|
|
10409 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
10410 <p id="FP_Q101_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
10411 <a href="summa.FP_Q101.html"></a>
|
|
|
10412 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10413 </div>
|
|
|
10414 <div id="FP_Q101_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
10415 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10416 <a href="summa.FP_Q102.html"></a>
|
|
|
10417 <h4 id="FP_Q101_A2-p0.1">Whether children would have had perfect use of reason at birth?</h4>
|
|
|
10418 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10419 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p2">
|
|
|
10420 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that children would have had perfect use of reason at birth. For that children have not perfect use of reason
|
|
|
10421 in our present state, is due to the soul being weighed down by the body; which was not the case in paradise, because, as it
|
|
|
10422 is written, "The corruptible body is a load upon the soul" (
|
|
|
10423 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q101_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.9.15" target="asv">Wis. 9:15</a>). Therefore, before sin and the corruption which resulted therefrom, children would have had the perfect use of reason at
|
|
|
10424 birth.
|
|
|
10425 </p>
|
|
|
10426 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p3">
|
|
|
10427 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, some animals at birth have the use of their natural powers, as the lamb at once flees from the wolf. Much more,
|
|
|
10428 therefore, would men in the state of innocence have had perfect use of reason at birth.
|
|
|
10429 </p>
|
|
|
10430 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p4">
|
|
|
10431 <b>On the contrary,</b> In all things produced by generation nature proceeds from the imperfect to the perfect. Therefore children would not have
|
|
|
10432 had the perfect use of reason from the very outset.
|
|
|
10433 </p>
|
|
|
10434 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p5">
|
|
|
10435 <b>I answer that,</b> As above stated (
|
|
|
10436 <a id="FP_Q101_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">Q[84], A[7]</a>), the use of reason depends in a certain manner on the use of the sensitive powers; wherefore, while the senses are tired
|
|
|
10437 and the interior sensitive powers hampered, man has not the perfect use of reason, as we see in those who are asleep or delirious.
|
|
|
10438 Now the sensitive powers are situate in corporeal organs; and therefore, so long as the latter are hindered, the action of
|
|
|
10439 the former is of necessity
|
|
|
10440 hindered also; and likewise, consequently, the use of reason. Now children are hindered in the use of these powers on account
|
|
|
10441 of the humidity of the brain; wherefore they have perfect use neither of these powers nor of reason. Therefore, in the state
|
|
|
10442 of innocence, children would not have had the perfect use of reason, which they would have enjoyed later on in life. Yet they
|
|
|
10443 would have had a more perfect use than they have now, as to matters regarding that particular state, as explained above
|
|
|
10444 regarding the use of their limbs (
|
|
|
10445 <a id="FP_Q101_A2-p5.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html">Q[99], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
10446 </p>
|
|
|
10447 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p6">
|
|
|
10448 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The corruptible body is a load upon the soul, because it hinders the use of reason even in those matters which belong to
|
|
|
10449 man at all ages.
|
|
|
10450 </p>
|
|
|
10451 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p7">
|
|
|
10452 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even other animals have not at birth such a perfect use of their natural powers as they have later on. This is clear from
|
|
|
10453 the fact that birds teach their young to fly; and the like may be observed in other animals. Moreover a special impediment
|
|
|
10454 exists in man from the humidity of the brain, as we have said above (
|
|
|
10455 <a id="FP_Q101_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q99_A1.html">Q[99], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
10456 </p>
|
|
|
10457 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p8"></p>
|
|
|
10458 <p id="FP_Q101_A2-p9"></p>
|
|
|
10459 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10460 <a href="summa.FP_Q102.html"></a>
|
|
|
10461 </div>
|
|
|
10462 <a href="summa.FP_Q100_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10463 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10464 </div>
|
|
|
10465 <div id="FP_Q102" class="div3">
|
|
|
10466 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10467 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10468 <h3 id="FP_Q102-p0.1">OF MAN'S ABODE, WHICH IS PARADISE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
10469 <p id="FP_Q102-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10470 <p id="FP_Q102-p2"> We next consider man's abode, which is paradise. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
10471 <p id="FP_Q102-p3"> (1) Whether paradise is a corporeal place?</p>
|
|
|
10472 <p id="FP_Q102-p4"> (2) Whether it is a place apt for human habitation?</p>
|
|
|
10473 <p id="FP_Q102-p5"> (3) For what purpose was man placed in paradise?</p>
|
|
|
10474 <p id="FP_Q102-p6"> (4) Whether he should have been created in paradise?</p>
|
|
|
10475 <div id="FP_Q102_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
10476 <a href="summa.FP_Q102.html"></a>
|
|
|
10477 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10478 <h4 id="FP_Q102_A1-p0.1">Whether paradise is a corporeal place?</h4>
|
|
|
10479 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10480 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p2">
|
|
|
10481 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that paradise is not a corporeal place. For Bede [*Strabus, Gloss on
|
|
|
10482 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.8" target="asv"> Gn. 2:8</a>] says that "paradise reaches to the lunar circle." But no earthly place answers that description, both because it is contrary
|
|
|
10483 to the nature of the earth to be raised up so high, and because beneath the moon is the region of fire, which would consume
|
|
|
10484 the earth. Therefore paradise is not a corporeal place.
|
|
|
10485 </p>
|
|
|
10486 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p3">
|
|
|
10487 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Scripture mentions four rivers as rising in paradise (
|
|
|
10488 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.10" target="asv">Gn. 2:10</a>). But the rivers there mentioned have visible sources elsewhere, as is clear from the Philosopher (Meteor. i). Therefore
|
|
|
10489 paradise is not a corporeal place.
|
|
|
10490 </p>
|
|
|
10491 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p4">
|
|
|
10492 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, although men have explored the entire habitable world, yet none have made mention of the place of paradise. Therefore
|
|
|
10493 apparently it is not a corporeal place.
|
|
|
10494 </p>
|
|
|
10495 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p5">
|
|
|
10496 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the tree of life is described as growing in paradise. But the tree of life is a spiritual thing, for it is written
|
|
|
10497 of Wisdom that "She is a tree of life to them that lay hold on her" (
|
|
|
10498 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.3.18" target="asv">Prov. 3:18</a>). Therefore paradise also is not a corporeal, but a spiritual place.
|
|
|
10499 </p>
|
|
|
10500 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p6">
|
|
|
10501 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, if paradise be a corporeal place, the trees also of paradise must be corporeal. But it seems they were not; for
|
|
|
10502 corporeal trees were produced on the third day, while the planting of the trees of paradise is recorded after the work of
|
|
|
10503 the six days. Therefore paradise was not a corporeal place.
|
|
|
10504 </p>
|
|
|
10505 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p7">
|
|
|
10506 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. viii, 1): "Three general opinions prevail about paradise. Some understand a place merely corporeal;
|
|
|
10507 others a place entirely spiritual; while others, whose opinion, I confess, hold that paradise was both corporeal and spiritual."
|
|
|
10508 </p>
|
|
|
10509 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p8">
|
|
|
10510 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiii, 21): "Nothing prevents us from holding, within proper limits, a spiritual paradise;
|
|
|
10511 so long as we believe in the truth of the events narrated as having there occurred." For whatever Scripture tells us about
|
|
|
10512 paradise is set down as matter of history; and wherever Scripture makes use of this method, we must hold to the historical
|
|
|
10513 truth of the narrative as a foundation of whatever spiritual explanation we may offer. And so
|
|
|
10514 paradise, as Isidore says (Etym. xiv, 3), "is a place situated in the east, its name being the Greek for garden." It was fitting
|
|
|
10515 that it should be in the east; for it is to be believed that it was situated in the most excellent part of the earth. Now
|
|
|
10516 the east is the right hand on the heavens, as the Philosopher explains (De Coel. ii, 2); and the right hand is nobler than
|
|
|
10517 the left: hence it was fitting that God should place the earthly paradise in the east.
|
|
|
10518 </p>
|
|
|
10519 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p9">
|
|
|
10520 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Bede's assertion is untrue, if taken in its obvious sense. It may, however, be explained to mean that paradise reaches to
|
|
|
10521 the moon, not literally, but figuratively; because, as Isidore says (Etym. xiv, 3), the atmosphere there is "a continually
|
|
|
10522 even temperature"; and in this respect it is like the heavenly bodies, which are devoid of opposing elements. Mention, however,
|
|
|
10523 is made of the moon rather than of other bodies, because, of all the heavenly
|
|
|
10524 bodies, the moon is nearest to us, and is, moreover, the most akin to the earth; hence it is observed to be overshadowed by
|
|
|
10525 clouds so as to be almost obscured. Others say that paradise reached to the moon---that is, to the middle space of the air,
|
|
|
10526 where rain, and wind, and the like arise; because the moon is said to have influence on such changes. But in this sense it
|
|
|
10527 would not be a fit place for human dwelling, through being uneven in temperature, and not attuned to the human temperament,
|
|
|
10528 as
|
|
|
10529 is the lower atmosphere in the neighborhood of the earth.
|
|
|
10530 </p>
|
|
|
10531 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p10">
|
|
|
10532 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. viii, 7): "It is probable that man has no idea where paradise was, and that the rivers, whose
|
|
|
10533 sources are said to be known, flowed for some distance underground, and then sprang up elsewhere. For who is not aware that
|
|
|
10534 such is the case with some other streams?"
|
|
|
10535 </p>
|
|
|
10536 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p11">
|
|
|
10537 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The situation of paradise is shut off from the habitable world by mountains, or seas, or some torrid region, which cannot
|
|
|
10538 be crossed; and so people who have written about topography make no mention of it.
|
|
|
10539 </p>
|
|
|
10540 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p12">
|
|
|
10541 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The tree of life is a material tree, and so called because its fruit was endowed with a life-preserving power as above stated
|
|
|
10542 (
|
|
|
10543 <a id="FP_Q102_A1-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html">Q[97] , A[4]</a>). Yet it had a spiritual signification; as the rock in the desert was of a material nature, and yet signified Christ. In
|
|
|
10544 like manner the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was a material tree, so called in view of future events; because, after
|
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|
10545 eating of it, man was to learn, by
|
|
|
10546 experience of the consequent punishment, the difference between the good of obedience and the evil of rebellion. It may also
|
|
|
10547 be said to signify spiritually the free-will as some say.
|
|
|
10548 </p>
|
|
|
10549 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p13">
|
|
|
10550 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> According to Augustine (Gen. ad lit. v, 5, viii, 3), the plants were not actually produced on the third day, but in their
|
|
|
10551 seminal virtues; whereas, after the work of the six days, the plants, both of paradise and others, were actually produced.
|
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|
10552 According to other holy writers, we ought to say that all the plants were actually produced on the third day, including the
|
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|
10553 trees of paradise; and what is said of the trees of paradise being planted after the
|
|
|
10554 work of the six days is to be understood, they say, by way of recapitulation. Whence our text reads: "The Lord God had planted
|
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|
10555 a paradise of pleasure from the beginning" (
|
|
|
10556 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A1-p13.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.8" target="asv">Gn. 2:8</a>).
|
|
|
10557 </p>
|
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10558 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p14"></p>
|
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|
10559 <p id="FP_Q102_A1-p15"></p>
|
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|
10560 <a href="summa.FP_Q102.html"></a>
|
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10561 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A2.html"></a>
|
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10562 </div>
|
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|
10563 <div id="FP_Q102_A2" class="div4">
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10564 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A1.html"></a>
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10565 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A3.html"></a>
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10566 <h4 id="FP_Q102_A2-p0.1">Whether paradise was a place adapted to be the abode of man?</h4>
|
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10567 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p1"></p>
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10568 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p2">
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10569 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that paradise was not a place adapted to be the abode of man. For man and angels are similarly ordered to beatitude.
|
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|
10570 But the angels from the very beginning of their existence were made to dwell in the abode of the blessed---that is, the empyrean
|
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10571 heaven. Therefore the place of man's habitation should have been there also.
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10572 </p>
|
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10573 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p3">
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|
10574 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if some definite place were required for man's abode, this would be required on the part either of the soul or of
|
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|
10575 the body. If on the part of the soul, the place would be in heaven, which is adapted to the nature of the soul; since the
|
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|
10576 desire of heaven is implanted in all. On the part of the body, there was no need for any other place than the one provided
|
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|
10577 for other animals. Therefore paradise was not at all adapted to be the abode of man.
|
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|
10578 </p>
|
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10579 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p4">
|
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|
10580 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a place which contains nothing is useless. But after sin, paradise was not occupied by man. Therefore if it were
|
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|
10581 adapted as a dwelling-place for man, it seems that God made paradise to no purpose.
|
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|
10582 </p>
|
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10583 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p5">
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|
10584 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, since man is of an even temperament, a fitting place for him should be of even temperature. But paradise was not
|
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|
10585 of an even temperature; for it is said to have been on the equator---a situation of extreme heat, since twice in the year
|
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|
10586 the sun passes vertically over the heads of its inhabitants. Therefore paradise was not a fit dwelling-place for man.
|
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|
10587 </p>
|
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|
10588 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p6">
|
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|
10589 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 11): "Paradise was a divinely ordered region, and worthy of him who was made to God's image."
|
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|
10590 </p>
|
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10591 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p7">
|
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|
10592 <b>I answer that,</b> As above stated (
|
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|
10593 <a id="FP_Q102_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A1.html">Q[97], A[1]</a>), Man was incorruptible and immortal, not because his body had a disposition to incorruptibility, but because in his soul
|
|
|
10594 there was a power preserving the body from corruption. Now the human body may be corrupted from within or from without. From
|
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|
10595 within, the body is corrupted by the consumption of the humors, and by old age, as above explained (
|
|
|
10596 <a id="FP_Q102_A2-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html">Q[97], A[4]</a>), and man was able to
|
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|
10597 ward off such corruption by food. Among those things which corrupt the body from without, the chief seems to be an atmosphere
|
|
|
10598 of unequal temperature; and to such corruption a remedy is found in an atmosphere of equable nature. In paradise both conditions
|
|
|
10599 were found; because, as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 11): "Paradise was permeated with the all pervading brightness of
|
|
|
10600 a temperate, pure, and exquisite atmosphere, and decked with ever-flowering plants." Whence it is clear that paradise
|
|
|
10601 was most fit to be a dwelling-place for man, and in keeping with his original state of immortality.
|
|
|
10602 </p>
|
|
|
10603 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p8">
|
|
|
10604 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The empyrean heaven is the highest of corporeal places, and is outside the region of change. By the first of these two conditions,
|
|
|
10605 it is a fitting abode for the angelic nature: for, as Augustine says (De Trin. ii), "God rules corporeal creatures through
|
|
|
10606 spiritual creatures." Hence it is fitting that the spiritual nature should be established above the entire corporeal nature,
|
|
|
10607 as presiding over it. By the second condition, it is a fitting abode for the
|
|
|
10608 state of beatitude, which is endowed with the highest degree of stability. Thus the abode of beatitude was suited to the very
|
|
|
10609 nature of the angel; therefore he was created there. But it is not suited to man's nature, since man is not set as a ruler
|
|
|
10610 over the entire corporeal creation: it is a fitting abode for man in regard only to his beatitude. Wherefore he was not placed
|
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|
10611 from the beginning in the empyrean heaven, but was destined to be transferred thither in the state of his final
|
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|
10612 beatitude.
|
|
|
10613 </p>
|
|
|
10614 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p9">
|
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|
10615 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is ridiculous to assert that any particular place is natural to the soul or to any spiritual substances, though some particular
|
|
|
10616 place may have a certain fitness in regard to spiritual substances. For the earthly paradise was a place adapted to man, as
|
|
|
10617 regards both his body and his soul---that is, inasmuch as in his soul was the force which preserved the human body from corruption.
|
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|
10618 This could not be said of the other animals. Therefore, as Damascene
|
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|
10619 says (De Fide Orth. ii, 11): "No irrational animal inhabited paradise"; although, by a certain dispensation, the animals were
|
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|
10620 brought thither by God to Adam; and the serpent was able to trespass therein by the complicity of the devil.
|
|
|
10621 </p>
|
|
|
10622 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p10">
|
|
|
10623 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Paradise did not become useless through being unoccupied by man after sin, just as immortality was not conferred on man in
|
|
|
10624 vain, though he was to lose it. For thereby we learn God's kindness to man, and what man lost by sin. Moreover, some say that
|
|
|
10625 Enoch and Elias still dwell in that paradise.
|
|
|
10626 </p>
|
|
|
10627 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p11">
|
|
|
10628 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Those who say that paradise was on the equinoctial line are of opinion that such a situation is most temperate, on account
|
|
|
10629 of the unvarying equality of day and night; that it is never too cold there, because the sun is never too far off; and never
|
|
|
10630 too hot, because, although the sun passes over the heads of the inhabitants, it does not remain long in that position. However,
|
|
|
10631 Aristotle distinctly says (Meteor. ii, 5) that such a region is uninhabitable
|
|
|
10632 on account of the heat. This seems to be more probable; because, even those regions where the sun does not pass vertically
|
|
|
10633 overhead, are extremely hot on account of the mere proximity of the sun. But whatever be the truth of the matter, we must
|
|
|
10634 hold that paradise was situated in a most temperate situation, whether on the equator or elsewhere.
|
|
|
10635 </p>
|
|
|
10636 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
10637 <p id="FP_Q102_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
10638 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10639 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
10640 </div>
|
|
|
10641 <div id="FP_Q102_A3" class="div4">
|
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|
10642 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10643 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
10644 <h4 id="FP_Q102_A3-p0.1">Whether man was placed in paradise to dress it and keep it?</h4>
|
|
|
10645 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10646 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p2">
|
|
|
10647 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man was not placed in paradise to dress and keep it. For what was brought on him as a punishment of sin
|
|
|
10648 would not have existed in paradise in the state of innocence. But the cultivation of the soil was a punishment of sin (
|
|
|
10649 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.3.17" target="asv">Gn. 3:17</a>). Therefore man was not placed in paradise to dress and keep it.
|
|
|
10650 </p>
|
|
|
10651 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p3">
|
|
|
10652 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, there is no need of a keeper when there is no fear of trespass with violence. But in paradise there was no fear
|
|
|
10653 of trespass with violence. Therefore there was no need for man to keep paradise.
|
|
|
10654 </p>
|
|
|
10655 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p4">
|
|
|
10656 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if man was placed in paradise to dress and keep it, man would apparently have been made for the sake of paradise,
|
|
|
10657 and not contrariwise; which seems to be false. Therefore man was not place in paradise to dress and keep it.
|
|
|
10658 </p>
|
|
|
10659 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p5">
|
|
|
10660 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
10661 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.15" target="asv">Gn. 2: 15</a>): "The Lord God took man and placed in the paradise of pleasure, to dress and keep it."
|
|
|
10662 </p>
|
|
|
10663 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p6">
|
|
|
10664 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. viii, 10), these words in Genesis may be understood in two ways. First, in the sense that
|
|
|
10665 God placed man in paradise that He might Himself work in man and keep him, by sanctifying him (for if this work cease, man
|
|
|
10666 at once relapses into darkness, as the air grows dark when the light ceases to shine); and by keeping man from all corruption
|
|
|
10667 and evil. Secondly, that man might dress and keep paradise, which dressing would not have
|
|
|
10668 involved labor, as it did after sin; but would have been pleasant on account of man's practical knowledge of the powers of
|
|
|
10669 nature. Nor would man have kept paradise against a trespasser; but he would have striven to keep paradise for himself lest
|
|
|
10670 he should lose it by sin. All of which was for man's good; wherefore paradise was ordered to man's benefit, and not conversely.
|
|
|
10671 </p>
|
|
|
10672 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p7"> Whence the Replies to the Objections are made clear.</p>
|
|
|
10673 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p8"></p>
|
|
|
10674 <p id="FP_Q102_A3-p9"></p>
|
|
|
10675 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10676 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
10677 </div>
|
|
|
10678 <div id="FP_Q102_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
10679 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
10680 <a href="summa.FP.x.html"></a>
|
|
|
10681 <h4 id="FP_Q102_A4-p0.1">Whether man was created in paradise?</h4>
|
|
|
10682 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
10683 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p2">
|
|
|
10684 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man was created in paradise. For the angel was created in his dwelling-place---namely, the empyrean heaven.
|
|
|
10685 But before sin paradise was a fitting abode for man. Therefore it seems that man was created in paradise.
|
|
|
10686 </p>
|
|
|
10687 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p3">
|
|
|
10688 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, other animals remain in the place where they are produced, as the fish in the water, and walking animals on the
|
|
|
10689 earth from which they were made. Now man would have remained in paradise after he was created (
|
|
|
10690 <a id="FP_Q102_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q97_A4.html">Q[97], A[4]</a>). Therefore he was created in paradise.
|
|
|
10691 </p>
|
|
|
10692 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p4">
|
|
|
10693 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, woman was made in paradise. But man is greater than woman. Therefore much more should man have been made in paradise.
|
|
|
10694 </p>
|
|
|
10695 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p5">
|
|
|
10696 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
10697 <a class="scripRef" id="FP_Q102_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.15" target="asv">Gn. 2:15</a>): "God took man and placed him in paradise."
|
|
|
10698 </p>
|
|
|
10699 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p6">
|
|
|
10700 <b>I answer that,</b> Paradise was a fitting abode for man as regards the incorruptibility of the primitive state. Now this incorruptibility was
|
|
|
10701 man's, not by nature, but by a supernatural gift of God. Therefore that this might be attributed to God, and not to human
|
|
|
10702 nature, God made man outside of paradise, and afterwards placed him there to live there during the whole of his animal life;
|
|
|
10703 and, having attained to the spiritual life, to be transferred thence to heaven.
|
|
|
10704 </p>
|
|
|
10705 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p7">
|
|
|
10706 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The empyrean heaven was a fitting abode for the angels as regards their nature, and therefore they were created there.
|
|
|
10707 </p>
|
|
|
10708 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p8"> In the same way I reply to the second objection, for those places befit those animals in their nature.</p>
|
|
|
10709 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p9">
|
|
|
10710 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Woman was made in paradise, not by reason of her own dignity, but on account of the dignity of the principle from which her
|
|
|
10711 body was formed. For the same reason the children would have been born in paradise, where their parents were already.
|
|
|
10712 </p>
|
|
|
10713 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
10714 <p id="FP_Q102_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
10715 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
10716 <a href="summa.FP.x.html"></a>
|
|
|
10717 </div>
|
|
|
10718 <a href="summa.FP_Q101_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
10719 <a href="summa.FP_Q102_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
10720 </div>
|
|
|
10721 <a href="summa.FP_Q74_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
10722 <a href="summa.FP_Q75.html"></a>
|
|
|
10723 `
|
|
81
|
10724 </div>
|
