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| date | Sun, 03 Jan 2010 14:43:02 +0000 |
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| 1 <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><div xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" id="SS.i" class="div2"> | |
| 2 <a href="summa.SS.html"></a> | |
| 3 <a href="summa.SS_Q1.html"></a> | |
| 4 <h2 id="SS.i-p0.1">TREATISE ON THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES (QQ[1]-46)</h2> | |
| 5 <div id="SS_Q1" class="div3"> | |
| 6 <a href="summa.SS.i.html"></a> | |
| 7 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8 <h3 id="SS_Q1-p0.1">OF FAITH (TEN ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 9 <p id="SS_Q1-p1"></p> | |
| 10 <p id="SS_Q1-p2"> Having to treat now of the theological virtues, we shall begin with Faith, secondly we shall speak of Hope, and thirdly, | |
| 11 of Charity. | |
| 12 </p> | |
| 13 <p id="SS_Q1-p3"> The treatise on Faith will be fourfold: (1) Of faith itself; (2) Of the corresponding gifts, knowledge and understanding; | |
| 14 (3) Of the opposite vices; (4) Of the precepts pertaining to this virtue. | |
| 15 </p> | |
| 16 <p id="SS_Q1-p4"> About faith itself we shall consider: (1) its object; (2) its act; (3) the habit of faith.</p> | |
| 17 <p id="SS_Q1-p5"> Under the first head there are ten points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 18 <p id="SS_Q1-p6"> (1) Whether the object of faith is the First Truth?</p> | |
| 19 <p id="SS_Q1-p7"> (2) Whether the object of faith is something complex or incomplex, i.e. whether it is a thing or a proposition?</p> | |
| 20 <p id="SS_Q1-p8"> (3) Whether anything false can come under faith?</p> | |
| 21 <p id="SS_Q1-p9"> (4) Whether the object of faith can be anything seen?</p> | |
| 22 <p id="SS_Q1-p10"> (5) Whether it can be anything known?</p> | |
| 23 <p id="SS_Q1-p11"> (6) Whether the things to be believed should be divided into a certain number of articles?</p> | |
| 24 <p id="SS_Q1-p12"> (7) Whether the same articles are of faith for all times?</p> | |
| 25 <p id="SS_Q1-p13"> (8) Of the number of articles;</p> | |
| 26 <p id="SS_Q1-p14"> (9) Of the manner of embodying the articles in a symbol;</p> | |
| 27 <p id="SS_Q1-p15"> (10) Who has the right to propose a symbol of faith?</p> | |
| 28 <div id="SS_Q1_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 29 <a href="summa.SS_Q1.html"></a> | |
| 30 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A2.html"></a> | |
| 31 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A1-p0.1">Whether the object of faith is the First Truth?</h4> | |
| 32 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 33 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p2"> | |
| 34 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the object of faith is not the First Truth. For it seems that the object of faith is that which is proposed | |
| 35 to us to be believed. Now not only things pertaining to the Godhead, i.e. the First Truth, are proposed to us to be believed, | |
| 36 but also things concerning Christ's human nature, and the sacraments of the Church, and the condition of creatures. Therefore | |
| 37 the object of faith is not only the First Truth. | |
| 38 </p> | |
| 39 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p3"> | |
| 40 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, faith and unbelief have the same object since they are opposed to one another. Now unbelief can be about all things | |
| 41 contained in Holy Writ, for whichever one of them a man denies, he is considered an unbeliever. Therefore faith also is about | |
| 42 all things contained in Holy Writ. But there are many things therein, concerning man and other creatures. Therefore the object | |
| 43 of faith is not only the First Truth, but also created truth. | |
| 44 </p> | |
| 45 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p4"> | |
| 46 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is condivided with charity, as stated above ( | |
| 47 <a id="SS_Q1_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q62_A3.html">FS, Q[62], A[3]</a>). Now by charity we love not only God, who is the sovereign Good, but also our neighbor. Therefore the object of Faith is | |
| 48 not only the First Truth. | |
| 49 </p> | |
| 50 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p5"> | |
| 51 <b>On the contrary,</b> Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii) that "faith is about the simple and everlasting truth." Now this is the First Truth. Therefore | |
| 52 the object of faith is the First Truth. | |
| 53 </p> | |
| 54 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p6"> | |
| 55 <b>I answer that,</b> The object of every cognitive habit includes two things: first, that which is known materially, and is the material object, | |
| 56 so to speak, and, secondly, that whereby it is known, which is the formal aspect of the object. Thus in the science of geometry, | |
| 57 the conclusions are what is known materially, while the formal aspect of the science is the mean of demonstration, through | |
| 58 which the conclusions are known. | |
| 59 </p> | |
| 60 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p7"> Accordingly if we consider, in faith, the formal aspect of the object, it is nothing else than the First Truth. For the faith | |
| 61 of which we are speaking, does not assent to anything, except because it is revealed by God. Hence the mean on which faith | |
| 62 is based is the Divine Truth. If, however, we consider materially the things to which faith assents, they include not only | |
| 63 God, but also many other things, which, nevertheless, do not come under the assent of faith, except as bearing | |
| 64 some relation to God, in as much as, to wit, through certain effects of the Divine operation, man is helped on his journey | |
| 65 towards the enjoyment of God. Consequently from this point of view also the object of faith is, in a way, the First Truth, | |
| 66 in as much as nothing comes under faith except in relation to God, even as the object of the medical art is health, for it | |
| 67 considers nothing save in relation to health. | |
| 68 </p> | |
| 69 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p8"> | |
| 70 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Things concerning Christ's human nature, and the sacraments of the Church, or any creatures whatever, come under faith, in | |
| 71 so far as by them we are directed to God, and in as much as we assent to them on account of the Divine Truth. | |
| 72 </p> | |
| 73 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p9"> The same answer applies to the Second Objection, as regards all things contained in Holy Writ.</p> | |
| 74 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p10"> | |
| 75 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity also loves our neighbor on account of God, so that its object, properly speaking, is God, as we shall show further | |
| 76 on ( | |
| 77 <a id="SS_Q1_A1-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html">Q[25] , A[1]</a>). | |
| 78 </p> | |
| 79 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 80 <p id="SS_Q1_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 81 <a href="summa.SS_Q1.html"></a> | |
| 82 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A2.html"></a> | |
| 83 </div> | |
| 84 <div id="SS_Q1_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 85 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html"></a> | |
| 86 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A3.html"></a> | |
| 87 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A2-p0.1">Whether the object of faith is something complex, by way of a proposition?</h4> | |
| 88 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 89 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p2"> | |
| 90 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the object of faith is not something complex by way of a proposition. For the object of faith is the First | |
| 91 Truth, as stated above | |
| 92 <a id="SS_Q1_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Now the First Truth is something simple. Therefore the object of faith is not something complex. | |
| 93 </p> | |
| 94 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p3"> | |
| 95 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the exposition of faith is contained in the symbol. Now the symbol does not contain propositions, but things: for | |
| 96 it is not stated therein that God is almighty, but: "I believe in God . . . almighty." Therefore the object of faith is not | |
| 97 a proposition but a thing. | |
| 98 </p> | |
| 99 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p4"> | |
| 100 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is succeeded by vision, according to | |
| 101 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12</a>: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner; but then face to face. Now I know in part; but then I shall know even as I | |
| 102 am known." But the object of the heavenly vision is something simple, for it is the Divine Essence. Therefore the faith of | |
| 103 the wayfarer is also. | |
| 104 </p> | |
| 105 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p5"> | |
| 106 <b>On the contrary,</b> Faith is a mean between science and opinion. Now the mean is in the same genus as the extremes. Since, then, science and | |
| 107 opinion are about propositions, it seems that faith is likewise about propositions; so that its object is something complex. | |
| 108 </p> | |
| 109 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p6"> | |
| 110 <b>I answer that,</b> The thing known is in the knower according to the mode of the knower. Now the mode proper to the human intellect is to know | |
| 111 the truth by synthesis and analysis, as stated in the | |
| 112 <a id="SS_Q1_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A5.html">FP, Q[85], A[5]</a>. Hence things that are simple in themselves, are known by the intellect with a certain amount of complexity, just as on the | |
| 113 other hand, the Divine intellect knows, without any complexity, things that are complex in themselves. | |
| 114 </p> | |
| 115 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p7"> Accordingly the object of faith may be considered in two ways. First, as regards the thing itself which is believed, and | |
| 116 thus the object of faith is something simple, namely the thing itself about which we have faith. Secondly, on the part of | |
| 117 the believer, and in this respect the object of faith is something complex by way of a proposition. | |
| 118 </p> | |
| 119 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p8"> Hence in the past both opinions have been held with a certain amount of truth.</p> | |
| 120 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p9"> | |
| 121 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument considers the object of faith on the part of the thing believed. | |
| 122 </p> | |
| 123 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p10"> | |
| 124 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The symbol mentions the things about which faith is, in so far as the act of the believer is terminated in them, as is evident | |
| 125 from the manner of speaking about them. Now the act of the believer does not terminate in a proposition, but in a thing. For | |
| 126 as in science we do not form propositions, except in order to have knowledge about things through their means, so is it in | |
| 127 faith. | |
| 128 </p> | |
| 129 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p11"> | |
| 130 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The object of the heavenly vision will be the First Truth seen in itself, according to | |
| 131 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A2-p11.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.2" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:2</a>: "We know that when He shall appear, we shall be like to Him: because we shall see Him as He is": hence that vision will | |
| 132 not be by way of a proposition but by way of a simple understanding. On the other hand, by faith, we do not apprehend the | |
| 133 First Truth as it is in itself. Hence the comparison fails. | |
| 134 </p> | |
| 135 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 136 <p id="SS_Q1_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 137 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html"></a> | |
| 138 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A3.html"></a> | |
| 139 </div> | |
| 140 <div id="SS_Q1_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 141 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A2.html"></a> | |
| 142 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html"></a> | |
| 143 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A3-p0.1">Whether anything false can come under faith? </h4> | |
| 144 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 145 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p2"> | |
| 146 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that something false can come under faith. For faith is condivided with hope and charity. Now something false | |
| 147 can come under hope, since many hope to have eternal life, who will not obtain it. The same may be said of charity, for many | |
| 148 are loved as being good, who, nevertheless, are not good. Therefore something false can be the object of faith. | |
| 149 </p> | |
| 150 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p3"> | |
| 151 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Abraham believed that Christ would be born, according to | |
| 152 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#John.8.56" target="asv"> Jn. 8:56</a>: "Abraham your father rejoiced that he might see My day: he saw it, and was glad." But after the time of Abraham, God might | |
| 153 not have taken flesh, for it was merely because He willed that He did, so that what Abraham believed about Christ would have | |
| 154 been false. Therefore the object of faith can be something false. | |
| 155 </p> | |
| 156 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p4"> | |
| 157 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the ancients believed in the future birth of Christ, and many continued so to believe, until they heard the preaching | |
| 158 of the Gospel. Now, when once Christ was born, even before He began to preach, it was false that Christ was yet to be born. | |
| 159 Therefore something false can come under faith. | |
| 160 </p> | |
| 161 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p5"> | |
| 162 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it is a matter of faith, that one should believe that the true Body of Christ is contained in the Sacrament of the | |
| 163 altar. But it might happen that the bread was not rightly consecrated, and that there was not Christ's true Body there, but | |
| 164 only bread. Therefore something false can come under faith. | |
| 165 </p> | |
| 166 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p6"> | |
| 167 <b>On the contrary,</b> No virtue that perfects the intellect is related to the false, considered as the evil of the intellect, as the Philosopher | |
| 168 declares (Ethic. vi, 2). Now faith is a virtue that perfects the intellect, as we shall show further on ( | |
| 169 <a id="SS_Q1_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html">Q[4], AA[2]</a>,5). Therefore nothing false can come under it. | |
| 170 </p> | |
| 171 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p7"> | |
| 172 <b>I answer that,</b> Nothing comes under any power, habit or act, except by means of the formal aspect of the object: thus color cannot be seen | |
| 173 except by means of light, and a conclusion cannot be known save through the mean of demonstration. Now it has been stated | |
| 174 | |
| 175 <a id="SS_Q1_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that the formal aspect of the object of faith is the First Truth; so that nothing can come under faith, save in so far as | |
| 176 it stands under the First Truth, under which nothing false can | |
| 177 stand, as neither can non-being stand under being, nor evil under goodness. It follows therefore that nothing false can come | |
| 178 under faith. | |
| 179 </p> | |
| 180 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p8"> | |
| 181 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Since the true is the good of the intellect, but not of the appetitive power, it follows that all virtues which perfect the | |
| 182 intellect, exclude the false altogether, because it belongs to the nature of a virtue to bear relation to the good alone. | |
| 183 On the other hand those virtues which perfect the appetitive faculty, do not entirely exclude the false, for it is possible | |
| 184 to act in accordance with justice or temperance, while having a false opinion about | |
| 185 what one is doing. Therefore, as faith perfects the intellect, whereas hope and charity perfect the appetitive part, the comparison | |
| 186 between them fails. | |
| 187 </p> | |
| 188 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p9"> Nevertheless neither can anything false come under hope, for a man hopes to obtain eternal life, not by his own power (since | |
| 189 this would be an act of presumption), but with the help of grace; and if he perseveres therein he will obtain eternal life | |
| 190 surely and infallibly. | |
| 191 </p> | |
| 192 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p10"> In like manner it belongs to charity to love God, wherever He may be; so that it matters not to charity, whether God be in | |
| 193 the individual whom we love for God's sake. | |
| 194 </p> | |
| 195 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p11"> | |
| 196 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That "God would not take flesh," considered in itself was possible even after Abraham's time, but in so far as it stands | |
| 197 in God's foreknowledge, it has a certain necessity of infallibility, as explained in the | |
| 198 <a id="SS_Q1_A3-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A13.html">FP, Q[14], AA[13]</a>,15: and it is thus that it comes under faith. Hence in so far as it comes under faith, it cannot be false. | |
| 199 </p> | |
| 200 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p12"> | |
| 201 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> After Christ's birth, to believe in Him, was to believe in Christ's birth at some time or other. The fixing of the time, | |
| 202 wherein some were deceived was not due to their faith, but to a human conjecture. For it is possible for a believer to have | |
| 203 a false opinion through a human conjecture, but it is quite impossible for a false opinion to be the outcome of faith. | |
| 204 </p> | |
| 205 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p13"> | |
| 206 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The faith of the believer is not directed to such and such accidents of bread, but to the fact that the true body of Christ | |
| 207 is under the appearances of sensible bread, when it is rightly consecrated. Hence if it be not rightly consecrated, it does | |
| 208 not follow that anything false comes under faith. | |
| 209 </p> | |
| 210 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p14"></p> | |
| 211 <p id="SS_Q1_A3-p15"></p> | |
| 212 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A2.html"></a> | |
| 213 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html"></a> | |
| 214 </div> | |
| 215 <div id="SS_Q1_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 216 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A3.html"></a> | |
| 217 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A5.html"></a> | |
| 218 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A4-p0.1">Whether the object of faith can be something seen?</h4> | |
| 219 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 220 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p2"> | |
| 221 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the object of faith is something seen. For Our Lord said to Thomas ( | |
| 222 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#John.20.29" target="asv">Jn. 20:29</a>): "Because thou hast seen Me, Thomas, thou hast believed." Therefore vision and faith regard the same object. | |
| 223 </p> | |
| 224 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p3"> | |
| 225 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Apostle, while speaking of the knowledge of faith, says ( | |
| 226 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12</a>): "We see now through a glass in a dark manner." Therefore what is believed is seen. | |
| 227 </p> | |
| 228 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p4"> | |
| 229 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is a spiritual light. Now something is seen under every light. Therefore faith is of things seen. | |
| 230 </p> | |
| 231 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p5"> | |
| 232 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, "Every sense is a kind of sight," as Augustine states (De Verb. Domini, Serm. xxxiii). But faith is of things heard, | |
| 233 according to | |
| 234 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.17" target="asv"> Rom. 10:17</a>: "Faith . . . cometh by hearing." Therefore faith is of things seen. | |
| 235 </p> | |
| 236 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p6"> | |
| 237 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 238 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.1" target="asv">Heb. 11:1</a>) that "faith is the evidence of things that appear not." | |
| 239 </p> | |
| 240 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p7"> | |
| 241 <b>I answer that,</b> Faith implies assent of the intellect to that which is believed. Now the intellect assents to a thing in two ways. First, | |
| 242 through being moved to assent by its very object, which is known either by itself (as in the case of first principles, which | |
| 243 are held by the habit of understanding), or through something else already known (as in the case of conclusions which are | |
| 244 held by the habit of science). Secondly the intellect assents to something, not through being | |
| 245 sufficiently moved to this assent by its proper object, but through an act of choice, whereby it turns voluntarily to one | |
| 246 side rather than to the other: and if this be accompanied by doubt or fear of the opposite side, there will be opinion, while, | |
| 247 if there be certainty and no fear of the other side, there will be faith. | |
| 248 </p> | |
| 249 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p8"> Now those things are said to be seen which, of themselves, move the intellect or the senses to knowledge of them. Wherefore | |
| 250 it is evident that neither faith nor opinion can be of things seen either by the senses or by the intellect. | |
| 251 </p> | |
| 252 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p9"> | |
| 253 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Thomas "saw one thing, and believed another" [*St. Gregory: Hom. xxvi in Evang.]: he saw the Man, and believing Him to be | |
| 254 God, he made profession of his faith, saying: "My Lord and my God." | |
| 255 </p> | |
| 256 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p10"> | |
| 257 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Those things which come under faith can be considered in two ways. First, in particular; and thus they cannot be seen and | |
| 258 believed at the same time, as shown above. Secondly, in general, that is, under the common aspect of credibility; and in this | |
| 259 way they are seen by the believer. For he would not believe unless, on the evidence of signs, or of something similar, he | |
| 260 saw that they ought to be believed. | |
| 261 </p> | |
| 262 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p11"> | |
| 263 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The light of faith makes us see what we believe. For just as, by the habits of the other virtues, man sees what is becoming | |
| 264 to him in respect of that habit, so, by the habit of faith, the human mind is directed to assent to such things as are becoming | |
| 265 to a right faith, and not to assent to others. | |
| 266 </p> | |
| 267 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p12"> | |
| 268 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Hearing is of words signifying what is of faith, but not of the things themselves that are believed; hence it does not follow | |
| 269 that these things are seen. | |
| 270 </p> | |
| 271 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 272 <p id="SS_Q1_A4-p14"></p> | |
| 273 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A3.html"></a> | |
| 274 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A5.html"></a> | |
| 275 </div> | |
| 276 <div id="SS_Q1_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 277 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html"></a> | |
| 278 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A6.html"></a> | |
| 279 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A5-p0.1">Whether those things that are of faith can be an object of science [*Science is certain knowledge of a demonstrated conclusion | |
| 280 through its demonstration]? | |
| 281 </h4> | |
| 282 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 283 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p2"> | |
| 284 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that those things that are of faith can be an object of science. For where science is lacking there is ignorance, | |
| 285 since ignorance is the opposite of science. Now we are not in ignorance of those things we have to believe, since ignorance | |
| 286 of such things savors of unbelief, according to | |
| 287 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.13" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:13</a>: "I did it ignorantly in unbelief." Therefore things that are of faith can be an object of science. | |
| 288 </p> | |
| 289 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p3"> | |
| 290 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, science is acquired by reasons. Now sacred writers employ reasons to inculcate things that are of faith. Therefore | |
| 291 such things can be an object of science. | |
| 292 </p> | |
| 293 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p4"> | |
| 294 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, things which are demonstrated are an object of science, since a "demonstration is a syllogism that produces science." | |
| 295 Now certain matters of faith have been demonstrated by the philosophers, such as the Existence and Unity of God, and so forth. | |
| 296 Therefore things that are of faith can be an object of science. | |
| 297 </p> | |
| 298 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p5"> | |
| 299 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, opinion is further from science than faith is, since faith is said to stand between opinion and science. Now opinion | |
| 300 and science can, in a way, be about the same object, as stated in Poster. i. Therefore faith and science can be about the | |
| 301 same object also. | |
| 302 </p> | |
| 303 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p6"> | |
| 304 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Hom. xxvi in Evang.) that "when a thing is manifest, it is the object, not of faith, but of perception." Therefore | |
| 305 things that are of faith are not the object of perception, whereas what is an object of science is the object of perception. | |
| 306 Therefore there can be no faith about things which are an object of science. | |
| 307 </p> | |
| 308 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p7"> | |
| 309 <b>I answer that,</b> All science is derived from self-evident and therefore "seen" principles; wherefore all objects of science must needs be, | |
| 310 in a fashion, seen. | |
| 311 </p> | |
| 312 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p8"> Now as stated above | |
| 313 <a id="SS_Q1_A5-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, it is impossible that one and the same thing should be believed and seen by the same person. Hence it is equally impossible | |
| 314 for one and the same thing to be an object of science and of belief for the same person. It may happen, however, that a thing | |
| 315 which is an object of vision or science for one, is believed by another: since we hope to see some day what we now believe | |
| 316 about the Trinity, according to | |
| 317 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A5-p8.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. | |
| 318 13:12 | |
| 319 </a>: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner; but then face to face": which vision the angels possess already; so that what | |
| 320 we believe, they see. In like manner it may happen that what is an object of vision or scientific knowledge for one man, even | |
| 321 in the state of a wayfarer, is, for another man, an object of faith, because he does not know it by demonstration. | |
| 322 </p> | |
| 323 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p9"> Nevertheless that which is proposed to be believed equally by all, is equally unknown by all as an object of science: such | |
| 324 are the things which are of faith simply. Consequently faith and science are not about the same things. | |
| 325 </p> | |
| 326 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p10"> | |
| 327 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Unbelievers are in ignorance of things that are of faith, for neither do they see or know them in themselves, nor do they | |
| 328 know them to be credible. The faithful, on the other hand, know them, not as by demonstration, but by the light of faith which | |
| 329 makes them see that they ought to believe them, as stated above (A[4], ad 2,3). | |
| 330 </p> | |
| 331 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p11"> | |
| 332 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The reasons employed by holy men to prove things that are of faith, are not demonstrations; they are either persuasive arguments | |
| 333 showing that what is proposed to our faith is not impossible, or else they are proofs drawn from the principles of faith, | |
| 334 i.e. from the authority of Holy Writ, as Dionysius declares (Div. Nom. ii). Whatever is based on these principles is as well | |
| 335 proved in the eyes of the faithful, as a conclusion drawn from self-evident | |
| 336 principles is in the eyes of all. Hence again, theology is a science, as we stated at the outset of this work ( | |
| 337 <a id="SS_Q1_A5-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q1_A2.html">FP, Q[1], A[2]</a>). | |
| 338 </p> | |
| 339 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p12"> | |
| 340 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Things which can be proved by demonstration are reckoned among the articles of faith, not because they are believed simply | |
| 341 by all, but because they are a necessary presupposition to matters of faith, so that those who do not known them by demonstration | |
| 342 must know them first of all by faith. | |
| 343 </p> | |
| 344 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p13"> | |
| 345 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As the Philosopher says (Poster. i), "science and opinion about the same object can certainly be in different men," as we | |
| 346 have stated above about science and faith; yet it is possible for one and the same man to have science and faith about the | |
| 347 same thing relatively, i.e. in relation to the object, but not in the same respect. For it is possible for the same person, | |
| 348 about one and the same object, to know one thing and to think another: and, in like | |
| 349 manner, one may know by demonstration the unity of the Godhead, and, by faith, the Trinity. On the other hand, in one and | |
| 350 the same man, about the same object, and in the same respect, science is incompatible with either opinion or faith, yet for | |
| 351 different reasons. Because science is incompatible with opinion about the same object simply, for the reason that science | |
| 352 demands that its object should be deemed impossible to be otherwise, whereas it is essential to opinion, that its object should | |
| 353 be | |
| 354 deemed possible to be otherwise. Yet that which is the object of faith, on account of the certainty of faith, is also deemed | |
| 355 impossible to be otherwise; and the reason why science and faith cannot be about the same object and in the same respect is | |
| 356 because the object of science is something seen whereas the object of faith is the unseen, as stated above. | |
| 357 </p> | |
| 358 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p14"></p> | |
| 359 <p id="SS_Q1_A5-p15"></p> | |
| 360 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html"></a> | |
| 361 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A6.html"></a> | |
| 362 </div> | |
| 363 <div id="SS_Q1_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 364 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A5.html"></a> | |
| 365 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html"></a> | |
| 366 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A6-p0.1">Whether those things that are of faith should be divided into certain articles?</h4> | |
| 367 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 368 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p2"> | |
| 369 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that those things that are of faith should not be divided into certain articles. For all things contained in | |
| 370 Holy Writ are matters of faith. But these, by reason of their multitude, cannot be reduced to a certain number. Therefore | |
| 371 it seems superfluous to distinguish certain articles of faith. | |
| 372 </p> | |
| 373 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p3"> | |
| 374 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, material differences can be multiplied indefinitely, and therefore art should take no notice of them. Now the formal | |
| 375 aspect of the object of faith is one and indivisible, as stated above | |
| 376 <a id="SS_Q1_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, viz. the First Truth, so that matters of faith cannot be distinguished in respect of their formal object. Therefore no notice | |
| 377 should be taken of a material division of matters of faith into articles. | |
| 378 </p> | |
| 379 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p4"> | |
| 380 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it has been said by some [*Cf. William of Auxerre, Summa Aurea] that "an article is an indivisible truth concerning | |
| 381 God, exacting [arctans] our belief." Now belief is a voluntary act, since, as Augustine says (Tract. xxvi in Joan.), "no man | |
| 382 believes against his will." Therefore it seems that matters of faith should not be divided into articles. | |
| 383 </p> | |
| 384 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p5"> | |
| 385 <b>On the contrary,</b> Isidore says: "An article is a glimpse of Divine truth, tending thereto." Now we can only get a glimpse of Divine truth by | |
| 386 way of analysis, since things which in God are one, are manifold in our intellect. Therefore matters of faith should be divided | |
| 387 into articles. | |
| 388 </p> | |
| 389 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p6"> | |
| 390 <b>I answer that,</b> the word "article" is apparently derived from the Greek; for the Greek {arthron} [*Cf. William of Auxerre, Summa Aurea] which | |
| 391 the Latin renders "articulus," signifies a fitting together of distinct parts: wherefore the small parts of the body which | |
| 392 fit together are called the articulations of the limbs. Likewise, in the Greek grammar, articles are parts of speech which | |
| 393 are affixed to words to show their gender, number or case. Again in rhetoric, articles are | |
| 394 parts that fit together in a sentence, for Tully says (Rhet. iv) that an article is composed of words each pronounced singly | |
| 395 and separately, thus: "Your passion, your voice, your look, have struck terror into your foes." | |
| 396 </p> | |
| 397 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p7"> Hence matters of Christian faith are said to contain distinct articles, in so far as they are divided into parts, and fit | |
| 398 together. Now the object of faith is something unseen in connection with God, as stated above | |
| 399 <a id="SS_Q1_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Consequently any matter that, for a special reason, is unseen, is a special article; whereas when several matters are known | |
| 400 or not known, under the same aspect, we are not to distinguish various articles. Thus one encounters one | |
| 401 difficulty in seeing that God suffered, and another in seeing that He rose again from the dead, wherefore the article of the | |
| 402 Resurrection is distinct from the article of the Passion. But that He suffered, died and was buried, present the same difficulty, | |
| 403 so that if one be accepted, it is not difficult to accept the others; wherefore all these belong to one article. | |
| 404 </p> | |
| 405 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p8"> | |
| 406 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Some things are proposed to our belief are in themselves of faith, while others are of faith, not in themselves but only | |
| 407 in relation to others: even as in sciences certain propositions are put forward on their own account, while others are put | |
| 408 forward in order to manifest others. Now, since the chief object of faith consists in those things which we hope to see, according | |
| 409 to | |
| 410 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A6-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.2" target="asv"> Heb. 11:2</a>: "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped | |
| 411 for," it follows that those things are in themselves of faith, which order us directly to eternal life. Such are the Trinity | |
| 412 of Persons in Almighty God [*The Leonine Edition reads: The Three Persons, the omnipotence of God, etc.], the mystery of Christ's | |
| 413 Incarnation, and the like: and these are distinct articles of faith. On the other hand certain things in Holy Writ are proposed | |
| 414 to our belief, not chiefly on their own account, but for the manifestation of those mentioned above: for instance, | |
| 415 that Abraham had two sons, that a dead man rose again at the touch of Eliseus' bones, and the like, which are related in Holy | |
| 416 Writ for the purpose of manifesting the Divine mystery or the Incarnation of Christ: and such things should not form distinct | |
| 417 articles. | |
| 418 </p> | |
| 419 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p9"> | |
| 420 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The formal aspect of the object of faith can be taken in two ways: first, on the part of the thing believed, and thus there | |
| 421 is one formal aspect of all matters of faith, viz. the First Truth: and from this point of view there is no distinction of | |
| 422 articles. Secondly, the formal aspect of matters of faith, can be considered from our point of view; and thus the formal aspect | |
| 423 of a matter of faith is that it is something unseen; and from this point of view | |
| 424 there are various distinct articles of faith, as we saw above. | |
| 425 </p> | |
| 426 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p10"> | |
| 427 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This definition of an article is taken from an etymology of the word as derived from the Latin, rather than in accordance | |
| 428 with its real meaning, as derived from the Greek: hence it does not carry much weight. Yet even then it could be said that | |
| 429 although faith is exacted of no man by a necessity of coercion, since belief is a voluntary act, yet it is exacted of him | |
| 430 by a necessity of end, since "he that cometh to God must believe that He is," and | |
| 431 "without faith it is impossible to please God," as the Apostle declares ( | |
| 432 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A6-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>). | |
| 433 </p> | |
| 434 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 435 <p id="SS_Q1_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 436 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A5.html"></a> | |
| 437 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html"></a> | |
| 438 </div> | |
| 439 <div id="SS_Q1_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 440 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A6.html"></a> | |
| 441 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html"></a> | |
| 442 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A7-p0.1">Whether the articles of faith have increased in course of time?</h4> | |
| 443 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 444 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p2"> | |
| 445 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the articles of faith have not increased in course of time. Because, as the Apostle says ( | |
| 446 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.1" target="asv">Heb. 11:1</a>), "faith is the substance of things to be hoped for." Now the same things are to be hoped for at all times. Therefore, at | |
| 447 all times, the same things are to be believed. | |
| 448 </p> | |
| 449 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p3"> | |
| 450 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, development has taken place, in sciences devised by man, on account of the lack of knowledge in those who discovered | |
| 451 them, as the Philosopher observes (Metaph. ii). Now the doctrine of faith was not devised by man, but was delivered to us | |
| 452 by God, as stated in | |
| 453 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.2.8" target="asv"> Eph. 2:8</a>: "It is the gift of God." Since then there can be no lack of knowledge in God, it seems that knowledge of matters of faith | |
| 454 was perfect from the beginning and did not | |
| 455 increase as time went on. | |
| 456 </p> | |
| 457 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p4"> | |
| 458 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the operation of grace proceeds in orderly fashion no less than the operation of nature. Now nature always makes | |
| 459 a beginning with perfect things, as Boethius states (De Consol. iii). Therefore it seems that the operation of grace also | |
| 460 began with perfect things, so that those who were the first to deliver the faith, knew it most perfectly. | |
| 461 </p> | |
| 462 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p5"> | |
| 463 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, just as the faith of Christ was delivered to us through the apostles, so too, in the Old Testament, the knowledge | |
| 464 of faith was delivered by the early fathers to those who came later, according to | |
| 465 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.32.7" target="asv">Dt. 32:7</a>: "Ask thy father, and he will declare to thee." Now the apostles were most fully instructed about the mysteries, for "they | |
| 466 received them more fully than others, even as they received them earlier," as a gloss says on | |
| 467 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.23" target="asv"> Rom. 8:23</a>: | |
| 468 "Ourselves also who have the first fruits of the Spirit." Therefore it seems that knowledge of matters of faith has not increased | |
| 469 as time went on. | |
| 470 </p> | |
| 471 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p6"> | |
| 472 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Hom. xvi in Ezech.) that "the knowledge of the holy fathers increased as time went on . . . and the nearer | |
| 473 they were to Our Savior's coming, the more fully did they received the mysteries of salvation." | |
| 474 </p> | |
| 475 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p7"> | |
| 476 <b>I answer that,</b> The articles of faith stand in the same relation to the doctrine of faith, as self-evident principles to a teaching based | |
| 477 on natural reason. Among these principles there is a certain order, so that some are contained implicitly in others; thus | |
| 478 all principles are reduced, as to their first principle, to this one: "The same thing cannot be affirmed and denied at the | |
| 479 same time," as the Philosopher states (Metaph. iv, text. 9). In like manner all the articles | |
| 480 are contained implicitly in certain primary matters of faith, such as God's existence, and His providence over the salvation | |
| 481 of man, according to | |
| 482 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11" target="asv">Heb. 11</a>: "He that cometh to God, must believe that He is, and is a rewarder to them that seek Him." For the existence of God includes | |
| 483 all that we believe to exist in God eternally, and in these our happiness consists; while belief in His providence includes | |
| 484 all those things which God dispenses in time, for man's salvation, and which are the way to | |
| 485 that happiness: and in this way, again, some of those articles which follow from these are contained in others: thus faith | |
| 486 in the Redemption of mankind includes belief in the Incarnation of Christ, His Passion and so forth. | |
| 487 </p> | |
| 488 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p8"> Accordingly we must conclude that, as regards the substance of the articles of faith, they have not received any increase | |
| 489 as time went on: since whatever those who lived later have believed, was contained, albeit implicitly, in the faith of those | |
| 490 Fathers who preceded them. But there was an increase in the number of articles believed explicitly, since to those who lived | |
| 491 in later times some were known explicitly which were not known explicitly by those who lived before them. Hence | |
| 492 the Lord said to Moses ( | |
| 493 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.6.2" target="asv">Ex. 6:2,3</a>): "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob [*Vulg.: 'I am the Lord that appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, | |
| 494 and to Jacob'] . . . and My name Adonai I did not show them": David also said ( | |
| 495 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.100" target="asv">Ps. 118:100</a>): "I have had understanding above ancients": and the Apostle says ( | |
| 496 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Eph.3.5" target="asv">Eph. 3:5</a>) that the mystery of Christ, "in other generations was not known, as it is now revealed to His holy apostles and | |
| 497 prophets." | |
| 498 </p> | |
| 499 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p9"> | |
| 500 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Among men the same things were always to be hoped for from Christ. But as they did not acquire this hope save through Christ, | |
| 501 the further they were removed from Christ in point of time, the further they were from obtaining what they hoped for. Hence | |
| 502 the Apostle says ( | |
| 503 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.13" target="asv">Heb. 11:13</a>): "All these died according to faith, not having received the promises, but beholding them afar off." Now the further off | |
| 504 a thing is the less distinctly is it seen; wherefore | |
| 505 those who were nigh to Christ's advent had a more distinct knowledge of the good things to be hoped for. | |
| 506 </p> | |
| 507 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p10"> | |
| 508 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Progress in knowledge occurs in two ways. First, on the part of the teacher, be he one or many, who makes progress in knowledge | |
| 509 as time goes on: and this is the kind of progress that takes place in sciences devised by man. Secondly, on the part of the | |
| 510 learner; thus the master, who has perfect knowledge of the art, does not deliver it all at once to his disciple from the very | |
| 511 outset, for he would not be able to take it all in, but he condescends to the | |
| 512 disciple's capacity and instructs him little by little. It is in this way that men made progress in the knowledge of faith | |
| 513 as time went on. Hence the Apostle ( | |
| 514 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.3.24" target="asv">Gal. 3:24</a>) compares the state of the Old Testament to childhood. | |
| 515 </p> | |
| 516 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p11"> | |
| 517 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Two causes are requisite before actual generation can take place, an agent, namely, and matter. In the order of the active | |
| 518 cause, the more perfect is naturally first; and in this way nature makes a beginning with perfect things, since the imperfect | |
| 519 is not brought to perfection, except by something perfect already in existence. On the other hand, in the order of the material | |
| 520 cause, the imperfect comes first, and in this way nature proceeds from the | |
| 521 imperfect to the perfect. Now in the manifestation of faith, God is the active cause, having perfect knowledge from all eternity; | |
| 522 while man is likened to matter in receiving the influx of God's action. Hence, among men, the knowledge of faith had to proceed | |
| 523 from imperfection to perfection; and, although some men have been after the manner of active causes, through being doctors | |
| 524 of faith, nevertheless the manifestation of the Spirit is given to such men for the common good, according to | |
| 525 | |
| 526 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p11.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.7" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:7</a>; so that the knowledge of faith was imparted to the Fathers who were instructors in the faith, so far as was necessary at | |
| 527 the time for the instruction of the people, either openly or in figures. | |
| 528 </p> | |
| 529 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p12"> | |
| 530 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The ultimate consummation of grace was effected by Christ, wherefore the time of His coming is called the "time of fulness | |
| 531 [*Vulg.: 'fulness of time']" ( | |
| 532 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A7-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.4.4" target="asv">Gal. 4:4</a>). Hence those who were nearest to Christ, wherefore before, like John the Baptist, or after, like the apostles, had a fuller | |
| 533 knowledge of the mysteries of faith; for even with regard to man's state we find that the perfection of manhood comes in youth, | |
| 534 and that a man's | |
| 535 state is all the more perfect, whether before or after, the nearer it is to the time of his youth. | |
| 536 </p> | |
| 537 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p13"></p> | |
| 538 <p id="SS_Q1_A7-p14"></p> | |
| 539 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A6.html"></a> | |
| 540 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html"></a> | |
| 541 </div> | |
| 542 <div id="SS_Q1_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 543 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html"></a> | |
| 544 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A9.html"></a> | |
| 545 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A8-p0.1">Whether the articles of faith are suitably formulated?</h4> | |
| 546 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 547 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p2"> | |
| 548 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the articles of faith are unsuitably formulated. For those things, which can be known by demonstration, | |
| 549 do not belong to faith as to an object of belief for all, as stated above (A[5] ). Now it can be known by demonstration that | |
| 550 there is one God; hence the Philosopher proves this (Metaph. xii, text. 52) and many other philosophers demonstrated the same | |
| 551 truth. Therefore that "there is one God" should not be set down as an article of | |
| 552 faith. | |
| 553 </p> | |
| 554 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p3"> | |
| 555 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as it is necessary to faith that we should believe God to be almighty, so is it too that we should believe | |
| 556 Him to be "all-knowing" and "provident for all," about both of which points some have erred. Therefore, among the articles | |
| 557 of faith, mention should have been made of God's wisdom and providence, even as of His omnipotence. | |
| 558 </p> | |
| 559 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p4"> | |
| 560 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to know the Father is the same things as to know the Son, according to | |
| 561 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A8-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.14.9" target="asv"> Jn. 14:9</a>: "He that seeth Me, seeth the Father also." Therefore there ought to be but one article about the Father and Son, and, for | |
| 562 the same reason, about the Holy Ghost. | |
| 563 </p> | |
| 564 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p5"> | |
| 565 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Person of the Father is no less than the Person of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Now there are several articles | |
| 566 about the Person of the Holy Ghost, and likewise about the Person of the Son. Therefore there should be several articles about | |
| 567 the Person of the Father. | |
| 568 </p> | |
| 569 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p6"> | |
| 570 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, just as certain things are said by appropriation, of the Person of the Father and of the Person of the Holy Ghost, | |
| 571 so too is something appropriated to the Person of the Son, in respect of His Godhead. Now, among the articles of faith, a | |
| 572 place is given to a work appropriated to the Father, viz. the creation, and likewise, a work appropriated to the Holy Ghost, | |
| 573 viz. that "He spoke by the prophets." Therefore the articles of faith should contain some | |
| 574 work appropriated to the Son in respect of His Godhead. | |
| 575 </p> | |
| 576 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p7"> | |
| 577 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, the sacrament of the Eucharist presents a special difficulty over and above the other articles. Therefore it should | |
| 578 have been mentioned in a special article: and consequently it seems that there is not a sufficient number of articles. | |
| 579 </p> | |
| 580 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p8"> On the contrary stands the authority of the Church who formulates the articles thus.</p> | |
| 581 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p9"> | |
| 582 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 583 <a id="SS_Q1_A8-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">AA[4]</a>,6), to faith those things in themselves belong, the sight of which we shall enjoy in eternal life, and by which we are brought | |
| 584 to eternal life. Now two things are proposed to us to be seen in eternal life: viz. the secret of the Godhead, to see which | |
| 585 is to possess happiness; and the mystery of Christ's Incarnation, "by Whom we have access" to the glory of the sons of God, | |
| 586 according to | |
| 587 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A8-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.2" target="asv"> Rom. | |
| 588 5:2. | |
| 589 </a> Hence it is written ( | |
| 590 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A8-p9.3" href="./asv.html#John.17.3" target="asv">Jn. 17:3</a>): "This is eternal life: that they may know Thee, the . . . true God, and Jesus Christ Whom Thou hast sent." Wherefore the | |
| 591 first distinction in matters of faith is that some concern the majesty of the Godhead, while others pertain to the mystery | |
| 592 of Christ's human nature, which is the "mystery of godliness" ( | |
| 593 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A8-p9.4" href="./asv.html#iTim.3.16" target="asv">1 Tim. 3:16</a>). | |
| 594 </p> | |
| 595 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p10"> Now with regard to the majesty of the Godhead, three things are proposed to our belief: first, the unity of the Godhead, | |
| 596 to which the first article refers; secondly, the trinity of the Persons, to which three articles refer, corresponding to the | |
| 597 three Persons; and thirdly, the works proper to the Godhead, the first of which refers to the order of nature, in relation | |
| 598 to which the article about the creation is proposed to us; the second refers to the order of grace, in relation to | |
| 599 which all matters concerning the sanctification of man are included in one article; while the third refers to the order of | |
| 600 glory, and in relation to this another article is proposed to us concerning the resurrection of the dead and life everlasting. | |
| 601 Thus there are seven articles referring to the Godhead. | |
| 602 </p> | |
| 603 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p11"> In like manner, with regard to Christ's human nature, there are seven articles, the first of which refers to Christ's incarnation | |
| 604 or conception; the second, to His virginal birth; the third, to His Passion, death and burial; the fourth, to His descent | |
| 605 into hell; the fifth, to His resurrection; the sixth, to His ascension; the seventh, to His coming for the judgment, so that | |
| 606 in all there are fourteen articles. | |
| 607 </p> | |
| 608 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p12"> Some, however, distinguish twelve articles, six pertaining to the Godhead, and six to the humanity. For they include in one | |
| 609 article the three about the three Persons; because we have one knowledge of the three Persons: while they divide the article | |
| 610 referring to the work of glorification into two, viz. the resurrection of the body, and the glory of the soul. Likewise they | |
| 611 unite the conception and nativity into one article. | |
| 612 </p> | |
| 613 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p13"> | |
| 614 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By faith we hold many truths about God, which the philosophers were unable to discover by natural reason, for instance His | |
| 615 providence and omnipotence, and that He alone is to be worshiped, all of which are contained in the one article of the unity | |
| 616 of God. | |
| 617 </p> | |
| 618 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p14"> | |
| 619 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The very name of the Godhead implies a kind of watching over things, as stated in the | |
| 620 <a id="SS_Q1_A8-p14.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q13_A8.html">FP, Q[13], A[8]</a>. Now in beings having an intellect, power does not work save by the will and knowledge. Hence God's omnipotence includes, | |
| 621 in a way, universal knowledge and providence. For He would not be able to do all He wills in things here below, unless He | |
| 622 knew them, and exercised His providence over them. | |
| 623 </p> | |
| 624 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p15"> | |
| 625 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> We have but one knowledge of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, as to the unity of the Essence, to which the first article | |
| 626 refers: but, as to the distinction of the Persons, which is by the relations of origin, knowledge of the Father does indeed, | |
| 627 in a way, include knowledge of the Son, for He would not be Father, had He not a Son; the bond whereof being the Holy Ghost. | |
| 628 From this point of view, there was a sufficient motive for those who referred one | |
| 629 article to the three Persons. Since, however, with regard to each Person, certain points have to be observed, about which | |
| 630 some happen to fall into error, looking at it in this way, we may distinguish three articles about the three Persons. For | |
| 631 Arius believed in the omnipotence and eternity of the Father, but did not believe the Son to be co-equal and consubstantial | |
| 632 with the Father; hence the need for an article about the Person of the Son in order to settle this point. In like manner it | |
| 633 was | |
| 634 necessary to appoint a third article about the Person of the Holy Ghost, against Macedonius. In the same way Christ's conception | |
| 635 and birth, just as the resurrection and life everlasting, can from one point of view be united together in one article, in | |
| 636 so far as they are ordained to one end; while, from another point of view, they can be distinct articles, in as much as each | |
| 637 one separately presents a special difficulty. | |
| 638 </p> | |
| 639 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p16"> | |
| 640 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> It belongs to the Son and Holy Ghost to be sent to sanctify the creature; and about this several things have to be believed. | |
| 641 Hence it is that there are more articles about the Persons of the Son and Holy Ghost than about the Person of the Father, | |
| 642 Who is never sent, as we stated in the | |
| 643 <a id="SS_Q1_A8-p16.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q43_A4.html">FP, Q[43], A[4]</a>. | |
| 644 </p> | |
| 645 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p17"> | |
| 646 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The sanctification of a creature by grace, and its consummation by glory, is also effected by the gift of charity, which | |
| 647 is appropriated to the Holy Ghost, and by the gift of wisdom, which is appropriated to the Son: so that each work belongs | |
| 648 by appropriation, but under different aspects, both to the Son and to the Holy Ghost. | |
| 649 </p> | |
| 650 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p18"> | |
| 651 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Two things may be considered in the sacrament of the Eucharist. One is the fact that it is a sacrament, and in this respect | |
| 652 it is like the other effects of sanctifying grace. The other is that Christ's body is miraculously contained therein and thus | |
| 653 it is included under God's omnipotence, like all other miracles which are ascribed to God's almighty power. | |
| 654 </p> | |
| 655 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p19"></p> | |
| 656 <p id="SS_Q1_A8-p20"></p> | |
| 657 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html"></a> | |
| 658 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A9.html"></a> | |
| 659 </div> | |
| 660 <div id="SS_Q1_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 661 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html"></a> | |
| 662 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A10.html"></a> | |
| 663 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A9-p0.1">Whether it is suitable for the articles of faith to be embodied in a symbol?</h4> | |
| 664 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 665 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p2"> | |
| 666 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is unsuitable for the articles of faith to be embodied in a symbol. Because Holy Writ is the rule of | |
| 667 faith, to which no addition or subtraction can lawfully be made, since it is written ( | |
| 668 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.2" target="asv">Dt. 4:2</a>): "You shall not add to the word that I speak to you, neither shall you take away from it." Therefore it was unlawful to | |
| 669 make a symbol as a rule of faith, after the Holy Writ had once been published. | |
| 670 </p> | |
| 671 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p3"> | |
| 672 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to the Apostle ( | |
| 673 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A9-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.5" target="asv">Eph. 4:5</a>) there is but "one faith." Now the symbol is a profession of faith. Therefore it is not fitting that there should be more | |
| 674 than one symbol. | |
| 675 </p> | |
| 676 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p4"> | |
| 677 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the confession of faith, which is contained in the symbol, concerns all the faithful. Now the faithful are not all | |
| 678 competent to believe in God, but only those who have living faith. Therefore it is unfitting for the symbol of faith to be | |
| 679 expressed in the words: "I believe in one God." | |
| 680 </p> | |
| 681 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p5"> | |
| 682 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the descent into hell is one of the articles of faith, as stated above | |
| 683 <a id="SS_Q1_A9-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html">(A[8])</a>. But the descent into hell is not mentioned in the symbol of the Fathers. Therefore the latter is expressed inadequately. | |
| 684 </p> | |
| 685 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p6"> | |
| 686 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, Augustine (Tract. xxix in Joan.) expounding the passage, "You believe in God, believe also in Me" ( | |
| 687 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A9-p6.1" href="./asv.html#John.14.1" target="asv">Jn. 14:1</a>) says: "We believe Peter or Paul, but we speak only of believing 'in' God." Since then the Catholic Church is merely a created | |
| 688 being, it seems unfitting to say: "In the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church." | |
| 689 </p> | |
| 690 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p7"> | |
| 691 <b>Objection 6:</b> Further, a symbol is drawn up that it may be a rule of faith. Now a rule of faith ought to be proposed to all, and that publicly. | |
| 692 Therefore every symbol, besides the symbol of the Fathers, should be sung at Mass. Therefore it seems unfitting to publish | |
| 693 the articles of faith in a symbol. | |
| 694 </p> | |
| 695 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p8"> | |
| 696 <b>On the contrary,</b> The universal Church cannot err, since she is governed by the Holy Ghost, Who is the Spirit of truth: for such was Our Lord's | |
| 697 promise to His disciples ( | |
| 698 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A9-p8.1" href="./asv.html#John.16.13" target="asv">Jn. 16:13</a>): "When He, the Spirit of truth, is come, He will teach you all truth." Now the symbol is published by the authority of the | |
| 699 universal Church. Therefore it contains nothing defective. | |
| 700 </p> | |
| 701 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p9"> | |
| 702 <b>I answer that,</b> As the Apostle says ( | |
| 703 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A9-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>), "he that cometh to God, must believe that He is." Now a man cannot believe, unless the truth be proposed to him that he | |
| 704 may believe it. Hence the need for the truth of faith to be collected together, so that it might the more easily be proposed | |
| 705 to all, lest anyone might stray from the truth through ignorance of the faith. It is from its being a collection of maxims | |
| 706 of faith that the symbol [*The Greek | |
| 707 {symballein}] takes its name. | |
| 708 </p> | |
| 709 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p10"> | |
| 710 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The truth of faith is contained in Holy Writ, diffusely, under various modes of expression, and sometimes obscurely, so that, | |
| 711 in order to gather the truth of faith from Holy Writ, one needs long study and practice, which are unattainable by all those | |
| 712 who require to know the truth of faith, many of whom have no time for study, being busy with other affairs. And so it was | |
| 713 necessary to gather together a clear summary from the sayings of Holy Writ, to be | |
| 714 proposed to the belief of all. This indeed was no addition to Holy Writ, but something taken from it. | |
| 715 </p> | |
| 716 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p11"> | |
| 717 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The same doctrine of faith is taught in all the symbols. Nevertheless, the people need more careful instruction about the | |
| 718 truth of faith, when errors arise, lest the faith of simple-minded persons be corrupted by heretics. It was this that gave | |
| 719 rise to the necessity of formulating several symbols, which nowise differ from one another, save that on account of the obstinacy | |
| 720 of heretics, one contains more explicitly what another contains implicitly. | |
| 721 </p> | |
| 722 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p12"> | |
| 723 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The confession of faith is drawn up in a symbol in the person, as it were, of the whole Church, which is united together | |
| 724 by faith. Now the faith of the Church is living faith; since such is the faith to be found in all those who are of the Church | |
| 725 not only outwardly but also by merit. Hence the confession of faith is expressed in a symbol, in a manner that is in keeping | |
| 726 with living faith, so that even if some of the faithful lack living faith, they | |
| 727 should endeavor to acquire it. | |
| 728 </p> | |
| 729 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p13"> | |
| 730 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> No error about the descent into hell had arisen among heretics, so that there was no need to be more explicit on that point. | |
| 731 For this reason it is not repeated in the symbol of the Fathers, but is supposed as already settled in the symbol of the Apostles. | |
| 732 For a subsequent symbol does not cancel a preceding one; rather does it expound it, as stated above (ad 2). | |
| 733 </p> | |
| 734 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p14"> | |
| 735 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> If we say: "'In' the holy Catholic Church," this must be taken as verified in so far as our faith is directed to the Holy | |
| 736 Ghost, Who sanctifies the Church; so that the sense is: "I believe in the Holy Ghost sanctifying the Church." But it is better | |
| 737 and more in keeping with the common use, to omit the 'in,' and say simply, "the holy Catholic Church," as Pope Leo [*Rufinus, | |
| 738 Comm. in Sym. Apost.] observes. | |
| 739 </p> | |
| 740 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p15"> | |
| 741 <b>Reply to Objection 6:</b> Since the symbol of the Fathers is an explanation of the symbol of the Apostles, and was drawn up after the faith was already | |
| 742 spread abroad, and when the Church was already at peace, it is sung publicly in the Mass. On the other hand the symbol of | |
| 743 the Apostles, which was drawn up at the time of persecution, before the faith was made public, is said secretly at Prime and | |
| 744 Compline, as though it were against the darkness of past and future errors. | |
| 745 </p> | |
| 746 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p16"></p> | |
| 747 <p id="SS_Q1_A9-p17"></p> | |
| 748 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html"></a> | |
| 749 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A10.html"></a> | |
| 750 </div> | |
| 751 <div id="SS_Q1_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 752 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A9.html"></a> | |
| 753 <a href="summa.SS_Q2.html"></a> | |
| 754 <h4 id="SS_Q1_A10-p0.1">Whether it belongs to the Sovereign Pontiff to draw up a symbol of faith?</h4> | |
| 755 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 756 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p2"> | |
| 757 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it does not belong to the Sovereign Pontiff to draw up a symbol of faith. For a new edition of the symbol | |
| 758 becomes necessary in order to explain the articles of faith, as stated above | |
| 759 <a id="SS_Q1_A10-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A9.html">(A[9])</a>. Now, in the Old Testament, the articles of faith were more and more explained as time went on, by reason of the truth of | |
| 760 faith becoming clearer through greater nearness to Christ, as stated above | |
| 761 <a id="SS_Q1_A10-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. | |
| 762 Since then this reason ceased with the advent of the New Law, there is no need for the articles of faith to be more and more | |
| 763 explicit. Therefore it does not seem to belong to the authority of the Sovereign Pontiff to draw up a new edition of the symbol. | |
| 764 </p> | |
| 765 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p3"> | |
| 766 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no man has the power to do what is forbidden under pain of anathema by the universal Church. Now it was forbidden | |
| 767 under pain of anathema by the universal Church, to make a new edition of the symbol. For it is stated in the acts of the first* | |
| 768 council of Ephesus (P. ii, | |
| 769 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A10-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.6" target="asv">Act. 6</a>) that "after the symbol of the Nicene council had been read through, the holy synod decreed that it was unlawful to utter, | |
| 770 write or draw up any other creed, than that which was | |
| 771 defined by the Fathers assembled at Nicaea together with the Holy Ghost," and this under pain of anathema. [*St. Thomas wrote | |
| 772 'first' (expunged by Nicolai) to distinguish it from the other council, A.D. 451, known as the "Latrocinium" and condemned | |
| 773 by the Pope.] The same was repeated in the acts of the council of Chalcedon (P. ii, | |
| 774 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A10-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Acts.5" target="asv">Act. 5</a>). Therefore it seems that the Sovereign Pontiff has no authority to publish a new edition of the symbol. | |
| 775 </p> | |
| 776 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p4"> | |
| 777 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Athanasius was not the Sovereign Pontiff, but patriarch of Alexandria, and yet he published a symbol which is sung | |
| 778 in the Church. Therefore it does not seem to belong to the Sovereign Pontiff any more than to other bishops, to publish a | |
| 779 new edition of the symbol. | |
| 780 </p> | |
| 781 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p5"> | |
| 782 <b>On the contrary,</b> The symbol was drawn us by a general council. Now such a council cannot be convoked otherwise than by the authority of the | |
| 783 Sovereign Pontiff, as stated in the Decretals [*Dist. xvii, Can. 4,5]. Therefore it belongs to the authority of the Sovereign | |
| 784 Pontiff to draw up a symbol. | |
| 785 </p> | |
| 786 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p6"> | |
| 787 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (OBJ 1), a new edition of the symbol becomes necessary in order to set aside the errors that may arise. Consequently | |
| 788 to publish a new edition of the symbol belongs to that authority which is empowered to decide matters of faith finally, so | |
| 789 that they may be held by all with unshaken faith. Now this belongs to the authority of the Sovereign Pontiff, "to whom the | |
| 790 more important and more difficult questions that arise in the Church are referred," | |
| 791 as stated in the Decretals [*Dist. xvii, Can. 5]. Hence our Lord said to Peter whom he made Sovereign Pontiff ( | |
| 792 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A10-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.22.32" target="asv">Lk. 22:32</a>): "I have prayed for thee," Peter, "that thy faith fail not, and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren." The reason | |
| 793 of this is that there should be but one faith of the whole Church, according to | |
| 794 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A10-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:10</a>: "That you all speak the same thing, and that there be no schisms among you": and this could not be secured unless | |
| 795 any question of faith that may arise be decided by him who presides over the whole Church, so that the whole Church may hold | |
| 796 firmly to his decision. Consequently it belongs to the sole authority of the Sovereign Pontiff to publish a new edition of | |
| 797 the symbol, as do all other matters which concern the whole Church, such as to convoke a general council and so forth. | |
| 798 </p> | |
| 799 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p7"> | |
| 800 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The truth of faith is sufficiently explicit in the teaching of Christ and the apostles. But since, according to | |
| 801 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q1_A10-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iiPet.3.16" target="asv">2 Pet. 3:16, </a> some men are so evil-minded as to pervert the apostolic teaching and other doctrines and Scriptures to their own destruction, | |
| 802 it was necessary as time went on to express the faith more explicitly against the errors which arose. | |
| 803 </p> | |
| 804 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p8"> | |
| 805 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This prohibition and sentence of the council was intended for private individuals, who have no business to decide matters | |
| 806 of faith: for this decision of the general council did not take away from a subsequent council the power of drawing up a new | |
| 807 edition of the symbol, containing not indeed a new faith, but the same faith with greater explicitness. For every council | |
| 808 has taken into account that a subsequent council would expound matters more fully than | |
| 809 the preceding council, if this became necessary through some heresy arising. Consequently this belongs to the Sovereign Pontiff, | |
| 810 by whose authority the council is convoked, and its decision confirmed. | |
| 811 </p> | |
| 812 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p9"> | |
| 813 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Athanasius drew up a declaration of faith, not under the form of a symbol, but rather by way of an exposition of doctrine, | |
| 814 as appears from his way of speaking. But since it contained briefly the whole truth of faith, it was accepted by the authority | |
| 815 of the Sovereign Pontiff, so as to be considered as a rule of faith. | |
| 816 </p> | |
| 817 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p10"></p> | |
| 818 <p id="SS_Q1_A10-p11"></p> | |
| 819 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A9.html"></a> | |
| 820 <a href="summa.SS_Q2.html"></a> | |
| 821 </div> | |
| 822 <a href="summa.SS.i.html"></a> | |
| 823 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html"></a> | |
| 824 </div> | |
| 825 <div id="SS_Q2" class="div3"> | |
| 826 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A10.html"></a> | |
| 827 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html"></a> | |
| 828 <h3 id="SS_Q2-p0.1">OF THE ACT OF FAITH (TEN ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 829 <p id="SS_Q2-p1"></p> | |
| 830 <p id="SS_Q2-p2"> We must now consider the act of faith, and (1) the internal act; (2) the external act.</p> | |
| 831 <p id="SS_Q2-p3"> Under the first head there are ten points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 832 <p id="SS_Q2-p4"> (1) What is "to believe," which is the internal act of faith?</p> | |
| 833 <p id="SS_Q2-p5"> (2) In how many ways is it expressed?</p> | |
| 834 <p id="SS_Q2-p6"> (3) Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe in anything above natural reason?</p> | |
| 835 <p id="SS_Q2-p7"> (4) Whether it is necessary to believe those things that are attainable by natural reason?</p> | |
| 836 <p id="SS_Q2-p8"> (5) Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe certain things explicitly?</p> | |
| 837 <p id="SS_Q2-p9"> (6) Whether all are equally bound to explicit faith?</p> | |
| 838 <p id="SS_Q2-p10"> (7) Whether explicit faith in Christ is always necessary for salvation?</p> | |
| 839 <p id="SS_Q2-p11"> (8) Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe in the Trinity explicitly?</p> | |
| 840 <p id="SS_Q2-p12"> (9) Whether the act of faith is meritorious?</p> | |
| 841 <p id="SS_Q2-p13"> (10) Whether human reason diminishes the merit of faith?</p> | |
| 842 <div id="SS_Q2_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 843 <a href="summa.SS_Q2.html"></a> | |
| 844 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A2.html"></a> | |
| 845 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A1-p0.1">Whether to believe is to think with assent?</h4> | |
| 846 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 847 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p2"> | |
| 848 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that to believe is not to think with assent. Because the Latin word "cogitatio" [thought] implies a research, | |
| 849 for "cogitare" [to think] seems to be equivalent to "coagitare," i.e. "to discuss together." Now Damascene says (De Fide Orth. | |
| 850 iv) that faith is "an assent without research." Therefore thinking has no place in the act of faith. | |
| 851 </p> | |
| 852 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p3"> | |
| 853 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, faith resides in the reason, as we shall show further on (Q[4], A[2]). Now to think is an act of the cogitative | |
| 854 power, which belongs to the sensitive faculty, as stated in the | |
| 855 <a id="SS_Q2_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q78_A4.html">FP, Q[78], A[4]</a>. Therefore thought has nothing to do with faith. | |
| 856 </p> | |
| 857 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p4"> | |
| 858 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to believe is an act of the intellect, since its object is truth. But assent seems to be an act not of the intellect, | |
| 859 but of the will, even as consent is, as stated above ( | |
| 860 <a id="SS_Q2_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q15_A1.html">FS, Q[15], A[1]</a>, ad 3). Therefore to believe is not to think with assent. | |
| 861 </p> | |
| 862 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p5"> | |
| 863 <b>On the contrary,</b> This is how "to believe" is defined by Augustine (De Praedest. Sanct. ii). | |
| 864 </p> | |
| 865 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p6"> | |
| 866 <b>I answer that,</b> "To think" can be taken in three ways. First, in a general way for any kind of actual consideration of the intellect, as | |
| 867 Augustine observes (De Trin. xiv, 7): "By understanding I mean now the faculty whereby we understand when thinking." Secondly, | |
| 868 "to think" is more strictly taken for that consideration of the intellect, which is accompanied by some kind of inquiry, and | |
| 869 which precedes the intellect's arrival at the stage of perfection that comes with the | |
| 870 certitude of sight. In this sense Augustine says (De Trin. xv, 16) that "the Son of God is not called the Thought, but the | |
| 871 Word of God. When our thought realizes what we know and takes form therefrom, it becomes our word. Hence the Word of God must | |
| 872 be understood without any thinking on the part of God, for there is nothing there that can take form, or be unformed." In | |
| 873 this way thought is, properly speaking, the movement of the mind while yet deliberating, and not yet perfected by the clear | |
| 874 sight of truth. Since, however, such a movement of the mind may be one of deliberation either about universal notions, which | |
| 875 belongs to the intellectual faculty, or about particular matters, which belongs to the sensitive part, hence it is that "to | |
| 876 think" is taken secondly for an act of the deliberating intellect, and thirdly for an act of the cogitative power. | |
| 877 </p> | |
| 878 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p7"> Accordingly, if "to think" be understood broadly according to the first sense, then "to think with assent," does not express | |
| 879 completely what is meant by "to believe": since, in this way, a man thinks with assent even when he considers what he knows | |
| 880 by science [*Science is certain knowledge of a demonstrated conclusion through its demonstration.], or understands. If, on | |
| 881 the other hand, "to think" be understood in the second way, then this expresses completely the nature of the | |
| 882 act of believing. For among the acts belonging to the intellect, some have a firm assent without any such kind of thinking, | |
| 883 as when a man considers the things that he knows by science, or understands, for this consideration is already formed. But | |
| 884 some acts of the intellect have unformed thought devoid of a firm assent, whether they incline to neither side, as in one | |
| 885 who "doubts"; or incline to one side rather than the other, but on account of some slight motive, as in one who "suspects"; | |
| 886 or | |
| 887 incline to one side yet with fear of the other, as in one who "opines." But this act "to believe," cleaves firmly to one side, | |
| 888 in which respect belief has something in common with science and understanding; yet its knowledge does not attain the perfection | |
| 889 of clear sight, wherein it agrees with doubt, suspicion and opinion. Hence it is proper to the believer to think with assent: | |
| 890 so that the act of believing is distinguished from all the other acts of the intellect, which are about the true or | |
| 891 the false. | |
| 892 </p> | |
| 893 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p8"> | |
| 894 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Faith has not that research of natural reason which demonstrates what is believed, but a research into those things whereby | |
| 895 a man is induced to believe, for instance that such things have been uttered by God and confirmed by miracles. | |
| 896 </p> | |
| 897 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p9"> | |
| 898 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> "To think" is not taken here for the act of the cogitative power, but for an act of the intellect, as explained above. | |
| 899 </p> | |
| 900 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p10"> | |
| 901 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The intellect of the believer is determined to one object, not by the reason, but by the will, wherefore assent is taken | |
| 902 here for an act of the intellect as determined to one object by the will. | |
| 903 </p> | |
| 904 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 905 <p id="SS_Q2_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 906 <a href="summa.SS_Q2.html"></a> | |
| 907 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A2.html"></a> | |
| 908 </div> | |
| 909 <div id="SS_Q2_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 910 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html"></a> | |
| 911 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A3.html"></a> | |
| 912 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A2-p0.1">Whether the act of faith is suitably distinguished as believing God, believing in a God and believing in God?</h4> | |
| 913 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 914 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p2"> | |
| 915 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the act of faith is unsuitably distinguished as believing God, believing in a God, and believing in God. | |
| 916 For one habit has but one act. Now faith is one habit since it is one virtue. Therefore it is unreasonable to say that there | |
| 917 are three acts of faith. | |
| 918 </p> | |
| 919 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p3"> | |
| 920 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is common to all acts of faith should not be reckoned as a particular kind of act of faith. Now "to believe | |
| 921 God" is common to all acts of faith, since faith is founded on the First Truth. Therefore it seems unreasonable to distinguish | |
| 922 it from certain other acts of faith. | |
| 923 </p> | |
| 924 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p4"> | |
| 925 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which can be said of unbelievers, cannot be called an act of faith. Now unbelievers can be said to believe | |
| 926 in a God. Therefore it should not be reckoned an act of faith. | |
| 927 </p> | |
| 928 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p5"> | |
| 929 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, movement towards the end belongs to the will, whose object is the good and the end. Now to believe is an act, not | |
| 930 of the will, but of the intellect. Therefore "to believe in God," which implies movement towards an end, should not be reckoned | |
| 931 as a species of that act. | |
| 932 </p> | |
| 933 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p6"> On the contrary is the authority of Augustine who makes this distinction (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxi---Tract. xxix in Joan.).</p> | |
| 934 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p7"> | |
| 935 <b>I answer that,</b> The act of any power or habit depends on the relation of that power or habit to its object. Now the object of faith can be | |
| 936 considered in three ways. For, since "to believe" is an act of the intellect, in so far as the will moves it to assent, as | |
| 937 stated above (A[1], ad 3), the object of faith can be considered either on the part of the intellect, or on the part of the | |
| 938 will that moves the intellect. | |
| 939 </p> | |
| 940 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p8"> If it be considered on the part of the intellect, then two things can be observed in the object of faith, as stated above | |
| 941 ( | |
| 942 <a id="SS_Q2_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). One of these is the material object of faith, and in this way an act of faith is "to believe in a God"; because, as stated | |
| 943 above ( | |
| 944 <a id="SS_Q2_A2-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>) nothing is proposed to our belief, except in as much as it is referred to God. The other is the formal aspect of the object, | |
| 945 for it is the medium on account | |
| 946 of which we assent to such and such a point of faith; and thus an act of faith is "to believe God," since, as stated above | |
| 947 ( | |
| 948 <a id="SS_Q2_A2-p8.3" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>) the formal object of faith is the First Truth, to Which man gives his adhesion, so as to assent to Its sake to whatever | |
| 949 he believes. | |
| 950 </p> | |
| 951 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p9"> Thirdly, if the object of faith be considered in so far as the intellect is moved by the will, an act of faith is "to believe | |
| 952 in God." For the First Truth is referred to the will, through having the aspect of an end. | |
| 953 </p> | |
| 954 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p10"> | |
| 955 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> These three do not denote different acts of faith, but one and the same act having different relations to the object of faith. | |
| 956 </p> | |
| 957 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p11"> This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.</p> | |
| 958 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p12"> | |
| 959 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Unbelievers cannot be said "to believe in a God" as we understand it in relation to the act of faith. For they do not believe | |
| 960 that God exists under the conditions that faith determines; hence they do not truly believe in a God, since, as the Philosopher | |
| 961 observes (Metaph. ix, text. 22) "to know simple things defectively is not to know them at all." | |
| 962 </p> | |
| 963 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p13"> | |
| 964 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 965 <a id="SS_Q2_A2-p13.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">FS, Q[9], A[1]</a>) the will moves the intellect and the other powers of the soul to the end: and in this respect an act of faith is "to believe | |
| 966 in God." | |
| 967 </p> | |
| 968 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 969 <p id="SS_Q2_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 970 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html"></a> | |
| 971 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A3.html"></a> | |
| 972 </div> | |
| 973 <div id="SS_Q2_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 974 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A2.html"></a> | |
| 975 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A4.html"></a> | |
| 976 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A3-p0.1">Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe anything above the natural reason?</h4> | |
| 977 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 978 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p2"> | |
| 979 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem unnecessary for salvation to believe anything above the natural reason. For the salvation and perfection of | |
| 980 a thing seem to be sufficiently insured by its natural endowments. Now matters of faith, surpass man's natural reason, since | |
| 981 they are things unseen as stated above ( | |
| 982 <a id="SS_Q2_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], A[4]</a>). Therefore to believe seems unnecessary for salvation. | |
| 983 </p> | |
| 984 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p3"> | |
| 985 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is dangerous for man to assent to matters, wherein he cannot judge whether that which is proposed to him be true | |
| 986 or false, according to | |
| 987 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Job.12.11" target="asv"> Job 12:11</a>: "Doth not the ear discern words?" Now a man cannot form a judgment of this kind in matters of faith, since he cannot trace | |
| 988 them back to first principles, by which all our judgments are guided. Therefore it is dangerous to believe in such matters. | |
| 989 Therefore to believe is not necessary | |
| 990 for salvation. | |
| 991 </p> | |
| 992 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p4"> | |
| 993 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man's salvation rests on God, according to | |
| 994 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.36.39" target="asv"> Ps. 36:39</a>: "But the salvation of the just is from the Lord." Now "the invisible things" of God "are clearly seen, being understood | |
| 995 by the things that are made; His eternal power also and Divinity," according to | |
| 996 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv"> Rom. 1:20</a>: and those things which are clearly seen by the understanding are not an object of belief. Therefore it is not necessary | |
| 997 for man's salvation, that he | |
| 998 should believe certain things. | |
| 999 </p> | |
| 1000 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p5"> | |
| 1001 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 1002 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>): "Without faith it is impossible to please God." | |
| 1003 </p> | |
| 1004 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p6"> | |
| 1005 <b>I answer that,</b> Wherever one nature is subordinate to another, we find that two things concur towards the perfection of the lower nature, | |
| 1006 one of which is in respect of that nature's proper movement, while the other is in respect of the movement of the higher nature. | |
| 1007 Thus water by its proper movement moves towards the centre (of the earth), while according to the movement of the moon, it | |
| 1008 moves round the centre by ebb and flow. In like manner the planets have their proper | |
| 1009 movements from west to east, while in accordance with the movement of the first heaven, they have a movement from east to | |
| 1010 west. Now the created rational nature alone is immediately subordinate to God, since other creatures do not attain to the | |
| 1011 universal, but only to something particular, while they partake of the Divine goodness either in "being" only, as inanimate | |
| 1012 things, or also in "living," and in "knowing singulars," as plants and animals; whereas the rational nature, in as much as | |
| 1013 it | |
| 1014 apprehends the universal notion of good and being, is immediately related to the universal principle of being. | |
| 1015 </p> | |
| 1016 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p7"> Consequently the perfection of the rational creature consists not only in what belongs to it in respect of its nature, but | |
| 1017 also in that which it acquires through a supernatural participation of Divine goodness. Hence it was said above ( | |
| 1018 <a id="SS_Q2_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q3_A8.html">FS, Q[3], A[8]</a>) that man's ultimate happiness consists in a supernatural vision of God: to which vision man cannot attain unless he be taught | |
| 1019 by God, according to | |
| 1020 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p7.2" href="./asv.html#John.6.45" target="asv"> Jn. 6:45</a>: "Every one that hath heard of | |
| 1021 the Father and hath learned cometh to Me." Now man acquires a share of this learning, not indeed all at once, but by little | |
| 1022 and little, according to the mode of his nature: and every one who learns thus must needs believe, in order that he may acquire | |
| 1023 science in a perfect degree; thus also the Philosopher remarks (De Soph. Elench. i, 2) that "it behooves a learner to believe." | |
| 1024 </p> | |
| 1025 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p8"> Hence in order that a man arrive at the perfect vision of heavenly happiness, he must first of all believe God, as a disciple | |
| 1026 believes the master who is teaching him. | |
| 1027 </p> | |
| 1028 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p9"> | |
| 1029 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Since man's nature is dependent on a higher nature, natural knowledge does not suffice for its perfection, and some supernatural | |
| 1030 knowledge is necessary, as stated above. | |
| 1031 </p> | |
| 1032 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p10"> | |
| 1033 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as man assents to first principles, by the natural light of his intellect, so does a virtuous man, by the habit of virtue, | |
| 1034 judge aright of things concerning that virtue; and in this way, by the light of faith which God bestows on him, a man assents | |
| 1035 to matters of faith and not to those which are against faith. Consequently "there is no" danger or "condemnation to them that | |
| 1036 are in Christ Jesus," and whom He has enlightened by faith. | |
| 1037 </p> | |
| 1038 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p11"> | |
| 1039 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In many respects faith perceives the invisible things of God in a higher way than natural reason does in proceeding to God | |
| 1040 from His creatures. Hence it is written ( | |
| 1041 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A3-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.3.25" target="asv">Ecclus. 3:25</a>): "Many things are shown to thee above the understandings of man." | |
| 1042 </p> | |
| 1043 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 1044 <p id="SS_Q2_A3-p13"></p> | |
| 1045 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1046 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1047 </div> | |
| 1048 <div id="SS_Q2_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 1049 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1050 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1051 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A4-p0.1">Whether it is necessary to believe those things which can be proved by natural reason?</h4> | |
| 1052 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 1053 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p2"> | |
| 1054 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem unnecessary to believe those things which can be proved by natural reason. For nothing is superfluous in God's | |
| 1055 works, much less even than in the works of nature. Now it is superfluous to employ other means, where one already suffices. | |
| 1056 Therefore it would be superfluous to receive by faith, things that can be known by natural reason. | |
| 1057 </p> | |
| 1058 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p3"> | |
| 1059 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, those things must be believed, which are the object of faith. Now science and faith are not about the same object, | |
| 1060 as stated above ( | |
| 1061 <a id="SS_Q2_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], AA[4]</a>,5). Since therefore all things that can be known by natural reason are an object of science, it seems that there is no need | |
| 1062 to believe what can be proved by natural reason. | |
| 1063 </p> | |
| 1064 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p4"> | |
| 1065 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, all things knowable scientifically [*Science is certain knowledge of a demonstrated conclusion through its demonstration] | |
| 1066 would seem to come under one head: so that if some of them are proposed to man as objects of faith, in like manner the others | |
| 1067 should also be believed. But this is not true. Therefore it is not necessary to believe those things which can be proved by | |
| 1068 natural reason. | |
| 1069 </p> | |
| 1070 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p5"> | |
| 1071 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is necessary to believe that God is one and incorporeal: which things philosophers prove by natural reason. | |
| 1072 </p> | |
| 1073 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p6"> | |
| 1074 <b>I answer that,</b> It is necessary for man to accept by faith not only things which are above reason, but also those which can be known by reason: | |
| 1075 and this for three motives. First, in order that man may arrive more quickly at the knowledge of Divine truth. Because the | |
| 1076 science to whose province it belongs to prove the existence of God, is the last of all to offer itself to human research, | |
| 1077 since it presupposes many other sciences: so that it would not by until late in life that | |
| 1078 man would arrive at the knowledge of God. The second reason is, in order that the knowledge of God may be more general. For | |
| 1079 many are unable to make progress in the study of science, either through dullness of mind, or through having a number of occupations, | |
| 1080 and temporal needs, or even through laziness in learning, all of whom would be altogether deprived of | |
| 1081 </p> | |
| 1082 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p7"> the knowledge of God, unless Divine things were brought to their knowledge under the guise of faith. The third reason is | |
| 1083 for the sake of certitude. For human reason is very deficient in things concerning God. A sign of this is that philosophers | |
| 1084 in their researches, by natural investigation, into human affairs, have fallen into many errors, and have disagreed among | |
| 1085 themselves. And consequently, in order that men might have knowledge of God, free of doubt and uncertainty, it was | |
| 1086 necessary for Divine matters to be delivered to them by way of faith, being told to them, as it were, by God Himself Who cannot | |
| 1087 lie. | |
| 1088 </p> | |
| 1089 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p8"> | |
| 1090 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The researches of natural reason do not suffice mankind for the knowledge of Divine matters, even of those that can be proved | |
| 1091 by reason: and so it is not superfluous if these others be believed. | |
| 1092 </p> | |
| 1093 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p9"> | |
| 1094 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Science and faith cannot be in the same subject and about the same object: but what is an object of science for one, can | |
| 1095 be an object of faith for another, as stated above ( | |
| 1096 <a id="SS_Q2_A4-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A5.html">Q[1], A[5]</a>). | |
| 1097 </p> | |
| 1098 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p10"> | |
| 1099 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although all things that can be known by science are of one common scientific aspect, they do not all alike lead man to beatitude: | |
| 1100 hence they are not all equally proposed to our belief. | |
| 1101 </p> | |
| 1102 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 1103 <p id="SS_Q2_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 1104 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1105 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1106 </div> | |
| 1107 <div id="SS_Q2_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 1108 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1109 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A6.html"></a> | |
| 1110 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A5-p0.1">Whether man is bound to believe anything explicitly?</h4> | |
| 1111 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 1112 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p2"> | |
| 1113 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man is not bound to believe anything explicitly. For no man is bound to do what is not in his power. Now | |
| 1114 it is not in man's power to believe a thing explicitly, for it is written ( | |
| 1115 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.14" target="asv">Rom. 10:14,15</a>): "How shall they believe Him, of whom they have not heard? And how shall they hear without a preacher? And how shall they | |
| 1116 preach unless they be sent?" Therefore man is not bound to believe anything explicitly. | |
| 1117 </p> | |
| 1118 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p3"> | |
| 1119 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as we are directed to God by faith, so are we by charity. Now man is not bound to keep the precepts of charity, | |
| 1120 and it is enough if he be ready to fulfil them: as is evidenced by the precept of Our Lord ( | |
| 1121 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.39" target="asv">Mat. 5:39</a>): "If one strike thee on one [Vulg.: 'thy right'] cheek, turn to him also the other"; and by others of the same kind, according | |
| 1122 to Augustine's exposition (De Serm. Dom. in Monte xix). Therefore neither is man bound | |
| 1123 to believe anything explicitly, and it is enough if he be ready to believe whatever God proposes to be believed. | |
| 1124 </p> | |
| 1125 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p4"> | |
| 1126 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the good of faith consists in obedience, according to | |
| 1127 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.5" target="asv"> Rom. 1:5</a>: "For obedience to the faith in all nations." Now the virtue of obedience does not require man to keep certain fixed precepts, | |
| 1128 but it is enough that his mind be ready to obey, according to | |
| 1129 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A5-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.60" target="asv"> Ps. 118:60</a>: "I am ready and am not troubled; that I may keep Thy commandments." Therefore it seems enough for faith, too, that man should | |
| 1130 be ready to believe | |
| 1131 whatever God may propose, without his believing anything explicitly. | |
| 1132 </p> | |
| 1133 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p5"> | |
| 1134 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 1135 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>): "He that cometh to God, must believe that He is, and is a rewarder to them that seek Him." | |
| 1136 </p> | |
| 1137 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p6"> | |
| 1138 <b>I answer that,</b> The precepts of the Law, which man is bound to fulfil, concern acts of virtue which are the means of attaining salvation. | |
| 1139 Now an act of virtue, as stated above ( | |
| 1140 <a id="SS_Q2_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q60_A5.html">FS, Q[60], A[5]</a>) depends on the relation of the habit to its object. Again two things may be considered in the object of any virtue; namely, | |
| 1141 that which is the proper and direct object of that virtue, and that which is accidental and consequent to the object properly | |
| 1142 so | |
| 1143 called. Thus it belongs properly and directly to the object of fortitude, to face the dangers of death, and to charge at the | |
| 1144 foe with danger to oneself, for the sake of the common good: yet that, in a just war, a man be armed, or strike another with | |
| 1145 his sword, and so forth, is reduced to the object of fortitude, but indirectly. | |
| 1146 </p> | |
| 1147 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p7"> Accordingly, just as a virtuous act is required for the fulfilment of a precept, so is it necessary that the virtuous act | |
| 1148 should terminate in its proper and direct object: but, on the other hand, the fulfilment of the precept does not require that | |
| 1149 a virtuous act should terminate in those things which have an accidental or secondary relation to the proper and direct object | |
| 1150 of that virtue, except in certain places and at certain times. We must, therefore, say that the direct | |
| 1151 object of faith is that whereby man is made one of the Blessed, as stated above ( | |
| 1152 <a id="SS_Q2_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html">Q[1], A[8]</a>): while the indirect and secondary object comprises all things delivered by God to us in Holy Writ, for instance that Abraham | |
| 1153 had two sons, that David was the son of Jesse, and so forth. | |
| 1154 </p> | |
| 1155 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p8"> Therefore, as regards the primary points or articles of faith, man is bound to believe them, just as he is bound to have | |
| 1156 faith; but as to other points of faith, man is not bound to believe them explicitly, but only implicitly, or to be ready to | |
| 1157 believe them, in so far as he is prepared to believe whatever is contained in the Divine Scriptures. Then alone is he bound | |
| 1158 to believe such things explicitly, when it is clear to him that they are contained in the doctrine of faith. | |
| 1159 </p> | |
| 1160 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p9"> | |
| 1161 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If we understand those things alone to be in a man's power, which we can do without the help of grace, then we are bound | |
| 1162 to do many things which we cannot do without the aid of healing grace, such as to love God and our neighbor, and likewise | |
| 1163 to believe the articles of faith. But with the help of grace we can do this, for this help "to whomsoever it is given from | |
| 1164 above it is mercifully given; and from whom it is withheld it is justly withheld, as a | |
| 1165 punishment of a previous, or at least of original, sin," as Augustine states (De Corr. et Grat. v, vi [*Cf. Ep. cxc; De Praed. | |
| 1166 Sanct. viii.]). | |
| 1167 </p> | |
| 1168 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p10"> | |
| 1169 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Man is bound to love definitely those lovable things which are properly and directly the objects of charity, namely, God | |
| 1170 and our neighbor. The objection refers to those precepts of charity which belong, as a consequence, to the objects of charity. | |
| 1171 </p> | |
| 1172 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p11"> | |
| 1173 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The virtue of obedience is seated, properly speaking, in the will; hence promptness of the will subject to authority, suffices | |
| 1174 for the act of obedience, because it is the proper and direct object of obedience. But this or that precept is accidental | |
| 1175 or consequent to that proper and direct object. | |
| 1176 </p> | |
| 1177 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 1178 <p id="SS_Q2_A5-p13"></p> | |
| 1179 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1180 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A6.html"></a> | |
| 1181 </div> | |
| 1182 <div id="SS_Q2_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 1183 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1184 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A7.html"></a> | |
| 1185 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A6-p0.1">Whether all are equally bound to have explicit faith?</h4> | |
| 1186 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 1187 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p2"> | |
| 1188 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that all are equally bound to have explicit faith. For all are bound to those things which are necessary for | |
| 1189 salvation, as is evidenced by the precepts of charity. Now it is necessary for salvation that certain things should be believed | |
| 1190 explicitly. Therefore all are equally bound to have explicit faith. | |
| 1191 </p> | |
| 1192 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p3"> | |
| 1193 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no one should be put to test in matters that he is not bound to believe. But simple reasons are sometimes tested | |
| 1194 in reference to the slightest articles of faith. Therefore all are bound to believe everything explicitly. | |
| 1195 </p> | |
| 1196 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p4"> | |
| 1197 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if the simple are bound to have, not explicit but only implicit faith, their faith must needs be implied in the | |
| 1198 faith of the learned. But this seems unsafe, since it is possible for the learned to err. Therefore it seems that the simple | |
| 1199 should also have explicit faith; so that all are, therefore, equally bound to have explicit faith. | |
| 1200 </p> | |
| 1201 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p5"> | |
| 1202 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 1203 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Job.1.14" target="asv">Job 1:14</a>): "The oxen were ploughing, and the asses feeding beside them," because, as Gregory expounds this passage (Moral. ii, 17), | |
| 1204 the simple, who are signified by the asses, ought, in matters of faith, to stay by the learned, who are denoted by the oxen. | |
| 1205 </p> | |
| 1206 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p6"> | |
| 1207 <b>I answer that,</b> The unfolding of matters of faith is the result of Divine revelation: for matters of faith surpass natural reason. Now Divine | |
| 1208 revelation reaches those of lower degree through those who are over them, in a certain order; to men, for instance, through | |
| 1209 the angels, and to the lower angels through the higher, as Dionysius explains (Coel. Hier. iv, vii). In like manner therefore | |
| 1210 the unfolding of faith must needs reach men of lower degree through those of higher | |
| 1211 degree. Consequently, just as the higher angels, who enlighten those who are below them, have a fuller knowledge of Divine | |
| 1212 things than the lower angels, as Dionysius states (Coel. Hier. xii), so too, men of higher degree, whose business it is to | |
| 1213 teach others, are under obligation to have fuller knowledge of matters of faith, and to believe them more explicitly. | |
| 1214 </p> | |
| 1215 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p7"> | |
| 1216 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The unfolding of the articles of faith is not equally necessary for the salvation of all, since those of higher degree, whose | |
| 1217 duty it is to teach others, are bound to believe explicitly more things than others are. | |
| 1218 </p> | |
| 1219 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p8"> | |
| 1220 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Simple persons should not be put to the test about subtle questions of faith, unless they be suspected of having been corrupted | |
| 1221 by heretics, who are wont to corrupt the faith of simple people in such questions. If, however, it is found that they are | |
| 1222 free from obstinacy in their heterodox sentiments, and that it is due to their simplicity, it is no fault of theirs. | |
| 1223 </p> | |
| 1224 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p9"> | |
| 1225 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The simple have no faith implied in that of the learned, except in so far as the latter adhere to the Divine teaching. Hence | |
| 1226 the Apostle says ( | |
| 1227 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A6-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.4.16" target="asv">1 Cor. 4:16</a>): "Be ye followers of me, as I also am of Christ." Hence it is not human knowledge, but the Divine truth that is the rule | |
| 1228 of faith: and if any of the learned stray from this rule, he does not harm the faith of the simple ones, who think that the | |
| 1229 learned believe aright; unless | |
| 1230 the simple hold obstinately to their individual errors, against the faith of the universal Church, which cannot err, since | |
| 1231 Our Lord said ( | |
| 1232 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A6-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.22.32" target="asv">Lk. 22:32</a>): "I have prayed for thee," Peter, "that thy faith fail not." | |
| 1233 </p> | |
| 1234 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 1235 <p id="SS_Q2_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 1236 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1237 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A7.html"></a> | |
| 1238 </div> | |
| 1239 <div id="SS_Q2_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 1240 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A6.html"></a> | |
| 1241 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A8.html"></a> | |
| 1242 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A7-p0.1">Whether it is necessary for the salvation of all, that they should believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ?</h4> | |
| 1243 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 1244 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p2"> | |
| 1245 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is not necessary for the salvation of all that they should believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ. | |
| 1246 For man is not bound to believe explicitly what the angels are ignorant about: since the unfolding of faith is the result | |
| 1247 of Divine revelation, which reaches man by means of the angels, as stated above | |
| 1248 <a id="SS_Q2_A7-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A6.html">(A[6];</a> | |
| 1249 <a id="SS_Q2_A7-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q111_A1.html">FP, Q[111], A[1]</a>). Now even the angels were in ignorance of the mystery of the | |
| 1250 Incarnation: hence, according to the commentary of Dionysius (Coel. Hier. vii), it is they who ask ( | |
| 1251 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p2.3" href="./asv.html#Ps.23.8" target="asv">Ps. 23:8</a>): "Who is this king of glory?" and ( | |
| 1252 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p2.4" href="./asv.html#Isa.63.1" target="asv">Is. 63:1</a>): "Who is this that cometh from Edom?" Therefore men were not bound to believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ's Incarnation. | |
| 1253 </p> | |
| 1254 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p3"> | |
| 1255 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is evident that John the Baptist was one of the teachers, and most nigh to Christ, Who said of him ( | |
| 1256 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.11.11" target="asv">Mat. 11:11</a>) that "there hath not risen among them that are born of women, a greater than" he. Now John the Baptist does not appear to | |
| 1257 have known the mystery of Christ explicitly, since he asked Christ ( | |
| 1258 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.11.3" target="asv">Mat. 11:3</a>): "Art Thou He that art to come, or look we for another?" Therefore even the teachers were not bound | |
| 1259 to explicit faith in Christ. | |
| 1260 </p> | |
| 1261 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p4"> | |
| 1262 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, many gentiles obtained salvation through the ministry of the angels, as Dionysius states (Coel. Hier. ix). Now it | |
| 1263 would seem that the gentiles had neither explicit nor implicit faith in Christ, since they received no revelation. Therefore | |
| 1264 it seems that it was not necessary for the salvation of all to believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ. | |
| 1265 </p> | |
| 1266 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p5"> | |
| 1267 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Corr. et Gratia vii; Ep. cxc): "Our faith is sound if we believe that no man, old or young is delivered | |
| 1268 from the contagion of death and the bonds of sin, except by the one Mediator of God and men, Jesus Christ." | |
| 1269 </p> | |
| 1270 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p6"> | |
| 1271 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 1272 <a id="SS_Q2_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A5.html">(A[5];</a> Q[1], A[8]), the object of faith includes, properly and directly, that thing through which man obtains beatitude. Now the | |
| 1273 mystery of Christ's Incarnation and Passion is the way by which men obtain beatitude; for it is written ( | |
| 1274 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Acts.4.12" target="asv">Acts 4:12</a>): "There is no other name under heaven given to men, whereby we must be saved." Therefore belief of some kind in the mystery | |
| 1275 of Christ's Incarnation was | |
| 1276 necessary at all times and for all persons, but this belief differed according to differences of times and persons. The reason | |
| 1277 of this is that before the state of sin, man believed, explicitly in Christ's Incarnation, in so far as it was intended for | |
| 1278 the consummation of glory, but not as it was intended to deliver man from sin by the Passion and Resurrection, since man had | |
| 1279 no foreknowledge of his future sin. He does, however, seem to have had foreknowledge of the Incarnation of Christ, from the | |
| 1280 fact that he said ( | |
| 1281 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.24" target="asv">Gn. 2:24</a>): "Wherefore a man shall leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife," of which the Apostle says ( | |
| 1282 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p6.4" href="./asv.html#Eph.5.32" target="asv">Eph. 5:32</a>) that "this is a great sacrament . . . in Christ and the Church," and it is incredible that the first man was ignorant about | |
| 1283 this sacrament. | |
| 1284 </p> | |
| 1285 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p7"> But after sin, man believed explicitly in Christ, not only as to the Incarnation, but also as to the Passion and Resurrection, | |
| 1286 whereby the human race is delivered from sin and death: for they would not, else, have foreshadowed Christ's Passion by certain | |
| 1287 sacrifices both before and after the Law, the meaning of which sacrifices was known by the learned explicitly, while the simple | |
| 1288 folk, under the veil of those sacrifices, believed them to be ordained by God in reference to | |
| 1289 Christ's coming, and thus their knowledge was covered with a veil, so to speak. And, as stated above ( | |
| 1290 <a id="SS_Q2_A7-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html">Q[1], A[7]</a>), the nearer they were to Christ, the more distinct was their knowledge of Christ's mysteries. | |
| 1291 </p> | |
| 1292 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p8"> After grace had been revealed, both learned and simple folk are bound to explicit faith in the mysteries of Christ, chiefly | |
| 1293 as regards those which are observed throughout the Church, and publicly proclaimed, such as the articles which refer to the | |
| 1294 Incarnation, of which we have spoken above ( | |
| 1295 <a id="SS_Q2_A7-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A8.html">Q[1], A[8]</a>). As to other minute points in reference to the articles of the Incarnation, men have been bound to believe them more or | |
| 1296 less explicitly according to each | |
| 1297 one's state and office. | |
| 1298 </p> | |
| 1299 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p9"> | |
| 1300 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The mystery of the Kingdom of God was not entirely hidden from the angels, as Augustine observes (Gen. ad lit. v, 19), yet | |
| 1301 certain aspects thereof were better known to them when Christ revealed them to them. | |
| 1302 </p> | |
| 1303 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p10"> | |
| 1304 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It was not through ignorance that John the Baptist inquired of Christ's advent in the flesh, since he had clearly professed | |
| 1305 his belief therein, saying: "I saw, and I gave testimony, that this is the Son of God" ( | |
| 1306 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p10.1" href="./asv.html#John.1.34" target="asv">Jn. 1:34</a>). Hence he did not say: "Art Thou He that hast come?" but "Art Thou He that art to come?" thus saying about the future, not | |
| 1307 about the past. Likewise it is not to be believed that he was ignorant of Christ's future | |
| 1308 Passion, for he had already said ( | |
| 1309 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p10.2" href="./asv.html#John.1.39" target="asv">Jn. 1:39</a>): "Behold the Lamb of God, behold Him who taketh away the sins [Vulg.: 'sin'] of the world," thus foretelling His future | |
| 1310 immolation; and since other prophets had foretold it, as may be seen especially in Isaias 53. We may therefore say with Gregory | |
| 1311 (Hom. xxvi in Evang.) that he asked this question, being in ignorance as to whether Christ would descend into hell in His | |
| 1312 own Person. But he did not ignore the fact that the power of | |
| 1313 Christ's Passion would be extended to those who were detained in Limbo, according to | |
| 1314 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p10.3" href="./asv.html#Zech.9.11" target="asv"> Zech. 9:11</a>: "Thou also, by the blood of Thy testament hast sent forth Thy prisoners out of the pit, wherein there is no water"; nor | |
| 1315 was he bound to believe explicitly, before its fulfilment, that Christ was to descend thither Himself. | |
| 1316 </p> | |
| 1317 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p11"> It may also be replied that, as Ambrose observes in his commentary on | |
| 1318 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.7.19" target="asv"> Lk. 7:19, </a> he made this inquiry, not from doubt or ignorance but from devotion: or again, with Chrysostom (Hom. xxxvi in Matth.), that | |
| 1319 he inquired, not as though ignorant himself, but because he wished his disciples to be satisfied on that point, through Christ: | |
| 1320 hence the latter framed His answer so as to instruct the disciples, by pointing to the signs of His works. | |
| 1321 </p> | |
| 1322 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p12"> | |
| 1323 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Many of the gentiles received revelations of Christ, as is clear from their predictions. Thus we read ( | |
| 1324 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Job.19.25" target="asv">Job 19:25</a>): "I know that my Redeemer liveth." The Sibyl too foretold certain things about Christ, as Augustine states (Contra Faust. | |
| 1325 xiii, 15). Moreover, we read in the history of the Romans, that at the time of Constantine Augustus and his mother Irene a | |
| 1326 tomb was discovered, wherein lay a man on whose breast was a golden plate | |
| 1327 with the inscription: "Christ shall be born of a virgin, and in Him, I believe. O sun, during the lifetime of Irene and Constantine, | |
| 1328 thou shalt see me again" [*Cf. Baron, Annal., A.D. 780]. If, however, some were saved without receiving any revelation, they | |
| 1329 were not saved without faith in a Mediator, for, though they did not believe in Him explicitly, they did, nevertheless, have | |
| 1330 implicit faith through believing in Divine providence, since they believed that God would deliver mankind in | |
| 1331 whatever way was pleasing to Him, and according to the revelation of the Spirit to those who knew the truth, as stated in | |
| 1332 | |
| 1333 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A7-p12.2" href="./asv.html#Job.35.11" target="asv">Job 35:11</a>: "Who teacheth us more than the beasts of the earth." | |
| 1334 </p> | |
| 1335 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p13"></p> | |
| 1336 <p id="SS_Q2_A7-p14"></p> | |
| 1337 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A6.html"></a> | |
| 1338 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A8.html"></a> | |
| 1339 </div> | |
| 1340 <div id="SS_Q2_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 1341 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A7.html"></a> | |
| 1342 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A9.html"></a> | |
| 1343 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A8-p0.1">Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe explicitly in the Trinity?</h4> | |
| 1344 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 1345 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p2"> | |
| 1346 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it was not necessary for salvation to believe explicitly in the Trinity. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 1347 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>): "He that cometh to God must believe that He is, and is a rewarder to them that seek Him." Now one can believe this without | |
| 1348 believing in the Trinity. Therefore it was not necessary to believe explicitly in the Trinity. | |
| 1349 </p> | |
| 1350 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p3"> | |
| 1351 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further our Lord said ( | |
| 1352 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#John.17.5" target="asv">Jn. 17:5,6</a>): "Father, I have manifested Thy name to men," which words Augustine expounds (Tract. cvi) as follows: "Not the name by which | |
| 1353 Thou art called God, but the name whereby Thou art called My Father," and further on he adds: "In that He made this world, | |
| 1354 God is known to all nations; in that He is not to be worshipped together with false gods, 'God is known in Judea'; but, in | |
| 1355 that He is the Father of this Christ, | |
| 1356 through Whom He takes away the sin of the world, He now makes known to men this name of His, which hitherto they knew not." | |
| 1357 Therefore before the coming of Christ it was not known that Paternity and Filiation were in the Godhead: and so the Trinity | |
| 1358 was not believed explicitly. | |
| 1359 </p> | |
| 1360 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p4"> | |
| 1361 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which we are bound to believe explicitly of God is the object of heavenly happiness. Now the object of heavenly | |
| 1362 happiness is the sovereign good, which can be understood to be in God, without any distinction of Persons. Therefore it was | |
| 1363 not necessary to believe explicitly in the Trinity. | |
| 1364 </p> | |
| 1365 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p5"> | |
| 1366 <b>On the contrary,</b> In the Old Testament the Trinity of Persons is expressed in many ways; thus at the very outset of Genesis it is written in | |
| 1367 manifestation of the Trinity: "Let us make man to Our image and likeness" ( | |
| 1368 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.26" target="asv">Gn. 1:26</a>). Therefore from the very beginning it was necessary for salvation to believe in the Trinity. | |
| 1369 </p> | |
| 1370 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p6"> | |
| 1371 <b>I answer that,</b> It is impossible to believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ, without faith in the Trinity, since the mystery of Christ | |
| 1372 includes that the Son of God took flesh; that He renewed the world through the grace of the Holy Ghost; and again, that He | |
| 1373 was conceived by the Holy Ghost. Wherefore just as, before Christ, the mystery of Christ was believed explicitly by the learned, | |
| 1374 but implicitly and under a veil, so to speak, by the simple, so too was it with the | |
| 1375 mystery of the Trinity. And consequently, when once grace had been revealed, all were bound to explicit faith in the mystery | |
| 1376 of the Trinity: and all who are born again in Christ, have this bestowed on them by the invocation of the Trinity, according | |
| 1377 to | |
| 1378 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A8-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.28.19" target="asv"> Mat. 28:19</a>: "Going therefore teach ye all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." | |
| 1379 </p> | |
| 1380 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p7"> | |
| 1381 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Explicit faith in those two things was necessary at all times and for all people: but it was not sufficient at all times | |
| 1382 and for all people. | |
| 1383 </p> | |
| 1384 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p8"> | |
| 1385 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Before Christ's coming, faith in the Trinity lay hidden in the faith of the learned, but through Christ and the apostles | |
| 1386 it was shown to the world. | |
| 1387 </p> | |
| 1388 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p9"> | |
| 1389 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God's sovereign goodness as we understand it now through its effects, can be understood without the Trinity of Persons: but | |
| 1390 as understood in itself, and as seen by the Blessed, it cannot be understood without the Trinity of Persons. Moreover the | |
| 1391 mission of the Divine Persons brings us to heavenly happiness. | |
| 1392 </p> | |
| 1393 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p10"></p> | |
| 1394 <p id="SS_Q2_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 1395 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A7.html"></a> | |
| 1396 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A9.html"></a> | |
| 1397 </div> | |
| 1398 <div id="SS_Q2_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 1399 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A8.html"></a> | |
| 1400 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A10.html"></a> | |
| 1401 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A9-p0.1">Whether to believe is meritorious?</h4> | |
| 1402 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 1403 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p2"> | |
| 1404 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that to believe in not meritorious. For the principle of all merit is charity, as stated above ( | |
| 1405 <a id="SS_Q2_A9-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q114_A4.html">FS, Q[114], A[4]</a>). Now faith, like nature, is a preamble to charity. Therefore, just as an act of nature is not meritorious, since we do not | |
| 1406 merit by our natural gifts, so neither is an act of faith. | |
| 1407 </p> | |
| 1408 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p3"> | |
| 1409 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, belief is a mean between opinion and scientific knowledge or the consideration of things scientifically known [*Science | |
| 1410 is a certain knowledge of a demonstrated conclusion through its demonstration.]. Now the considerations of science are not | |
| 1411 meritorious, nor on the other hand is opinion. Therefore belief is not meritorious. | |
| 1412 </p> | |
| 1413 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p4"> | |
| 1414 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, he who assents to a point of faith, either has a sufficient motive for believing, or he has not. If he has a sufficient | |
| 1415 motive for his belief, this does not seem to imply any merit on his part, since he is no longer free to believe or not to | |
| 1416 believe: whereas if he has not a sufficient motive for believing, this is a mark of levity, according to | |
| 1417 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A9-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.19.4" target="asv"> Ecclus. 19:4</a>: "He that is hasty to give credit, is light of heart," so that, seemingly, | |
| 1418 he gains no merit thereby. Therefore to believe is by no means meritorious. | |
| 1419 </p> | |
| 1420 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p5"> | |
| 1421 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 1422 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.33" target="asv">Heb. 11:33</a>) that the saints "by faith . . . obtained promises," which would not be the case if they did not merit by believing. Therefore | |
| 1423 to believe is meritorious. | |
| 1424 </p> | |
| 1425 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p6"> | |
| 1426 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 1427 <a id="SS_Q2_A9-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q114_A3.html">FS, Q[114], AA[3]</a>,4), our actions are meritorious in so far as they proceed from the free-will moved with grace by God. Therefore every human | |
| 1428 act proceeding from the free-will, if it be referred to God, can be meritorious. Now the act of believing is an act of the | |
| 1429 intellect assenting to the Divine truth at the command of the will moved by the grace of God, so that it is subject to the | |
| 1430 free-will in relation to God; | |
| 1431 and consequently the act of faith can be meritorious. | |
| 1432 </p> | |
| 1433 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p7"> | |
| 1434 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nature is compared to charity which is the principle of merit, as matter to form: whereas faith is compared to charity as | |
| 1435 the disposition which precedes the ultimate form. Now it is evident that the subject or the matter cannot act save by virtue | |
| 1436 of the form, nor can a preceding disposition, before the advent of the form: but after the advent of the form, both the subject | |
| 1437 and the preceding disposition act by virtue of the form, which is the chief | |
| 1438 principle of action, even as the heat of fire acts by virtue of the substantial form of fire. Accordingly neither nature nor | |
| 1439 faith can, without charity, produce a meritorious act; but, when accompanied by charity, the act of faith is made meritorious | |
| 1440 thereby, even as an act of nature, and a natural act of the free-will. | |
| 1441 </p> | |
| 1442 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p8"> | |
| 1443 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Two things may be considered in science: namely the scientist's assent to a scientific fact and his consideration of that | |
| 1444 fact. Now the assent of science is not subject to free-will, because the scientist is obliged to assent by force of the demonstration, | |
| 1445 wherefore scientific assent is not meritorious. But the actual consideration of what a man knows scientifically is subject | |
| 1446 to his free-will, for it is in his power to consider or not to consider. | |
| 1447 Hence scientific consideration may be meritorious if it be referred to the end of charity, i.e. to the honor of God or the | |
| 1448 good of our neighbor. On the other hand, in the case of faith, both these things are subject to the free-will so that in both | |
| 1449 respects the act of faith can be meritorious: whereas in the case of opinion, there is no firm assent, since it is weak and | |
| 1450 infirm, as the Philosopher observes (Poster. i, 33), so that it does not seem to proceed from a perfect act of the will: and | |
| 1451 for this reason, as regards the assent, it does not appear to be very meritorious, though it can be as regards the actual | |
| 1452 consideration. | |
| 1453 </p> | |
| 1454 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p9"> | |
| 1455 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The believer has sufficient motive for believing, for he is moved by the authority of Divine teaching confirmed by miracles, | |
| 1456 and, what is more, by the inward instinct of the Divine invitation: hence he does not believe lightly. He has not, however, | |
| 1457 sufficient reason for scientific knowledge, hence he does not lose the merit. | |
| 1458 </p> | |
| 1459 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p10"></p> | |
| 1460 <p id="SS_Q2_A9-p11"></p> | |
| 1461 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A8.html"></a> | |
| 1462 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A10.html"></a> | |
| 1463 </div> | |
| 1464 <div id="SS_Q2_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 1465 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A9.html"></a> | |
| 1466 <a href="summa.SS_Q3.html"></a> | |
| 1467 <h4 id="SS_Q2_A10-p0.1">Whether reasons in support of what we believe lessen the merit of faith?</h4> | |
| 1468 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 1469 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p2"> | |
| 1470 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that reasons in support of what we believe lessen the merit of faith. For Gregory says (Hom. xxvi in Evang.) | |
| 1471 that "there is no merit in believing what is shown by reason." If, therefore, human reason provides sufficient proof, the | |
| 1472 merit of faith is altogether taken away. Therefore it seems that any kind of human reasoning in support of matters of faith, | |
| 1473 diminishes the merit of believing. | |
| 1474 </p> | |
| 1475 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p3"> | |
| 1476 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever lessens the measure of virtue, lessens the amount of merit, since "happiness is the reward of virtue," | |
| 1477 as the Philosopher states (Ethic. i, 9). Now human reasoning seems to diminish the measure of the virtue of faith, since it | |
| 1478 is essential to faith to be about the unseen, as stated above ( | |
| 1479 <a id="SS_Q2_A10-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], AA[4]</a>,5). Now the more a thing is supported by reasons the less is it unseen. Therefore human reasons in support of matters of | |
| 1480 faith diminish the merit of faith. | |
| 1481 </p> | |
| 1482 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p4"> | |
| 1483 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, contrary things have contrary causes. Now an inducement in opposition to faith increases the merit of faith whether | |
| 1484 it consist in persecution inflicted by one who endeavors to force a man to renounce his faith, or in an argument persuading | |
| 1485 him to do so. Therefore reasons in support of faith diminish the merit of faith. | |
| 1486 </p> | |
| 1487 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p5"> | |
| 1488 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 1489 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iPet.3.15" target="asv">1 Pet. 3:15</a>): "Being ready always to satisfy every one that asketh you a reason of that faith [*Vulg.: 'Of that hope which is in you.' | |
| 1490 St. Thomas' reading is apparently taken from Bede.] and hope which is in you." Now the Apostle would not give this advice, | |
| 1491 if it would imply a diminution in the merit of faith. Therefore reason does not diminish the merit of faith. | |
| 1492 </p> | |
| 1493 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p6"> | |
| 1494 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 1495 <a id="SS_Q2_A10-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A9.html">(A[9])</a>, the act of faith can be meritorious, in so far as it is subject to the will, not only as to the use, but also as to the | |
| 1496 assent. Now human reason in support of what we believe, may stand in a twofold relation to the will of the believer. First, | |
| 1497 as preceding the act of the will; as, for instance, when a man either has not the will, or not a prompt will, to believe, | |
| 1498 unless he be moved by human reasons: and in this | |
| 1499 way human reason diminishes the merit of faith. In this sense it has been said above ( | |
| 1500 <a id="SS_Q2_A10-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q24_A3.html">FS, Q[24], A[3]</a>, ad 1; Q[77], A[6], ad 2) that, in moral virtues, a passion which precedes choice makes the virtuous act less praiseworthy. | |
| 1501 For just as a man ought to perform acts of moral virtue, on account of the judgment of his reason, and not on account of a | |
| 1502 passion, so ought he to believe matters of faith, not on account of human reason, but on account of the Divine authority. | |
| 1503 Secondly, human reasons may be consequent to the will of the believer. For when a man's will is ready to believe, he loves | |
| 1504 the truth he believes, he thinks out and takes to heart whatever reasons he can find in support thereof; and in this way human | |
| 1505 reason does not exclude the merit of faith but is a sign of greater merit. Thus again, in moral virtues a consequent passion | |
| 1506 is the sign of a more prompt will, as stated above ( | |
| 1507 <a id="SS_Q2_A10-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q24_A3.html">FS, Q[24], A[3]</a>, ad 1). We have an indication | |
| 1508 of this in the words of the Samaritans to the woman, who is a type of human reason: "We now believe, not for thy saying" ( | |
| 1509 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q2_A10-p6.4" href="./asv.html#John.4.42" target="asv">Jn. 4:42</a>). | |
| 1510 </p> | |
| 1511 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p7"> | |
| 1512 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Gregory is referring to the case of a man who has no will to believe what is of faith, unless he be induced by reasons. But | |
| 1513 when a man has the will to believe what is of faith on the authority of God alone, although he may have reasons in demonstration | |
| 1514 of some of them, e.g. of the existence of God, the merit of his faith is not, for that reason, lost or diminished. | |
| 1515 </p> | |
| 1516 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p8"> | |
| 1517 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The reasons which are brought forward in support of the authority of faith, are not demonstrations which can bring intellectual | |
| 1518 vision to the human intellect, wherefore they do not cease to be unseen. But they remove obstacles to faith, by showing that | |
| 1519 what faith proposes is not impossible; wherefore such reasons do not diminish the merit or the measure of faith. On the other | |
| 1520 hand, though demonstrative reasons in support of the preambles of faith | |
| 1521 [*The Leonine Edition reads: 'in support of matters of faith which are however, preambles to the articles of faith, diminish,' | |
| 1522 etc.], but not of the articles of faith, diminish the measure of faith, since they make the thing believed to be seen, yet | |
| 1523 they do not diminish the measure of charity, which makes the will ready to believe them, even if they were unseen; and so | |
| 1524 the measure of merit is not diminished. | |
| 1525 </p> | |
| 1526 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p9"> | |
| 1527 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whatever is in opposition to faith, whether it consist in a man's thoughts, or in outward persecution, increases the merit | |
| 1528 of faith, in so far as the will is shown to be more prompt and firm in believing. Hence the martyrs had more merit of faith, | |
| 1529 through not renouncing faith on account of persecution; and even the wise have greater merit of faith, through not renouncing | |
| 1530 their faith on account of the reasons brought forward by philosophers or heretics | |
| 1531 in opposition to faith. On the other hand things that are favorable to faith, do not always diminish the promptness of the | |
| 1532 will to believe, and therefore they do not always diminish the merit of faith. | |
| 1533 </p> | |
| 1534 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p10"></p> | |
| 1535 <p id="SS_Q2_A10-p11"></p> | |
| 1536 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A9.html"></a> | |
| 1537 <a href="summa.SS_Q3.html"></a> | |
| 1538 </div> | |
| 1539 <a href="summa.SS_Q1_A10.html"></a> | |
| 1540 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1541 </div> | |
| 1542 <div id="SS_Q3" class="div3"> | |
| 1543 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A10.html"></a> | |
| 1544 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1545 <h3 id="SS_Q3-p0.1">OF THE OUTWARD ACT OF FAITH (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 1546 <p id="SS_Q3-p1"></p> | |
| 1547 <p id="SS_Q3-p2"> We must now consider the outward act, viz. the confession of faith: under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 1548 <p id="SS_Q3-p3"> (1) Whether confession is an act of faith?</p> | |
| 1549 <p id="SS_Q3-p4"> (2) Whether confession of faith is necessary for salvation?</p> | |
| 1550 <div id="SS_Q3_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 1551 <a href="summa.SS_Q3.html"></a> | |
| 1552 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1553 <h4 id="SS_Q3_A1-p0.1">Whether confession is an act of faith?</h4> | |
| 1554 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 1555 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p2"> | |
| 1556 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that confession is not an act of faith. For the same act does not belong to different virtues. Now confession | |
| 1557 belongs to penance of which it is a part. Therefore it is not an act of faith. | |
| 1558 </p> | |
| 1559 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p3"> | |
| 1560 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, man is sometimes deterred by fear or some kind of confusion, from confessing his faith: wherefore the Apostle ( | |
| 1561 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.6.19" target="asv">Eph. 6:19</a>) asks for prayers that it may be granted him "with confidence, to make known the mystery of the gospel." Now it belongs to | |
| 1562 fortitude, which moderates daring and fear, not to be deterred from doing good on account of confusion or fear. Therefore | |
| 1563 it seems that confession is not an act of faith, but rather of | |
| 1564 fortitude or constancy. | |
| 1565 </p> | |
| 1566 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p4"> | |
| 1567 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as the ardor of faith makes one confess one's faith outwardly, so does it make one do other external good works, | |
| 1568 for it is written ( | |
| 1569 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.6" target="asv">Gal. 5:6</a>) that "faith . . . worketh by charity." But other external works are not reckoned acts of faith. Therefore neither is confession | |
| 1570 an act of faith. | |
| 1571 </p> | |
| 1572 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p5"> | |
| 1573 <b>On the contrary,</b> A gloss explains the words of | |
| 1574 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiThess.1.11" target="asv">2 Thess. 1:11, </a> "and the work of faith in power" as referring to "confession which is a work proper to faith." | |
| 1575 </p> | |
| 1576 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p6"> | |
| 1577 <b>I answer that,</b> Outward actions belong properly to the virtue to whose end they are specifically referred: thus fasting is referred specifically | |
| 1578 to the end of abstinence, which is to tame the flesh, and consequently it is an act of abstinence. | |
| 1579 </p> | |
| 1580 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p7"> Now confession of those things that are of faith is referred specifically as to its end, to that which concerns faith, according | |
| 1581 to | |
| 1582 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.4.13" target="asv">2 Cor. 4:13</a>: "Having the same spirit of faith . . . we believe, and therefore we speak also." For the outward utterance is intended to | |
| 1583 signify the inward thought. Wherefore, just as the inward thought of matters of faith is properly an act of faith, so too | |
| 1584 is the outward confession of them. | |
| 1585 </p> | |
| 1586 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p8"> | |
| 1587 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A threefold confession is commended by the Scriptures. One is the confession of matters of faith, and this is a proper act | |
| 1588 of faith, since it is referred to the end of faith as stated above. Another is the confession of thanksgiving or praise, and | |
| 1589 this is an act of "latria," for its purpose is to give outward honor to God, which is the end of "latria." The third is the | |
| 1590 confession of sins, which is ordained to the blotting out of sins, which is the end | |
| 1591 of penance, to which virtue it therefore belongs. | |
| 1592 </p> | |
| 1593 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p9"> | |
| 1594 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That which removes an obstacle is not a direct, but an indirect, cause, as the Philosopher proves (Phys. viii, 4). Hence | |
| 1595 fortitude which removes an obstacle to the confession of faith, viz. fear or shame, is not the proper and direct cause of | |
| 1596 confession, but an indirect cause so to speak. | |
| 1597 </p> | |
| 1598 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p10"> | |
| 1599 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Inward faith, with the aid of charity, causes all outward acts of virtue, by means of the other virtues, commanding, but | |
| 1600 not eliciting them; whereas it produces the act of confession as its proper act, without the help of any other virtue. | |
| 1601 </p> | |
| 1602 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 1603 <p id="SS_Q3_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 1604 <a href="summa.SS_Q3.html"></a> | |
| 1605 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1606 </div> | |
| 1607 <div id="SS_Q3_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 1608 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1609 <a href="summa.SS_Q4.html"></a> | |
| 1610 <h4 id="SS_Q3_A2-p0.1">Whether confession of faith is necessary for salvation?</h4> | |
| 1611 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 1612 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p2"> | |
| 1613 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that confession of faith is not necessary for salvation. For, seemingly, a thing is sufficient for salvation, | |
| 1614 if it is a means of attaining the end of virtue. Now the proper end of faith is the union of the human mind with Divine truth, | |
| 1615 and this can be realized without any outward confession. Therefore confession of faith is not necessary for salvation. | |
| 1616 </p> | |
| 1617 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p3"> | |
| 1618 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, by outward confession of faith, a man reveals his faith to another man. But this is unnecessary save for those who | |
| 1619 have to instruct others in the faith. Therefore it seems that the simple folk are not bound to confess the faith. | |
| 1620 </p> | |
| 1621 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p4"> | |
| 1622 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever may tend to scandalize and disturb others, is not necessary for salvation, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 1623 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.10.32" target="asv">1 Cor. 10:32</a>): "Be without offense to the Jews and to the gentiles and to the Church of God." Now confession of faith sometimes causes | |
| 1624 a disturbance among unbelievers. Therefore it is not necessary for salvation. | |
| 1625 </p> | |
| 1626 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p5"> | |
| 1627 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 1628 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.10" target="asv">Rom. 10:10</a>): "With the heart we believe unto justice; but with the mouth, confession is made unto salvation." | |
| 1629 </p> | |
| 1630 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p6"> | |
| 1631 <b>I answer that,</b> Things that are necessary for salvation come under the precepts of the Divine law. Now since confession of faith is something | |
| 1632 affirmative, it can only fall under an affirmative precept. Hence its necessity for salvation depends on how it falls under | |
| 1633 an affirmative precept of the Divine law. Now affirmative precepts as stated above ( | |
| 1634 <a id="SS_Q3_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q71_A5.html">FS, Q[71], A[5]</a>, ad 3; | |
| 1635 <a id="SS_Q3_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q88_A1.html">FS, Q[88], A[1]</a>, ad 2) do not bind for always, although | |
| 1636 they are always binding; but they bind as to place and time according to other due circumstances, in respect of which human | |
| 1637 acts have to be regulated in order to be acts of virtue. | |
| 1638 </p> | |
| 1639 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p7"> Thus then it is not necessary for salvation to confess one's faith at all times and in all places, but in certain places | |
| 1640 and at certain times, when, namely, by omitting to do so, we would deprive God of due honor, or our neighbor of a service | |
| 1641 that we ought to render him: for instance, if a man, on being asked about his faith, were to remain silent, so as to make | |
| 1642 people believe either that he is without faith, or that the faith is false, or so as to turn others away from the | |
| 1643 faith; for in such cases as these, confession of faith is necessary for salvation. | |
| 1644 </p> | |
| 1645 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p8"> | |
| 1646 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The end of faith, even as of the other virtues, must be referred to the end of charity, which is the love of God and our | |
| 1647 neighbor. Consequently when God's honor and our neighbor's good demand, man should not be contented with being united by faith | |
| 1648 to God's truth, but ought to confess his faith outwardly. | |
| 1649 </p> | |
| 1650 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p9"> | |
| 1651 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In cases of necessity where faith is in danger, every one is bound to proclaim his faith to others, either to give good example | |
| 1652 and encouragement to the rest of the faithful, or to check the attacks of unbelievers: but at other times it is not the duty | |
| 1653 of all the faithful to instruct others in the faith. | |
| 1654 </p> | |
| 1655 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p10"> | |
| 1656 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There is nothing commendable in making a public confession of one's faith, if it causes a disturbance among unbelievers, | |
| 1657 without any profit either to the faith or to the faithful. Hence Our Lord said ( | |
| 1658 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.6" target="asv">Mat. 7:6</a>): "Give not that which is holy to dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine . . . lest turning upon you, they tear you." | |
| 1659 Yet, if there is hope of profit to the faith, or if there be urgency, a man should disregard the disturbance of | |
| 1660 unbelievers, and confess his faith in public. Hence it is written ( | |
| 1661 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q3_A2-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.15.12" target="asv">Mat. 15:12</a>) that when the disciples had said to Our Lord that "the Pharisee, when they heard this word, were scandalized," He answered: | |
| 1662 "Let them alone, they are blind, and leaders of the blind." | |
| 1663 </p> | |
| 1664 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 1665 <p id="SS_Q3_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 1666 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1667 <a href="summa.SS_Q4.html"></a> | |
| 1668 </div> | |
| 1669 <a href="summa.SS_Q2_A10.html"></a> | |
| 1670 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1671 </div> | |
| 1672 <div id="SS_Q4" class="div3"> | |
| 1673 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1674 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1675 <h3 id="SS_Q4-p0.1">OF THE VIRTUE ITSELF OF FAITH (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 1676 <p id="SS_Q4-p1"></p> | |
| 1677 <p id="SS_Q4-p2"> We must now consider the virtue itself of faith, and, in the first place, faith itself; secondly, those who have faith; thirdly, | |
| 1678 the cause of faith; fourthly, its effects. | |
| 1679 </p> | |
| 1680 <p id="SS_Q4-p3"> Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 1681 <p id="SS_Q4-p4"> (1) What is faith?</p> | |
| 1682 <p id="SS_Q4-p5"> (2) In what power of the soul does it reside?</p> | |
| 1683 <p id="SS_Q4-p6"> (3) Whether its form is charity?</p> | |
| 1684 <p id="SS_Q4-p7"> (4) Whether living [formata] faith and lifeless [informis] faith are one identically?</p> | |
| 1685 <p id="SS_Q4-p8"> (5) Whether faith is a virtue?</p> | |
| 1686 <p id="SS_Q4-p9"> (6) Whether it is one virtue?</p> | |
| 1687 <p id="SS_Q4-p10"> (7) Of its relation to the other virtues;</p> | |
| 1688 <p id="SS_Q4-p11"> (8) Of its certitude as compared with the certitude of the intellectual virtues.</p> | |
| 1689 <div id="SS_Q4_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 1690 <a href="summa.SS_Q4.html"></a> | |
| 1691 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1692 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A1-p0.1">Whether this is a fitting definition of faith: "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things that | |
| 1693 appear not?" | |
| 1694 </h4> | |
| 1695 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 1696 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p2"> | |
| 1697 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the Apostle gives an unfitting definition of faith ( | |
| 1698 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.1" target="asv">Heb. 11:1</a>) when he says: "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things that appear not." For no quality | |
| 1699 is a substance: whereas faith is a quality, since it is a theological virtue, as stated above ( | |
| 1700 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q62_A3.html">FS, Q[62], A[3]</a>). Therefore it is not a substance. | |
| 1701 </p> | |
| 1702 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p3"> | |
| 1703 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, different virtues have different objects. Now things to be hoped for are the object of hope. Therefore they should | |
| 1704 not be included in a definition of faith, as though they were its object. | |
| 1705 </p> | |
| 1706 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p4"> | |
| 1707 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is perfected by charity rather than by hope, since charity is the form of faith, as we shall state further | |
| 1708 on | |
| 1709 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore the definition of faith should have included the thing to be loved rather than the thing to be hoped for. | |
| 1710 </p> | |
| 1711 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p5"> | |
| 1712 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the same thing should not be placed in different genera. Now "substance" and "evidence" are different genera, and | |
| 1713 neither is subalternate to the other. Therefore it is unfitting to state that faith is both "substance" and "evidence." | |
| 1714 </p> | |
| 1715 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p6"> | |
| 1716 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, evidence manifests the truth of the matter for which it is adduced. Now a thing is said to be apparent when its | |
| 1717 truth is already manifest. Therefore it seems to imply a contradiction to speak of "evidence of things that appear not": and | |
| 1718 so faith is unfittingly defined. | |
| 1719 </p> | |
| 1720 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p7"> | |
| 1721 <b>On the contrary,</b> The authority of the Apostle suffices. | |
| 1722 </p> | |
| 1723 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p8"> | |
| 1724 <b>I answer that,</b> Though some say that the above words of the Apostle are not a definition of faith, yet if we consider the matter aright, | |
| 1725 this definition overlooks none of the points in reference to which faith can be defined, albeit the words themselves are not | |
| 1726 arranged in the form of a definition, just as the philosophers touch on the principles of the syllogism, without employing | |
| 1727 the syllogistic form. | |
| 1728 </p> | |
| 1729 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p9"> In order to make this clear, we must observe that since habits are known by their acts, and acts by their objects, faith, | |
| 1730 being a habit, should be defined by its proper act in relation to its proper object. Now the act of faith is to believe, as | |
| 1731 stated above (Q[2], AA[2],3), which is an act of the intellect determinate to one object of the will's command. Hence an act | |
| 1732 of faith is related both to the object of the will, i.e. to the good and the end, and to the object of the | |
| 1733 intellect, i.e. to the true. And since faith, through being a theological virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 1734 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q62_A2.html">FS, Q[62], A[2]</a>), has one same thing for object and end, its object and end must, of necessity, be in proportion to one another. Now it has | |
| 1735 been already stated (Q[1], AA[1],4) that the object of faith is the First Truth, as unseen, and whatever we hold on account | |
| 1736 thereof: so that it must needs be under the aspect of something unseen that the First Truth is the end of the | |
| 1737 act of faith, which aspect is that of a thing hoped for, according to the Apostle ( | |
| 1738 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A1-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.25" target="asv">Rom. 8:25</a>): "We hope for that which we see not": because to see the truth is to possess it. Now one hopes not for what one has already, | |
| 1739 but for what one has not, as stated above ( | |
| 1740 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p9.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q67_A4.html">FS, Q[67], A[4]</a>). Accordingly the relation of the act of faith to its end which is the object of the will, is indicated by the words: "Faith | |
| 1741 is the substance of things to be hoped for." For we | |
| 1742 are wont to call by the name of substance, the first beginning of a thing, especially when the whole subsequent thing is virtually | |
| 1743 contained in the first beginning; for instance, we might say that the first self-evident principles are the substance of science, | |
| 1744 because, to wit, these principles are in us the first beginnings of science, the whole of which is itself contained in them | |
| 1745 virtually. In this way then faith is said to be the "substance of things to be hoped for," for the reason that in | |
| 1746 us the first beginning of things to be hoped for is brought about by the assent of faith, which contains virtually all things | |
| 1747 to be hoped for. Because we hope to be made happy through seeing the unveiled truth to which our faith cleaves, as was made | |
| 1748 evident when we were speaking of happiness ( | |
| 1749 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p9.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q3_A8.html">FS, Q[3], A[8]</a>; | |
| 1750 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p9.5" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q4_A3.html">FS, Q[4], A[3]</a>). | |
| 1751 </p> | |
| 1752 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p10"> The relationship of the act of faith to the object of the intellect, considered as the object of faith, is indicated by the | |
| 1753 words, "evidence of things that appear not," where "evidence" is taken for the result of evidence. For evidence induces the | |
| 1754 intellect to adhere to a truth, wherefore the firm adhesion of the intellect to the non-apparent truth of faith is called | |
| 1755 "evidence" here. Hence another reading has "conviction," because to wit, the intellect of the believer is | |
| 1756 convinced by Divine authority, so as to assent to what it sees not. Accordingly if anyone would reduce the foregoing words | |
| 1757 to the form of a definition, he may say that "faith is a habit of the mind, whereby eternal life is begun in us, making the | |
| 1758 intellect assent to what is non-apparent." | |
| 1759 </p> | |
| 1760 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p11"> In this way faith is distinguished from all other things pertaining to the intellect. For when we describe it as "evidence," | |
| 1761 we distinguish it from opinion, suspicion, and doubt, which do not make the intellect adhere to anything firmly; when we go | |
| 1762 on to say, "of things that appear not," we distinguish it from science and understanding, the object of which is something | |
| 1763 apparent; and when we say that it is "the substance of things to be hoped for," we distinguish the virtue of | |
| 1764 faith from faith commonly so called, which has no reference to the beatitude we hope for. | |
| 1765 </p> | |
| 1766 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p12"> Whatever other definitions are given of faith, are explanations of this one given by the Apostle. For when Augustine says | |
| 1767 (Tract. xl in Joan.: QQ. Evang. ii, qu. 39) that "faith is a virtue whereby we believe what we do not see," and when Damascene | |
| 1768 says (De Fide Orth. iv, 11) that "faith is an assent without research," and when others say that "faith is that certainty | |
| 1769 of the mind about absent things which surpasses opinion but falls short of science," these all amount to the | |
| 1770 same as the Apostle's words: "Evidence of things that appear not"; and when Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii) that "faith is | |
| 1771 the solid foundation of the believer, establishing him in the truth, and showing forth the truth in him," comes to the same | |
| 1772 as "substance of things to be hoped for." | |
| 1773 </p> | |
| 1774 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p13"> | |
| 1775 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> "Substance" here does not stand for the supreme genus condivided with the other genera, but for that likeness to substance | |
| 1776 which is found in each genus, inasmuch as the first thing in a genus contains the others virtually and is said to be the substance | |
| 1777 thereof. | |
| 1778 </p> | |
| 1779 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p14"> | |
| 1780 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since faith pertains to the intellect as commanded by the will, it must needs be directed, as to its end, to the objects | |
| 1781 of those virtues which perfect the will, among which is hope, as we shall prove further on ( | |
| 1782 <a id="SS_Q4_A1-p14.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q18_A1.html">Q[18], A[1]</a>). For this reason the definition of faith includes the object of hope. | |
| 1783 </p> | |
| 1784 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p15"> | |
| 1785 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Love may be of the seen and of the unseen, of the present and of the absent. Consequently a thing to be loved is not so adapted | |
| 1786 to faith, as a thing to be hoped for, since hope is always of the absent and the unseen. | |
| 1787 </p> | |
| 1788 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p16"> | |
| 1789 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> "Substance" and "evidence" as included in the definition of faith, do not denote various genera of faith, nor different acts, | |
| 1790 but different relationships of one act to different objects, as is clear from what has been said. | |
| 1791 </p> | |
| 1792 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p17"> | |
| 1793 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Evidence taken from the proper principles of a thing, make it apparent, whereas evidence taken from Divine authority does | |
| 1794 not make a thing apparent in itself, and such is the evidence referred to in the definition of faith. | |
| 1795 </p> | |
| 1796 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p18"></p> | |
| 1797 <p id="SS_Q4_A1-p19"></p> | |
| 1798 <a href="summa.SS_Q4.html"></a> | |
| 1799 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1800 </div> | |
| 1801 <div id="SS_Q4_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 1802 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1803 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1804 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A2-p0.1">Whether faith resides in the intellect?</h4> | |
| 1805 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 1806 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p2"> | |
| 1807 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith does not reside in the intellect. For Augustine says (De Praedest. Sanct. v) that "faith resides | |
| 1808 in the believer's will." Now the will is a power distinct from the intellect. Therefore faith does not reside in the intellect. | |
| 1809 </p> | |
| 1810 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p3"> | |
| 1811 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the assent of faith to believe anything, proceeds from the will obeying God. Therefore it seems that faith owes | |
| 1812 all its praise to obedience. Now obedience is in the will. Therefore faith is in the will, and not in the intellect. | |
| 1813 </p> | |
| 1814 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p4"> | |
| 1815 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellect is either speculative or practical. Now faith is not in the speculative intellect, since this is not | |
| 1816 concerned with things to be sought or avoided, as stated in De Anima iii, 9, so that it is not a principle of operation, whereas | |
| 1817 "faith . . . worketh by charity" ( | |
| 1818 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.6" target="asv">Gal. 5:6</a>). Likewise, neither is it in the practical intellect, the object of which is some true, contingent thing, that can be made | |
| 1819 or done. For the object | |
| 1820 of faith is the Eternal Truth, as was shown above ( | |
| 1821 <a id="SS_Q4_A2-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). Therefore faith does not reside in the intellect. | |
| 1822 </p> | |
| 1823 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p5"> | |
| 1824 <b>On the contrary,</b> Faith is succeeded by the heavenly vision, according to | |
| 1825 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12</a>: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner; but then face to face." Now vision is in the intellect. Therefore faith is | |
| 1826 likewise. | |
| 1827 </p> | |
| 1828 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p6"> | |
| 1829 <b>I answer that,</b> Since faith is a virtue, its act must needs be perfect. Now, for the perfection of an act proceeding from two active principles, | |
| 1830 each of these principles must be perfect: for it is not possible for a thing to be sawn well, unless the sawyer possess the | |
| 1831 art, and the saw be well fitted for sawing. Now, in a power of the soul, which is related to opposite objects, a disposition | |
| 1832 to act well is a habit, as stated above ( | |
| 1833 <a id="SS_Q4_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q49_A4.html">FS, Q[49], A[4]</a>, | |
| 1834 ad 1,2,3). Wherefore an act that proceeds from two such powers must be perfected by a habit residing in each of them. Again, | |
| 1835 it has been stated above (Q[2], AA[1],2) that to believe is an act of the intellect inasmuch as the will moves it to assent. | |
| 1836 And this act proceeds from the will and the intellect, both of which have a natural aptitude to be perfected in this way. | |
| 1837 Consequently, if the act of faith is to be perfect, there needs to be a habit in the will as well as in the intellect: even | |
| 1838 as | |
| 1839 there needs to be the habit of prudence in the reason, besides the habit of temperance in the concupiscible faculty, in order | |
| 1840 that the act of that faculty be perfect. Now, to believe is immediately an act of the intellect, because the object of that | |
| 1841 act is "the true," which pertains properly to the intellect. Consequently faith, which is the proper principle of that act, | |
| 1842 must needs reside in the intellect. | |
| 1843 </p> | |
| 1844 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p7"> | |
| 1845 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine takes faith for the act of faith, which is described as depending on the believer's will, in so far as his intellect | |
| 1846 assents to matters of faith at the command of the will. | |
| 1847 </p> | |
| 1848 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p8"> | |
| 1849 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Not only does the will need to be ready to obey but also the intellect needs to be well disposed to follow the command of | |
| 1850 the will, even as the concupiscible faculty needs to be well disposed in order to follow the command of reason; hence there | |
| 1851 needs to be a habit of virtue not only in the commanding will but also in the assenting intellect. | |
| 1852 </p> | |
| 1853 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p9"> | |
| 1854 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Faith resides in the speculative intellect, as evidenced by its object. But since this object, which is the First Truth, | |
| 1855 is the end of all our desires and actions, as Augustine proves (De Trin. i, 8), it follows that faith worketh by charity just | |
| 1856 as "the speculative intellect becomes practical by extension" (De Anima iii, 10). | |
| 1857 </p> | |
| 1858 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 1859 <p id="SS_Q4_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 1860 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html"></a> | |
| 1861 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1862 </div> | |
| 1863 <div id="SS_Q4_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 1864 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1865 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1866 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A3-p0.1">Whether charity is the form of faith?</h4> | |
| 1867 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 1868 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p2"> | |
| 1869 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not the form of faith. For each thing derives its species from its form. When therefore two | |
| 1870 things are opposite members of a division, one cannot be the form of the other. Now faith and charity are stated to be opposite | |
| 1871 members of a division, as different species of virtue ( | |
| 1872 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:13</a>). Therefore charity is not the form of faith. | |
| 1873 </p> | |
| 1874 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p3"> | |
| 1875 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a form and the thing of which it is the form are in one subject, since together they form one simply. Now faith | |
| 1876 is in the intellect, while charity is in the will. Therefore charity is not the form of faith. | |
| 1877 </p> | |
| 1878 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p4"> | |
| 1879 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the form of a thing is a principle thereof. Now obedience, rather than charity, seems to be the principle of believing, | |
| 1880 on the part of the will, according to | |
| 1881 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.5" target="asv"> Rom. 1:5</a>: "For obedience to the faith in all nations." Therefore obedience rather than charity, is the form of faith. | |
| 1882 </p> | |
| 1883 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p5"> | |
| 1884 <b>On the contrary,</b> Each thing works through its form. Now faith works through charity. Therefore the love of charity is the form of faith. | |
| 1885 </p> | |
| 1886 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p6"> | |
| 1887 <b>I answer that,</b> As appears from what has been said above ( | |
| 1888 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html">FS, Q[1], A[3]</a>; | |
| 1889 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">FS, Q[18], A[6]</a>), voluntary acts take their species from their end which is the will's object. Now that which gives a thing its species, | |
| 1890 is after the manner of a form in natural things. Wherefore the form of any voluntary act is, in a manner, the end to which | |
| 1891 that act is directed, both because it takes its species therefrom, and because the mode of an | |
| 1892 action should correspond proportionately to the end. Now it is evident from what has been said | |
| 1893 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, that the act of faith is directed to the object of the will, i.e. the good, as to its end: and this good which is the end | |
| 1894 of faith, viz. the Divine Good, is the proper object of charity. Therefore charity is called the form of faith in so far as | |
| 1895 the act of faith is perfected and formed by charity. | |
| 1896 </p> | |
| 1897 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p7"> | |
| 1898 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Charity is called the form of faith because it quickens the act of faith. Now nothing hinders one act from being quickened | |
| 1899 by different habits, so as to be reduced to various species in a certain order, as stated above ( | |
| 1900 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">FS, Q[18], AA[6]</a>,7; | |
| 1901 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q61_A2.html">FS, Q[61], A[2]</a>) when we were treating of human acts in general. | |
| 1902 </p> | |
| 1903 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p8"> | |
| 1904 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This objection is true of an intrinsic form. But it is not thus that charity is the form of faith, but in the sense that | |
| 1905 it quickens the act of faith, as explained above. | |
| 1906 </p> | |
| 1907 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p9"> | |
| 1908 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Even obedience, and hope likewise, and whatever other virtue might precede the act of faith, is quickened by charity, as | |
| 1909 we shall show further on ( | |
| 1910 <a id="SS_Q4_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html">Q[23], A[8]</a>), and consequently charity is spoken of as the form of faith. | |
| 1911 </p> | |
| 1912 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 1913 <p id="SS_Q4_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 1914 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html"></a> | |
| 1915 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1916 </div> | |
| 1917 <div id="SS_Q4_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 1918 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1919 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1920 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A4-p0.1">Whether lifeless faith can become living, or living faith, lifeless?</h4> | |
| 1921 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 1922 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p2"> | |
| 1923 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that lifeless faith does not become living, or living faith lifeless. For, according to | |
| 1924 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:10, </a> "when that which is perfect is come, that which is in part shall be done away." Now lifeless faith is imperfect in comparison | |
| 1925 with living faith. Therefore when living faith comes, lifeless faith is done away, so that they are not one identical habit. | |
| 1926 </p> | |
| 1927 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p3"> | |
| 1928 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a dead thing does not become a living thing. Now lifeless faith is dead, according to | |
| 1929 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.20" target="asv"> James 2:20</a>: "Faith without works is dead." Therefore lifeless faith cannot become living. | |
| 1930 </p> | |
| 1931 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p4"> | |
| 1932 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, God's grace, by its advent, has no less effect in a believer than in an unbeliever. Now by coming to an unbeliever | |
| 1933 it causes the habit of faith. Therefore when it comes to a believer, who hitherto had the habit of lifeless faith, it causes | |
| 1934 another habit of faith in him. | |
| 1935 </p> | |
| 1936 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p5"> | |
| 1937 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, as Boethius says (In Categ. Arist. i), "accidents cannot be altered." Now faith is an accident. Therefore the same | |
| 1938 faith cannot be at one time living, and at another, lifeless. | |
| 1939 </p> | |
| 1940 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p6"> | |
| 1941 <b>On the contrary,</b> A gloss on the words, "Faith without works is dead" ( | |
| 1942 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.20" target="asv">James 2:20</a>) adds, "by which it lives once more." Therefore faith which was lifeless and without form hitherto, becomes formed and living. | |
| 1943 </p> | |
| 1944 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p7"> | |
| 1945 <b>I answer that,</b> There have been various opinions on this question. For some [*William of Auxerre, Sum. Aur. III, iii, 15] have said that | |
| 1946 living and lifeless faith are distinct habits, but that when living faith comes, lifeless faith is done away, and that, in | |
| 1947 like manner, when a man sins mortally after having living faith, a new habit of lifeless faith is infused into him by God. | |
| 1948 But it seems unfitting that grace should deprive man of a gift of God by coming to him, and | |
| 1949 that a gift of God should be infused into man, on account of a mortal sin. | |
| 1950 </p> | |
| 1951 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p8"> Consequently others [*Alexander of Hales, Sum. Theol. iii, 64] have said that living and lifeless faith are indeed distinct | |
| 1952 habits, but that, all the same, when living faith comes the habit of lifeless faith is not taken away, and that it remains | |
| 1953 together with the habit of living faith in the same subject. Yet again it seems unreasonable that the habit of lifeless faith | |
| 1954 should remain inactive in a person having living faith. | |
| 1955 </p> | |
| 1956 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p9"> We must therefore hold differently that living and lifeless faith are one and the same habit. The reason is that a habit | |
| 1957 is differentiated by that which directly pertains to that habit. Now since faith is a perfection of the intellect, that pertains | |
| 1958 directly to faith, which pertains to the intellect. Again, what pertains to the will, does not pertain directly to faith, | |
| 1959 so as to be able to differentiate the habit of faith. But the distinction of living from lifeless faith is in | |
| 1960 respect of something pertaining to the will, i.e. charity, and not in respect of something pertaining to the intellect. Therefore | |
| 1961 living and lifeless faith are not distinct habits. | |
| 1962 </p> | |
| 1963 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p10"> | |
| 1964 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The saying of the Apostle refers to those imperfect things from which imperfection is inseparable, for then, when the perfect | |
| 1965 comes the imperfect must needs be done away. Thus with the advent of clear vision, faith is done away, because it is essentially | |
| 1966 "of the things that appear not." When, however, imperfection is not inseparable from the imperfect thing, the same identical | |
| 1967 thing which was imperfect becomes perfect. Thus childhood is not essential | |
| 1968 to man and consequently the same identical subject who was a child, becomes a man. Now lifelessness is not essential to faith, | |
| 1969 but is accidental thereto as stated above. Therefore lifeless faith itself becomes living. | |
| 1970 </p> | |
| 1971 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p11"> | |
| 1972 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That which makes an animal live is inseparable from an animal, because it is its substantial form, viz. the soul: consequently | |
| 1973 a dead thing cannot become a living thing, and a living and a dead thing differ specifically. On the other hand that which | |
| 1974 gives faith its form, or makes it live, is not essential to faith. Hence there is no comparison. | |
| 1975 </p> | |
| 1976 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p12"> | |
| 1977 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Grace causes faith not only when faith begins anew to be in a man, but also as long as faith lasts. For it has been said | |
| 1978 above ( | |
| 1979 <a id="SS_Q4_A4-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q104_A1.html">FP, Q[104], A[1]</a>; | |
| 1980 <a id="SS_Q4_A4-p12.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q109_A9.html">FS, Q[109], A[9]</a>) that God is always working man's justification, even as the sun is always lighting up the air. Hence grace is not less effective | |
| 1981 when it comes to a believer than when it comes to an unbeliever: since it causes faith in both, in the former | |
| 1982 by confirming and perfecting it, in the latter by creating it anew. | |
| 1983 </p> | |
| 1984 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p13"> We might also reply that it is accidental, namely on account of the disposition of the subject, that grace does not cause | |
| 1985 faith in one who has it already: just as, on the other hand, a second mortal sin does not take away grace from one who has | |
| 1986 already lost it through a previous mortal sin. | |
| 1987 </p> | |
| 1988 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p14"> | |
| 1989 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> When living faith becomes lifeless, faith is not changed, but its subject, the soul, which at one time has faith without | |
| 1990 charity, and at another time, with charity. | |
| 1991 </p> | |
| 1992 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p15"></p> | |
| 1993 <p id="SS_Q4_A4-p16"></p> | |
| 1994 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html"></a> | |
| 1995 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A5.html"></a> | |
| 1996 </div> | |
| 1997 <div id="SS_Q4_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 1998 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A4.html"></a> | |
| 1999 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A6.html"></a> | |
| 2000 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A5-p0.1">Whether faith is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 2001 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 2002 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p2"> | |
| 2003 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith is not a virtue. For virtue is directed to the good, since "it is virtue that makes its subject | |
| 2004 good," as the Philosopher states (Ethic. ii, 6). But faith is directed to the true. Therefore faith is not a virtue. | |
| 2005 </p> | |
| 2006 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p3"> | |
| 2007 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, infused virtue is more perfect than acquired virtue. Now faith, on account of its imperfection, is not placed among | |
| 2008 the acquired intellectual virtues, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. vi, 3). Much less, therefore, can it be considered an | |
| 2009 infused virtue. | |
| 2010 </p> | |
| 2011 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p4"> | |
| 2012 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, living and lifeless faith are the same species, as stated above | |
| 2013 <a id="SS_Q4_A5-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Now lifeless faith is not a virtue, since it is not connected with the other virtues. Therefore neither is living faith | |
| 2014 a virtue. | |
| 2015 </p> | |
| 2016 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p5"> | |
| 2017 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the gratuitous graces and the fruits are distinct from the virtues. But faith is numbered among the gratuitous graces | |
| 2018 ( | |
| 2019 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.9" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:9</a>) and likewise among the fruits ( | |
| 2020 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A5-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.23" target="asv">Gal. 5:23</a>). Therefore faith is not a virtue. | |
| 2021 </p> | |
| 2022 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p6"> | |
| 2023 <b>On the contrary,</b> Man is justified by the virtues, since "justice is all virtue," as the Philosopher states (Ethic. v, 1). Now man is justified | |
| 2024 by faith according to | |
| 2025 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A5-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.1" target="asv"> Rom. 5:1</a>: "Being justified therefore by faith let us have peace," etc. Therefore faith is a virtue. | |
| 2026 </p> | |
| 2027 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p7"> | |
| 2028 <b>I answer that,</b> As shown above, it is by human virtue that human acts are rendered good; hence, any habit that is always the principle of | |
| 2029 a good act, may be called a human virtue. Such a habit is living faith. For since to believe is an act of the intellect assenting | |
| 2030 to the truth at the command of the will, two things are required that this act may be perfect: one of which is that the intellect | |
| 2031 should infallibly tend to its object, which is the true; while the other is that | |
| 2032 the will should be infallibly directed to the last end, on account of which it assents to the true: and both of these are | |
| 2033 to be found in the act of living faith. For it belongs to the very essence of faith that the intellect should ever tend to | |
| 2034 the true, since nothing false can be the object of faith, as proved above ( | |
| 2035 <a id="SS_Q4_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A3.html">Q[1], A[3]</a>): while the effect of charity, which is the form of faith, is that the soul ever has its will directed to a good end. Therefore | |
| 2036 living faith is | |
| 2037 a virtue. | |
| 2038 </p> | |
| 2039 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p8"> On the other hand, lifeless faith is not a virtue, because, though the act of lifeless faith is duly perfect on the part | |
| 2040 of the intellect, it has not its due perfection as regards the will: just as if temperance be in the concupiscible, without | |
| 2041 prudence being in the rational part, temperance is not a virtue, as stated above ( | |
| 2042 <a id="SS_Q4_A5-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q65_A1.html">FS, Q[65], A[1]</a>), because the act of temperance requires both an act of reason, and an act of the concupiscible faculty, even as | |
| 2043 the act of faith requires an act of the will, and an act of the intellect. | |
| 2044 </p> | |
| 2045 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p9"> | |
| 2046 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The truth is itself the good of the intellect, since it is its perfection: and consequently faith has a relation to some | |
| 2047 good in so far as it directs the intellect to the true. Furthermore, it has a relation to the good considered as the object | |
| 2048 of the will, inasmuch as it is formed by charity. | |
| 2049 </p> | |
| 2050 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p10"> | |
| 2051 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The faith of which the Philosopher speaks is based on human reasoning in a conclusion which does not follow, of necessity, | |
| 2052 from its premisses; and which is subject to be false: hence such like faith is not a virtue. On the other hand, the faith | |
| 2053 of which we are speaking is based on the Divine Truth, which is infallible, and consequently its object cannot be anything | |
| 2054 false; so that faith of this kind can be a virtue. | |
| 2055 </p> | |
| 2056 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p11"> | |
| 2057 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Living and lifeless faith do not differ specifically, as though they belonged to different species. But they differ as perfect | |
| 2058 and imperfect within the same species. Hence lifeless faith, being imperfect, does not satisfy the conditions of a perfect | |
| 2059 virtue, for "virtue is a kind of perfection" (Phys. vii, text. 18). | |
| 2060 </p> | |
| 2061 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p12"> | |
| 2062 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Some say that faith which is numbered among the gratuitous graces is lifeless faith. But this is said without reason, since | |
| 2063 the gratuitous graces, which are mentioned in that passage, are not common to all the members of the Church: wherefore the | |
| 2064 Apostle says: "There are diversities of graces," and again, "To one is given" this grace and "to another" that. Now lifeless | |
| 2065 faith is common to all members of the Church, because its lifelessness is not part | |
| 2066 of its substance, if we consider it as a gratuitous gift. We must, therefore, say that in that passage, faith denotes a certain | |
| 2067 excellency of faith, for instance, "constancy in faith," according to a gloss, or the "word of faith." | |
| 2068 </p> | |
| 2069 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p13"> Faith is numbered among the fruits, in so far as it gives a certain pleasure in its act by reason of its certainty, wherefore | |
| 2070 the gloss on the fifth chapter to the Galatians, where the fruits are enumerated, explains faith as being "certainty about | |
| 2071 the unseen." | |
| 2072 </p> | |
| 2073 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p14"></p> | |
| 2074 <p id="SS_Q4_A5-p15"></p> | |
| 2075 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A4.html"></a> | |
| 2076 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A6.html"></a> | |
| 2077 </div> | |
| 2078 <div id="SS_Q4_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 2079 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A5.html"></a> | |
| 2080 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A7.html"></a> | |
| 2081 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A6-p0.1">Whether faith is one virtue?</h4> | |
| 2082 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 2083 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p2"> | |
| 2084 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith is not one. For just as faith is a gift of God according to | |
| 2085 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.2.8" target="asv"> Eph. 2:8, </a> so also wisdom and knowledge are numbered among God's gifts according to | |
| 2086 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A6-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.2" target="asv"> Is. 11:2.</a> Now wisdom and knowledge differ in this, that wisdom is about eternal things, and knowledge about temporal things, as Augustine | |
| 2087 states (De Trin. xii, 14,15). Since, then, faith is about eternal things, and also about some temporal things, it | |
| 2088 seems that faith is not one virtue, but divided into several parts. | |
| 2089 </p> | |
| 2090 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p3"> | |
| 2091 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, confession is an act of faith, as stated above ( | |
| 2092 <a id="SS_Q4_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html">Q[3], A[1]</a>). Now confession of faith is not one and the same for all: since what we confess as past, the fathers of old confessed as | |
| 2093 yet to come, as appears from | |
| 2094 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A6-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Isa.7.14" target="asv"> Is. 7:14</a>: "Behold a virgin shall conceive." Therefore faith is not one. | |
| 2095 </p> | |
| 2096 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p4"> | |
| 2097 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is common to all believers in Christ. But one accident cannot be in many subjects. Therefore all cannot have | |
| 2098 one faith. | |
| 2099 </p> | |
| 2100 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p5"> | |
| 2101 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 2102 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.5" target="asv">Eph. 4:5</a>): "One Lord, one faith." | |
| 2103 </p> | |
| 2104 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p6"> | |
| 2105 <b>I answer that,</b> If we take faith as a habit, we can consider it in two ways. First on the part of the object, and thus there is one faith. | |
| 2106 Because the formal object of faith is the First Truth, by adhering to which we believe whatever is contained in the faith. | |
| 2107 Secondly, on the part of the subject, and thus faith is differentiated according as it is in various subjects. Now it is evident | |
| 2108 that faith, just as any other habit, takes its species from the formal aspect of its | |
| 2109 object, but is individualized by its subject. Hence if we take faith for the habit whereby we believe, it is one specifically, | |
| 2110 but differs numerically according to its various subjects. | |
| 2111 </p> | |
| 2112 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p7"> If, on the other hand, we take faith for that which is believed, then, again, there is one faith, since what is believed | |
| 2113 by all is one same thing: for though the things believed, which all agree in believing, be diverse from one another, yet they | |
| 2114 are all reduced to one. | |
| 2115 </p> | |
| 2116 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p8"> | |
| 2117 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Temporal matters which are proposed to be believed, do not belong to the object of faith, except in relation to something | |
| 2118 eternal, viz. the First Truth, as stated above ( | |
| 2119 <a id="SS_Q4_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). Hence there is one faith of things both temporal and eternal. It is different with wisdom and knowledge, which consider | |
| 2120 temporal and eternal matters under their respective aspects. | |
| 2121 </p> | |
| 2122 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p9"> | |
| 2123 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This difference of past and future arises, not from any difference in the thing believed, but from the different relationships | |
| 2124 of believers to the one thing believed, as also we have mentioned above ( | |
| 2125 <a id="SS_Q4_A6-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q103_A4.html">FS, Q[103], A[4]</a>; | |
| 2126 <a id="SS_Q4_A6-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q107_A1.html">FS, Q[107], A[1]</a>, ad 1). | |
| 2127 </p> | |
| 2128 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p10"> | |
| 2129 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This objection considers numerical diversity of faith. | |
| 2130 </p> | |
| 2131 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 2132 <p id="SS_Q4_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 2133 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A5.html"></a> | |
| 2134 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A7.html"></a> | |
| 2135 </div> | |
| 2136 <div id="SS_Q4_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 2137 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A6.html"></a> | |
| 2138 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A8.html"></a> | |
| 2139 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A7-p0.1">Whether faith is the first of the virtues?</h4> | |
| 2140 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 2141 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p2"> | |
| 2142 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith is not the first of the virtues. For a gloss on | |
| 2143 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.12.4" target="asv"> Lk. 12:4, </a> "I say to you My friends," says that fortitude is the foundation of faith. Now the foundation precedes that which is founded | |
| 2144 thereon. Therefore faith is not the first of the virtues. | |
| 2145 </p> | |
| 2146 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p3"> | |
| 2147 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a gloss on | |
| 2148 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.36" target="asv">Ps. 36</a>, "Be not emulous," says that hope "leads on to faith." Now hope is a virtue, as we shall state further on ( | |
| 2149 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">Q[17], A[1]</a>). Therefore faith is not the first of the virtues. | |
| 2150 </p> | |
| 2151 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p4"> | |
| 2152 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it was stated above | |
| 2153 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html">(A[2])</a> that the intellect of the believer is moved, out of obedience to God, to assent to matters of faith. Now obedience also is | |
| 2154 a virtue. Therefore faith is not the first virtue. | |
| 2155 </p> | |
| 2156 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p5"> | |
| 2157 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, not lifeless but living faith is the foundation, as a gloss remarks on | |
| 2158 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.11" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:11</a> [*Augustine, De Fide et Oper. xvi.]. Now faith is formed by charity, as stated above | |
| 2159 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p5.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore it is owing to charity that faith is the foundation: so that charity is the foundation yet more than faith is | |
| 2160 (for the foundation is the first part of a building) and consequently it seems to precede faith. | |
| 2161 </p> | |
| 2162 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p6"> | |
| 2163 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the order of habits is taken from the order of acts. Now, in the act of faith, the act of the will which is perfected | |
| 2164 by charity, precedes the act of the intellect, which is perfected by faith, as the cause which precedes its effect. Therefore | |
| 2165 charity precedes faith. Therefore faith is not the first of the virtues. | |
| 2166 </p> | |
| 2167 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p7"> | |
| 2168 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 2169 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A7-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.1" target="asv">Heb. 11:1</a>) that "faith is the substance of things to be hoped for." Now the substance of a thing is that which comes first. Therefore | |
| 2170 faith is first among the virtues. | |
| 2171 </p> | |
| 2172 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p8"> | |
| 2173 <b>I answer that,</b> One thing can precede another in two ways: first, by its very nature; secondly, by accident. Faith, by its very nature, precedes | |
| 2174 all other virtues. For since the end is the principle in matters of action, as stated above ( | |
| 2175 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html">FS, Q[13], A[3]</a>; | |
| 2176 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q34_A4.html">FS, Q[34], A[4]</a>, ad 1), the theological virtues, the object of which is the last end, must needs precede all the others. Again, the last | |
| 2177 end must of necessity be present to | |
| 2178 the intellect before it is present to the will, since the will has no inclination for anything except in so far as it is apprehended | |
| 2179 by the intellect. Hence, as the last end is present in the will by hope and charity, and in the intellect, by faith, the first | |
| 2180 of all the virtues must, of necessity, be faith, because natural knowledge cannot reach God as the object of heavenly bliss, | |
| 2181 which is the aspect under which hope and charity tend towards Him. | |
| 2182 </p> | |
| 2183 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p9"> On the other hand, some virtues can precede faith accidentally. For an accidental cause precedes its effect accidentally. | |
| 2184 Now that which removes an obstacle is a kind of accidental cause, according to the Philosopher (Phys. viii, 4): and in this | |
| 2185 sense certain virtues may be said to precede faith accidentally, in so far as they remove obstacles to belief. Thus fortitude | |
| 2186 removes the inordinate fear that hinders faith; humility removes pride, whereby a man refuses to submit himself | |
| 2187 to the truth of faith. The same may be said of some other virtues, although there are no real virtues, unless faith be presupposed, | |
| 2188 as Augustine states (Contra Julian. iv, 3). | |
| 2189 </p> | |
| 2190 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p10"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 2191 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p11"> | |
| 2192 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hope cannot lead to faith absolutely. For one cannot hope to obtain eternal happiness, unless one believes this possible, | |
| 2193 since hope does not tend to the impossible, as stated above ( | |
| 2194 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A1.html">FS, Q[40], A[1]</a>). It is, however, possible for one to be led by hope to persevere in faith, or to hold firmly to faith; and it is in this | |
| 2195 sense that hope is said to lead to faith. | |
| 2196 </p> | |
| 2197 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p12"> | |
| 2198 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Obedience is twofold: for sometimes it denotes the inclination of the will to fulfil God's commandments. In this way it is | |
| 2199 not a special virtue, but is a general condition of every virtue; since all acts of virtue come under the precepts of the | |
| 2200 Divine law, as stated above ( | |
| 2201 <a id="SS_Q4_A7-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q100_A2.html">FS, Q[100], A[2]</a>); and thus it is requisite for faith. In another way, obedience denotes an inclination to fulfil the commandments considered | |
| 2202 as a duty. In | |
| 2203 this way it is a special virtue, and a part of justice: for a man does his duty by his superior when he obeys him: and thus | |
| 2204 obedience follows faith, whereby man knows that God is his superior, Whom he must obey. | |
| 2205 </p> | |
| 2206 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p13"> | |
| 2207 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> To be a foundation a thing requires not only to come first, but also to be connected with the other parts of the building: | |
| 2208 since the building would not be founded on it unless the other parts adhered to it. Now the connecting bond of the spiritual | |
| 2209 edifice is charity, according to | |
| 2210 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A7-p13.1" href="./asv.html#Col.3.14" target="asv"> Col. 3:14</a>: "Above all . . . things have charity which is the bond of perfection." Consequently faith without charity cannot be the | |
| 2211 foundation: and yet | |
| 2212 it does not follow that charity precedes faith. | |
| 2213 </p> | |
| 2214 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p14"> | |
| 2215 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Some act of the will is required before faith, but not an act of the will quickened by charity. This latter act presupposes | |
| 2216 faith, because the will cannot tend to God with perfect love, unless the intellect possesses right faith about Him. | |
| 2217 </p> | |
| 2218 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p15"></p> | |
| 2219 <p id="SS_Q4_A7-p16"></p> | |
| 2220 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A6.html"></a> | |
| 2221 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A8.html"></a> | |
| 2222 </div> | |
| 2223 <div id="SS_Q4_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 2224 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A7.html"></a> | |
| 2225 <a href="summa.SS_Q5.html"></a> | |
| 2226 <h4 id="SS_Q4_A8-p0.1">Whether faith is more certain than science and the other intellectual virtues?</h4> | |
| 2227 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 2228 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p2"> | |
| 2229 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith is not more certain than science and the other intellectual virtues. For doubt is opposed to certitude, | |
| 2230 wherefore a thing would seem to be the more certain, through being less doubtful, just as a thing is the whiter, the less | |
| 2231 it has of an admixture of black. Now understanding, science and also wisdom are free of any doubt about their objects; whereas | |
| 2232 the believer may sometimes suffer a movement of doubt, and doubt about matters of | |
| 2233 faith. Therefore faith is no more certain than the intellectual virtues. | |
| 2234 </p> | |
| 2235 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p3"> | |
| 2236 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sight is more certain than hearing. But "faith is through hearing" according to | |
| 2237 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.17" target="asv"> Rom. 10:17</a>; whereas understanding, science and wisdom imply some kind of intellectual sight. Therefore science and understanding are | |
| 2238 more certain than faith. | |
| 2239 </p> | |
| 2240 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p4"> Further, in matters concerning the intellect, the more perfect is the more certain. Now understanding is more perfect than | |
| 2241 faith, since faith is the way to understanding, according to another version [*The Septuagint] of | |
| 2242 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A8-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.7.9" target="asv"> Is. 7:9</a>: "If you will not believe, you shall not understand [Vulg.: 'continue']": and Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 1) that "faith | |
| 2243 is strengthened by science." Therefore it seems that science or understanding is more certain than faith. | |
| 2244 </p> | |
| 2245 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p5"> | |
| 2246 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 2247 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q4_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iThess.2.15" target="asv">1 Thess. 2:15</a>): "When you had received of us the word of the hearing," i.e. by faith . . . "you received it not as the word of men, but, | |
| 2248 as it is indeed, the word of God." Now nothing is more certain than the word of God. Therefore science is not more certain | |
| 2249 than faith; nor is anything else. | |
| 2250 </p> | |
| 2251 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p6"> | |
| 2252 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 2253 <a id="SS_Q4_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q57_A4.html">FS, Q[57], A[4]</a>, ad 2) two of the intellectual virtues are about contingent matter, viz. prudence and art; to which faith is preferable in | |
| 2254 point of certitude, by reason of its matter, since it is about eternal things, which never change, whereas the other three | |
| 2255 intellectual virtues, viz. wisdom, science [*In English the corresponding 'gift' is called knowledge] and understanding, are | |
| 2256 about necessary things, as stated | |
| 2257 above ( | |
| 2258 <a id="SS_Q4_A8-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q57_A5.html">FS, Q[57], A[5]</a>, ad 3). But it must be observed that wisdom, science and understanding may be taken in two ways: first, as intellectual virtues, | |
| 2259 according to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 2,3); secondly, for the gifts of the Holy Ghost. If we consider them in the first | |
| 2260 way, we must note that certitude can be looked at in two ways. First, on the part of its cause, and thus a thing which has | |
| 2261 a more certain cause, is itself more certain. In this way faith is more | |
| 2262 certain than those three virtues, because it is founded on the Divine truth, whereas the aforesaid three virtues are based | |
| 2263 on human reason. Secondly, certitude may be considered on the part of the subject, and thus the more a man's intellect lays | |
| 2264 hold of a thing, the more certain it is. In this way, faith is less certain, because matters of faith are above the human | |
| 2265 intellect, whereas the objects of the aforesaid three virtues are not. Since, however, a thing is judged simply with regard | |
| 2266 to its | |
| 2267 cause, but relatively, with respect to a disposition on the part of the subject, it follows that faith is more certain simply, | |
| 2268 while the others are more certain relatively, i.e. for us. Likewise if these three be taken as gifts received in this present | |
| 2269 life, they are related to faith as to their principle which they presuppose: so that again, in this way, faith is more certain. | |
| 2270 </p> | |
| 2271 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p7"> | |
| 2272 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This doubt is not on the side of the cause of faith, but on our side, in so far as we do not fully grasp matters of faith | |
| 2273 with our intellect. | |
| 2274 </p> | |
| 2275 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p8"> | |
| 2276 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Other things being equal sight is more certain than hearing; but if (the authority of) the person from whom we hear greatly | |
| 2277 surpasses that of the seer's sight, hearing is more certain than sight: thus a man of little science is more certain about | |
| 2278 what he hears on the authority of an expert in science, than about what is apparent to him according to his own reason: and | |
| 2279 much more is a man certain about what he hears from God, Who cannot be deceived, | |
| 2280 than about what he sees with his own reason, which can be mistaken. | |
| 2281 </p> | |
| 2282 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p9"> | |
| 2283 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The gifts of understanding and knowledge are more perfect than the knowledge of faith in the point of their greater clearness, | |
| 2284 but not in regard to more certain adhesion: because the whole certitude of the gifts of understanding and knowledge, arises | |
| 2285 from the certitude of faith, even as the certitude of the knowledge of conclusions arises from the certitude of premisses. | |
| 2286 But in so far as science, wisdom and understanding are intellectual virtues, they | |
| 2287 are based upon the natural light of reason, which falls short of the certitude of God's word, on which faith is founded. | |
| 2288 </p> | |
| 2289 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p10"></p> | |
| 2290 <p id="SS_Q4_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 2291 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A7.html"></a> | |
| 2292 <a href="summa.SS_Q5.html"></a> | |
| 2293 </div> | |
| 2294 <a href="summa.SS_Q3_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2295 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2296 </div> | |
| 2297 <div id="SS_Q5" class="div3"> | |
| 2298 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A8.html"></a> | |
| 2299 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2300 <h3 id="SS_Q5-p0.1">OF THOSE WHO HAVE FAITH (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 2301 <p id="SS_Q5-p1"></p> | |
| 2302 <p id="SS_Q5-p2"> We must now consider those who have faith: under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 2303 <p id="SS_Q5-p3"> (1) Whether there was faith in the angels, or in man, in their original state?</p> | |
| 2304 <p id="SS_Q5-p4"> (2) Whether the demons have faith?</p> | |
| 2305 <p id="SS_Q5-p5"> (3) Whether those heretics who err in one article, have faith in others?</p> | |
| 2306 <p id="SS_Q5-p6"> (4) Whether among those who have faith, one has it more than another?</p> | |
| 2307 <div id="SS_Q5_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 2308 <a href="summa.SS_Q5.html"></a> | |
| 2309 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2310 <h4 id="SS_Q5_A1-p0.1">Whether there was faith in the angels, or in man, in their original state?</h4> | |
| 2311 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 2312 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p2"> | |
| 2313 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there was no faith, either in the angels, or in man, in their original state. For Hugh St. Victor says | |
| 2314 in his Sentences (De Sacram. i, 10) that "man cannot see God or things that are in God, because he closes his eyes to contemplation." | |
| 2315 Now the angels, in their original state, before they were either confirmed in grace, or had fallen from it, had their eyes | |
| 2316 opened to contemplation, since "they saw things in the Word," according to Augustine | |
| 2317 (Gen. ad lit. ii, 8). Likewise the first man, while in the state of innocence, seemingly had his eyes open to contemplation; | |
| 2318 for Hugh St. Victor says (De Sacram. i, 6) that "in his original state man knew his Creator, not by the mere outward perception | |
| 2319 of hearing, but by inward inspiration, not as now believers seek an absent God by faith, but by seeing Him clearly present | |
| 2320 to their contemplation." Therefore there was no faith in the angels and man in their original state. | |
| 2321 </p> | |
| 2322 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p3"> | |
| 2323 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the knowledge of faith is dark and obscure, according to | |
| 2324 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:13</a>: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner." Now in their original state there was not obscurity either in the angels | |
| 2325 or in man, because it is a punishment of sin. Therefore there could be no faith in the angels or in man, in their original | |
| 2326 state. | |
| 2327 </p> | |
| 2328 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p4"> | |
| 2329 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 2330 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.17" target="asv">Rom. 10:17</a>) that "faith . . . cometh by hearing." Now this could not apply to angels and man in their original state; for then they | |
| 2331 could not hear anything from another. Therefore, in that state, there was no faith either in man or in the angels. | |
| 2332 </p> | |
| 2333 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p5"> | |
| 2334 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 2335 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv">Heb. 11:6</a>): "He that cometh to God, must believe." Now the original state of angels and man was one of approach to God. Therefore they | |
| 2336 had need of faith. | |
| 2337 </p> | |
| 2338 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p6"> | |
| 2339 <b>I answer that,</b> Some say that there was no faith in the angels before they were confirmed in grace or fell from it, and in man before he | |
| 2340 sinned, by reason of the manifest contemplation that they had of Divine things. Since, however, "faith is the evidence of | |
| 2341 things that appear not," according to the Apostle ( | |
| 2342 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.2" target="asv">Heb. 11:2</a>), and since "by faith we believe what we see not," according to Augustine (Tract. xl in Joan.; QQ. Evang. ii, qu. 39), that | |
| 2343 manifestation | |
| 2344 alone excludes faith, which renders apparent or seen the principal object of faith. Now the principal object of faith is the | |
| 2345 First Truth, the sight of which gives the happiness of heaven and takes the place of faith. Consequently, as the angels before | |
| 2346 their confirmation in grace, and man before sin, did not possess the happiness whereby God is seen in His Essence, it is evident | |
| 2347 that the knowledge they possessed was not such as to exclude faith. | |
| 2348 </p> | |
| 2349 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p7"> It follows then, that the absence of faith in them could only be explained by their being altogether ignorant of the object | |
| 2350 of faith. And if man and the angels were created in a purely natural state, as some [*St. Bonaventure, Sent. ii, D, 29] hold, | |
| 2351 perhaps one might hold that there was no faith in the angels before their confirmation in grace, or in man before sin, because | |
| 2352 the knowledge of faith surpasses not only a man's but even an angel's natural knowledge about God. | |
| 2353 </p> | |
| 2354 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p8"> Since, however, we stated in the | |
| 2355 <a id="SS_Q5_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q62_A3.html">FP, Q[62], A[3]</a>; | |
| 2356 <a id="SS_Q5_A1-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q95_A1.html">FP, Q[95], A[1]</a> that man and the angels were created with the gift of grace, we must needs say that there was in them a certain beginning | |
| 2357 of hoped-for happiness, by reason of grace received but not yet consummated, which happiness was begun in their will by hope | |
| 2358 and charity, and in the intellect by faith, as stated above (Q[4], A[7]). Consequently we must hold that the angels had | |
| 2359 faith before they were confirmed, and man, before he sinned. Nevertheless we must observe that in the object of faith, there | |
| 2360 is something formal, as it were, namely the First Truth surpassing all the natural knowledge of a creature, and something | |
| 2361 material, namely, the thing to which we assent while adhering to the First Truth. With regard to the former, before obtaining | |
| 2362 the happiness to come, faith is common to all who have knowledge of God, by adhering to the First Truth: whereas with regard | |
| 2363 to the things which are proposed as the material object of faith, some are believed by one, and known manifestly by another, | |
| 2364 even in the present state, as we have shown above (Q[1], A[5]; Q[2], A[4], ad 2). In this respect, too, it may be said that | |
| 2365 the angels before being confirmed, and man, before sin, possessed manifest knowledge about certain points in the Divine mysteries, | |
| 2366 which now we cannot know except by believing them. | |
| 2367 </p> | |
| 2368 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p9"> | |
| 2369 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the words of Hugh of St. Victor are those of a master, and have the force of an authority, yet it may be said that | |
| 2370 the contemplation which removes the need of faith is heavenly contemplation, whereby the supernatural truth is seen in its | |
| 2371 essence. Now the angels did not possess this contemplation before they were confirmed, nor did man before he sinned: yet their | |
| 2372 contemplation was of a higher order than ours, for by its means they approached | |
| 2373 nearer to God, and had manifest knowledge of more of the Divine effects and mysteries than we can have knowledge of. Hence | |
| 2374 faith was not in them so that they sought an absent God as we seek Him: since by the light of wisdom He was more present to | |
| 2375 them than He is to us, although He was not so present to them as He is to the Blessed by the light of glory. | |
| 2376 </p> | |
| 2377 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p10"> | |
| 2378 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> There was no darkness of sin or punishment in the original state of man and the angels, but there was a certain natural obscurity | |
| 2379 in the human and angelic intellect, in so far as every creature is darkness in comparison with the immensity of the Divine | |
| 2380 light: and this obscurity suffices for faith. | |
| 2381 </p> | |
| 2382 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p11"> | |
| 2383 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In the original state there was no hearing anything from man speaking outwardly, but there was from God inspiring inwardly: | |
| 2384 thus the prophets heard, as expressed by the | |
| 2385 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A1-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.84.9" target="asv"> Ps. 84:9</a>: "I will hear what the Lord God will speak in me." | |
| 2386 </p> | |
| 2387 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 2388 <p id="SS_Q5_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 2389 <a href="summa.SS_Q5.html"></a> | |
| 2390 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2391 </div> | |
| 2392 <div id="SS_Q5_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 2393 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2394 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2395 <h4 id="SS_Q5_A2-p0.1">Whether in the demons there is faith?</h4> | |
| 2396 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 2397 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p2"> | |
| 2398 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the demons have no faith. For Augustine says (De Praedest. Sanct. v) that "faith depends on the believer's | |
| 2399 will": and this is a good will, since by it man wishes to believe in God. Since then no deliberate will of the demons is good, | |
| 2400 as stated above ( | |
| 2401 <a id="SS_Q5_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q64_A2.html">FP, Q[64], A[2]</a>, ad 5), it seems that in the demons there is no faith. | |
| 2402 </p> | |
| 2403 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p3"> | |
| 2404 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, faith is a gift of Divine grace, according to | |
| 2405 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.2.8" target="asv"> Eph. 2:8</a>: "By grace you are saved through faith . . . for it is the gift of God." Now, according to a gloss on | |
| 2406 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A2-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Hos.3.1" target="asv"> Osee 3:1, </a> "They look to strange gods, and love the husks of the grapes," the demons lost their gifts of grace by sinning. Therefore | |
| 2407 faith did not remain in the demons after they sinned. | |
| 2408 </p> | |
| 2409 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p4"> | |
| 2410 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, unbelief would seem to be graver than other sins, as Augustine observes (Tract. lxxxix in Joan.) on | |
| 2411 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.22" target="asv"> Jn. 15:22, </a> "If I had not come and spoken to them, they would not have sin: but now they have no excuse for their sin." Now the sin of | |
| 2412 unbelief is in some men. Consequently, if the demons have faith, some men would be guilty of a sin graver than that of the | |
| 2413 demons, which seems unreasonable. Therefore in the demons there is no | |
| 2414 faith. | |
| 2415 </p> | |
| 2416 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p5"> | |
| 2417 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 2418 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.19" target="asv">James 2:19</a>): "The devils . . . believe and tremble." | |
| 2419 </p> | |
| 2420 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p6"> | |
| 2421 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 2422 <a id="SS_Q5_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], A[4]</a>; | |
| 2423 <a id="SS_Q5_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html"> Q[2], A[1]</a>), the believer's intellect assents to that which he believes, not because he sees it either in itself, or by resolving it | |
| 2424 to first self-evident principles, but because his will commands his intellect to assent. Now, that the will moves the intellect | |
| 2425 to assent, may be due to two causes. First, through the will being directed to the good, and in this way, to believe is a | |
| 2426 praiseworthy action. Secondly, because the intellect is convinced that it ought to believe what is said, though that conviction | |
| 2427 is not based on objective evidence. Thus if a prophet, while preaching the word of God, were to foretell something, and were | |
| 2428 to give a sign, by raising a dead person to life, the intellect of a witness would be convinced so as to recognize clearly | |
| 2429 that God, Who lieth not, was speaking, although the thing itself foretold would not be evident in itself, and consequently | |
| 2430 the essence of faith would not be removed. | |
| 2431 </p> | |
| 2432 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p7"> Accordingly we must say that faith is commended in the first sense in the faithful of Christ: and in this way faith is not | |
| 2433 in the demons, but only in the second way, for they see many evident signs, whereby they recognize that the teaching of the | |
| 2434 Church is from God, although they do not see the things themselves that the Church teaches, for instance that there are three | |
| 2435 Persons in God, and so forth. | |
| 2436 </p> | |
| 2437 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p8"> | |
| 2438 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The demons are, in a way, compelled to believe, by the evidence of signs, and so their will deserves no praise for their | |
| 2439 belief. | |
| 2440 </p> | |
| 2441 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p9"> | |
| 2442 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faith, which is a gift of grace, inclines man to believe, by giving him a certain affection for the good, even when that | |
| 2443 faith is lifeless. Consequently the faith which the demons have, is not a gift of grace. Rather are they compelled to believe | |
| 2444 through their natural intellectual acumen. | |
| 2445 </p> | |
| 2446 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p10"> | |
| 2447 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The very fact that the signs of faith are so evident, that the demons are compelled to believe, is displeasing to them, so | |
| 2448 that their malice is by no means diminished by their believe. | |
| 2449 </p> | |
| 2450 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 2451 <p id="SS_Q5_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 2452 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2453 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2454 </div> | |
| 2455 <div id="SS_Q5_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 2456 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2457 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A4.html"></a> | |
| 2458 <h4 id="SS_Q5_A3-p0.1">Whether a man who disbelieves one article of faith, can have lifeless faith in the other articles?</h4> | |
| 2459 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 2460 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p2"> | |
| 2461 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a heretic who disbelieves one article of faith, can have lifeless faith in the other articles. For the | |
| 2462 natural intellect of a heretic is not more able than that of a catholic. Now a catholic's intellect needs the aid of the gift | |
| 2463 of faith in order to believe any article whatever of faith. Therefore it seems that heretics cannot believe any articles of | |
| 2464 faith without the gift of lifeless faith. | |
| 2465 </p> | |
| 2466 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p3"> | |
| 2467 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as faith contains many articles, so does one science, viz. geometry, contain many conclusions. Now a man may | |
| 2468 possess the science of geometry as to some geometrical conclusions, and yet be ignorant of other conclusions. Therefore a | |
| 2469 man can believe some articles of faith without believing the others. | |
| 2470 </p> | |
| 2471 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p4"> | |
| 2472 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as man obeys God in believing the articles of faith, so does he also in keeping the commandments of the Law. | |
| 2473 Now a man can obey some commandments, and disobey others. Therefore he can believe some articles, and disbelieve others. | |
| 2474 </p> | |
| 2475 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p5"> | |
| 2476 <b>On the contrary,</b> Just as mortal sin is contrary to charity, so is disbelief in one article of faith contrary to faith. Now charity does not | |
| 2477 remain in a man after one mortal sin. Therefore neither does faith, after a man disbelieves one article. | |
| 2478 </p> | |
| 2479 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p6"> | |
| 2480 <b>I answer that,</b> Neither living nor lifeless faith remains in a heretic who disbelieves one article of faith. | |
| 2481 </p> | |
| 2482 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p7"> The reason of this is that the species of every habit depends on the formal aspect of the object, without which the species | |
| 2483 of the habit cannot remain. Now the formal object of faith is the First Truth, as manifested in Holy Writ and the teaching | |
| 2484 of the Church, which proceeds from the First Truth. Consequently whoever does not adhere, as to an infallible and Divine rule, | |
| 2485 to the teaching of the Church, which proceeds from the First Truth manifested in Holy Writ, has not the habit | |
| 2486 of faith, but holds that which is of faith otherwise than by faith. Even so, it is evident that a man whose mind holds a conclusion | |
| 2487 without knowing how it is proved, has not scientific knowledge, but merely an opinion about it. Now it is manifest that he | |
| 2488 who adheres to the teaching of the Church, as to an infallible rule, assents to whatever the Church teaches; otherwise, if, | |
| 2489 of the things taught by the Church, he holds what he chooses to hold, and rejects what he chooses to reject, he no | |
| 2490 longer adheres to the teaching of the Church as to an infallible rule, but to his own will. Hence it is evident that a heretic | |
| 2491 who obstinately disbelieves one article of faith, is not prepared to follow the teaching of the Church in all things; but | |
| 2492 if he is not obstinate, he is no longer in heresy but only in error. Therefore it is clear that such a heretic with regard | |
| 2493 to one article has no faith in the other articles, but only a kind of opinion in accordance with his own will. | |
| 2494 </p> | |
| 2495 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p8"> | |
| 2496 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A heretic does not hold the other articles of faith, about which he does not err, in the same way as one of the faithful | |
| 2497 does, namely by adhering simply to the Divine Truth, because in order to do so, a man needs the help of the habit of faith; | |
| 2498 but he holds the things that are of faith, by his own will and judgment. | |
| 2499 </p> | |
| 2500 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p9"> | |
| 2501 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The various conclusions of a science have their respective means of demonstration, one of which may be known without another, | |
| 2502 so that we may know some conclusions of a science without knowing the others. On the other hand faith adheres to all the articles | |
| 2503 of faith by reason of one mean, viz. on account of the First Truth proposed to us in Scriptures, according to the teaching | |
| 2504 of the Church who has the right understanding of them. Hence whoever | |
| 2505 abandons this mean is altogether lacking in faith. | |
| 2506 </p> | |
| 2507 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p10"> | |
| 2508 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The various precepts of the Law may be referred either to their respective proximate motives, and thus one can be kept without | |
| 2509 another; or to their primary motive, which is perfect obedience to God, in which a man fails whenever he breaks one commandment, | |
| 2510 according to | |
| 2511 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A3-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.10" target="asv"> James 2:10</a>: "Whosoever shall . . . offend in one point is become guilty of all." | |
| 2512 </p> | |
| 2513 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 2514 <p id="SS_Q5_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 2515 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2516 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A4.html"></a> | |
| 2517 </div> | |
| 2518 <div id="SS_Q5_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 2519 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2520 <a href="summa.SS_Q6.html"></a> | |
| 2521 <h4 id="SS_Q5_A4-p0.1">Whether faith can be greater in one man than in another?</h4> | |
| 2522 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 2523 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p2"> | |
| 2524 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith cannot be greater in one man than in another. For the quantity of a habit is taken from its object. | |
| 2525 Now whoever has faith believes everything that is of faith, since by failing in one point, a man loses his faith altogether, | |
| 2526 as stated above | |
| 2527 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q5_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore it seems that faith cannot be greater in one than in another. | |
| 2528 </p> | |
| 2529 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p3"> | |
| 2530 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, those things which consist in something supreme cannot be "more" or "less." Now faith consists in something supreme, | |
| 2531 because it requires that man should adhere to the First Truth above all things. Therefore faith cannot be "more" or "less." | |
| 2532 </p> | |
| 2533 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p4"> | |
| 2534 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, faith is to knowledge by grace, as the understanding of principles is to natural knowledge, since the articles of | |
| 2535 faith are the first principles of knowledge by grace, as was shown above ( | |
| 2536 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html">Q[1], A[7]</a>). Now the understanding of principles is possessed in equal degree by all men. Therefore faith is possessed in equal degree | |
| 2537 by all the faithful. | |
| 2538 </p> | |
| 2539 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p5"> | |
| 2540 <b>On the contrary,</b> Wherever we find great and little, there we find more or less. Now in the matter of faith we find great and little, for Our | |
| 2541 Lord said to Peter ( | |
| 2542 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.14.31" target="asv">Mat. 14:31</a>): "O thou of little faith, why didst thou doubt?" And to the woman he said ( | |
| 2543 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q5_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.15.28" target="asv">Mat. 15: 28</a>): "O woman, great is thy faith!" Therefore faith can be greater in one than in another. | |
| 2544 </p> | |
| 2545 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p6"> | |
| 2546 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 2547 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q52_A1.html">FS, Q[52], AA[1]</a>,2; | |
| 2548 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q112_A4.html">FS, Q[112], A[4]</a>), the quantity of a habit may be considered from two points of view: first, on the part of the object; secondly, on the part | |
| 2549 of its participation by the subject. | |
| 2550 </p> | |
| 2551 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p7"> Now the object of faith may be considered in two ways: first, in respect of its formal aspect; secondly, in respect of the | |
| 2552 material object which is proposed to be believed. Now the formal object of faith is one and simple, namely the First Truth, | |
| 2553 as stated above ( | |
| 2554 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). Hence in this respect there is no diversity of faith among believers, but it is specifically one in all, as stated above | |
| 2555 ( | |
| 2556 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A6.html">Q[4], A[6]</a>). But the things which | |
| 2557 are proposed as the matter of our belief are many and can be received more or less explicitly; and in this respect one man | |
| 2558 can believe explicitly more things than another, so that faith can be greater in one man on account of its being more explicit. | |
| 2559 </p> | |
| 2560 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p8"> If, on the other hand, we consider faith from the point of view of its participation by the subject, this happens in two | |
| 2561 ways, since the act of faith proceeds both from the intellect and from the will, as stated above ( | |
| 2562 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A1.html">Q[2], AA[1]</a>,2; | |
| 2563 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A2.html"> Q[4], A[2]</a>). Consequently a man's faith may be described as being greater, in one way, on the part of his intellect, on account of its | |
| 2564 greater certitude and firmness, and, in another way, on the part | |
| 2565 of his will, on account of his greater promptitude, devotion, or confidence. | |
| 2566 </p> | |
| 2567 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p9"> | |
| 2568 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A man who obstinately disbelieves a thing that is of faith, has not the habit of faith, and yet he who does not explicitly | |
| 2569 believe all, while he is prepared to believe all, has that habit. In this respect, one man has greater faith than another, | |
| 2570 on the part of the object, in so far as he believes more things, as stated above. | |
| 2571 </p> | |
| 2572 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p10"> | |
| 2573 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is essential to faith that one should give the first place to the First Truth. But among those who do this, some submit | |
| 2574 to it with greater certitude and devotion than others; and in this way faith is greater in one than in another. | |
| 2575 </p> | |
| 2576 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p11"> | |
| 2577 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The understanding of principles results from man's very nature, which is equally shared by all: whereas faith results from | |
| 2578 the gift of grace, which is not equally in all, as explained above ( | |
| 2579 <a id="SS_Q5_A4-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q112_A4.html">FS, Q[112], A[4]</a>). Hence the comparison fails. | |
| 2580 </p> | |
| 2581 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p12"> Nevertheless the truth of principles is more known to one than to another, according to the greater capacity of intellect.</p> | |
| 2582 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 2583 <p id="SS_Q5_A4-p14"></p> | |
| 2584 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2585 <a href="summa.SS_Q6.html"></a> | |
| 2586 </div> | |
| 2587 <a href="summa.SS_Q4_A8.html"></a> | |
| 2588 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2589 </div> | |
| 2590 <div id="SS_Q6" class="div3"> | |
| 2591 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A4.html"></a> | |
| 2592 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2593 <h3 id="SS_Q6-p0.1">OF THE CAUSE OF FAITH (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 2594 <p id="SS_Q6-p1"></p> | |
| 2595 <p id="SS_Q6-p2"> We must now consider the cause of faith, under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 2596 <p id="SS_Q6-p3"> (1) Whether faith is infused into man by God?</p> | |
| 2597 <p id="SS_Q6-p4"> (2) Whether lifeless faith is a gift of God?</p> | |
| 2598 <div id="SS_Q6_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 2599 <a href="summa.SS_Q6.html"></a> | |
| 2600 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2601 <h4 id="SS_Q6_A1-p0.1">Whether faith is infused into man by God?</h4> | |
| 2602 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 2603 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p2"> | |
| 2604 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith is not infused into man by God. For Augustine says (De Trin. xiv) that "science begets faith in | |
| 2605 us, and nourishes, defends and strengthens it." Now those things which science begets in us seem to be acquired rather than | |
| 2606 infused. Therefore faith does not seem to be in us by Divine infusion. | |
| 2607 </p> | |
| 2608 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p3"> | |
| 2609 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that to which man attains by hearing and seeing, seems to be acquired by him. Now man attains to belief, both by | |
| 2610 seeing miracles, and by hearing the teachings of faith: for it is written ( | |
| 2611 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#John.4.53" target="asv">Jn. 4:53</a>): "The father . . . knew that it was at the same hour, that Jesus said to him, Thy son liveth; and himself believed, and | |
| 2612 his whole house"; and ( | |
| 2613 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.17" target="asv">Rom. 10:17</a>) it is said that "faith is through hearing." Therefore man attains to faith by | |
| 2614 acquiring it. | |
| 2615 </p> | |
| 2616 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p4"> | |
| 2617 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which depends on a man's will can be acquired by him. But "faith depends on the believer's will," according | |
| 2618 to Augustine (De Praedest. Sanct. v). Therefore faith can be acquired by man. | |
| 2619 </p> | |
| 2620 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p5"> | |
| 2621 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 2622 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.2.8" target="asv">Eph. 2:8,9</a>): "By grace you are saved through faith, and that not of yourselves . . . that no man may glory . . . for it is the gift | |
| 2623 of God." | |
| 2624 </p> | |
| 2625 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p6"> | |
| 2626 <b>I answer that,</b> Two things are requisite for faith. First, that the things which are of faith should be proposed to man: this is necessary | |
| 2627 in order that man believe anything explicitly. The second thing requisite for faith is the assent of the believer to the things | |
| 2628 which are proposed to him. Accordingly, as regards the first of these, faith must needs be from God. Because those things | |
| 2629 which are of faith surpass human reason, hence they do not come to man's knowledge, | |
| 2630 unless God reveal them. To some, indeed, they are revealed by God immediately, as those things which were revealed to the | |
| 2631 apostles and prophets, while to some they are proposed by God in sending preachers of the faith, according to | |
| 2632 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.15" target="asv">Rom. 10:15</a>: "How shall they preach, unless they be sent?" | |
| 2633 </p> | |
| 2634 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p7"> As regards the second, viz. man's assent to the things which are of faith, we may observe a twofold cause, one of external | |
| 2635 inducement, such as seeing a miracle, or being persuaded by someone to embrace the faith: neither of which is a sufficient | |
| 2636 cause, since of those who see the same miracle, or who hear the same sermon, some believe, and some do not. Hence we must | |
| 2637 assert another internal cause, which moves man inwardly to assent to matters of faith. | |
| 2638 </p> | |
| 2639 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p8"> The Pelagians held that this cause was nothing else than man's free-will: and consequently they said that the beginning of | |
| 2640 faith is from ourselves, inasmuch as, to wit, it is in our power to be ready to assent to things which are of faith, but that | |
| 2641 the consummation of faith is from God, Who proposes to us the things we have to believe. But this is false, for, since man, | |
| 2642 by assenting to matters of faith, is raised above his nature, this must needs accrue to him from some | |
| 2643 supernatural principle moving him inwardly; and this is God. Therefore faith, as regards the assent which is the chief act | |
| 2644 of faith, is from God moving man inwardly by grace. | |
| 2645 </p> | |
| 2646 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p9"> | |
| 2647 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Science begets and nourishes faith, by way of external persuasion afforded by science; but the chief and proper cause of | |
| 2648 faith is that which moves man inwardly to assent. | |
| 2649 </p> | |
| 2650 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p10"> | |
| 2651 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument again refers to the cause that proposes outwardly the things that are of faith, or persuades man to believe | |
| 2652 by words or deeds. | |
| 2653 </p> | |
| 2654 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p11"> | |
| 2655 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To believe does indeed depend on the will of the believer: but man's will needs to be prepared by God with grace, in order | |
| 2656 that he may be raised to things which are above his nature, as stated above ( | |
| 2657 <a id="SS_Q6_A1-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q2_A3.html">Q[2] , A[3]</a>). | |
| 2658 </p> | |
| 2659 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 2660 <p id="SS_Q6_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 2661 <a href="summa.SS_Q6.html"></a> | |
| 2662 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2663 </div> | |
| 2664 <div id="SS_Q6_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 2665 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2666 <a href="summa.SS_Q7.html"></a> | |
| 2667 <h4 id="SS_Q6_A2-p0.1">Whether lifeless faith is a gift of God?</h4> | |
| 2668 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 2669 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p2"> | |
| 2670 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that lifeless faith is not a gift of God. For it is written ( | |
| 2671 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.32.4" target="asv">Dt. 32:4</a>) that "the works of God are perfect." Now lifeless faith is something imperfect. Therefore it is not the work of God. | |
| 2672 </p> | |
| 2673 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p3"> | |
| 2674 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as an act is said to be deformed through lacking its due form, so too is faith called lifeless [informis] when | |
| 2675 it lacks the form due to it. Now the deformed act of sin is not from God, as stated above ( | |
| 2676 <a id="SS_Q6_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q79_A2.html">FS, Q[79], A[2]</a>, ad 2). Therefore neither is lifeless faith from God. | |
| 2677 </p> | |
| 2678 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p4"> | |
| 2679 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whomsoever God heals, He heals wholly: for it is written ( | |
| 2680 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.7.23" target="asv">Jn. 7:23</a>): "If a man receive circumcision on the sabbath-day, that the law of Moses may not be broken; are you angry at Me because | |
| 2681 I have healed the whole man on the sabbath-day?" Now faith heals man from unbelief. Therefore whoever receives from God the | |
| 2682 gift of faith, is at the same time healed from all his sins. But this is not done except by living faith. Therefore | |
| 2683 living faith alone is a gift of God: and consequently lifeless faith is not from God. | |
| 2684 </p> | |
| 2685 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p5"> | |
| 2686 <b>On the contrary,</b> A gloss on | |
| 2687 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q6_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.2" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:2 </a>says that "the faith which lacks charity is a gift of God." Now this is lifeless faith. Therefore lifeless faith is a gift | |
| 2688 of God. | |
| 2689 </p> | |
| 2690 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p6"> | |
| 2691 <b>I answer that,</b> Lifelessness is a privation. Now it must be noted that privation is sometimes essential to the species, whereas sometimes | |
| 2692 it is not, but supervenes in a thing already possessed of its proper species: thus privation of the due equilibrium of the | |
| 2693 humors is essential to the species of sickness, while darkness is not essential to a diaphanous body, but supervenes in it. | |
| 2694 Since, therefore, when we assign the cause of a thing, we intend to assign the cause of that | |
| 2695 thing as existing in its proper species, it follows that what is not the cause of privation, cannot be assigned as the cause | |
| 2696 of the thing to which that privation belongs as being essential to its species. For we cannot assign as the cause of a sickness, | |
| 2697 something which is not the cause of a disturbance in the humors: though we can assign as cause of a diaphanous body, something | |
| 2698 which is not the cause of the darkness, which is not essential to the diaphanous body. | |
| 2699 </p> | |
| 2700 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p7"> Now the lifelessness of faith is not essential to the species of faith, since faith is said to be lifeless through lack of | |
| 2701 an extrinsic form, as stated above (Q[4], A[4]). Consequently the cause of lifeless faith is that which is the cause of faith | |
| 2702 strictly so called: and this is God, as stated above | |
| 2703 <a id="SS_Q6_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q6_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. It follows, therefore, that lifeless faith is a gift of God. | |
| 2704 </p> | |
| 2705 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p8"> | |
| 2706 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Lifeless faith, though it is not simply perfect with the perfection of a virtue, is, nevertheless, perfect with a perfection | |
| 2707 that suffices for the essential notion of faith. | |
| 2708 </p> | |
| 2709 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p9"> | |
| 2710 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The deformity of an act is essential to the act's species, considered as a moral act, as stated above ( | |
| 2711 <a id="SS_Q6_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q48_A1.html">FP, Q[48], A[1]</a>, ad 2; | |
| 2712 <a id="SS_Q6_A2-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html">FS, Q[18], A[5]</a>): for an act is said to be deformed through being deprived of an intrinsic form, viz. the due commensuration of the act's | |
| 2713 circumstances. Hence we cannot say that God is the cause of a deformed act, for He is not the cause of its deformity, though | |
| 2714 He is the cause | |
| 2715 of the act as such. | |
| 2716 </p> | |
| 2717 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p10"> We may also reply that deformity denotes not only privation of a due form, but also a contrary disposition, wherefore deformity | |
| 2718 is compared to the act, as falsehood is to faith. Hence, just as the deformed act is not from God, so neither is a false faith; | |
| 2719 and as lifeless faith is from God, so too, acts that are good generically, though not quickened by charity, as is frequently | |
| 2720 the case in sinners, are from God. | |
| 2721 </p> | |
| 2722 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p11"> | |
| 2723 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> He who receives faith from God without charity, is healed from unbelief, not entirely (because the sin of his previous unbelief | |
| 2724 is not removed) but in part, namely, in the point of ceasing from committing such and such a sin. Thus it happens frequently | |
| 2725 that a man desists from one act of sin, through God causing him thus to desist, without desisting from another act of sin, | |
| 2726 through the instigation of his own malice. And in this way sometimes it is | |
| 2727 granted by God to a man to believe, and yet he is not granted the gift of charity: even so the gift of prophecy, or the like, | |
| 2728 is given to some without charity. | |
| 2729 </p> | |
| 2730 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 2731 <p id="SS_Q6_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 2732 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2733 <a href="summa.SS_Q7.html"></a> | |
| 2734 </div> | |
| 2735 <a href="summa.SS_Q5_A4.html"></a> | |
| 2736 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2737 </div> | |
| 2738 <div id="SS_Q7" class="div3"> | |
| 2739 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2740 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2741 <h3 id="SS_Q7-p0.1">OF THE EFFECTS OF FAITH (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 2742 <p id="SS_Q7-p1"></p> | |
| 2743 <p id="SS_Q7-p2"> We must now consider the effects of faith: under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 2744 <p id="SS_Q7-p3"> (1) Whether fear is an effect of faith?</p> | |
| 2745 <p id="SS_Q7-p4"> (2) Whether the heart is purified by faith?</p> | |
| 2746 <div id="SS_Q7_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 2747 <a href="summa.SS_Q7.html"></a> | |
| 2748 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2749 <h4 id="SS_Q7_A1-p0.1">Whether fear is an effect of faith?</h4> | |
| 2750 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 2751 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p2"> | |
| 2752 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear is not an effect of faith. For an effect does not precede its cause. Now fear precedes faith: for | |
| 2753 it is written ( | |
| 2754 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.2.8" target="asv">Ecclus. 2:8</a>): "Ye that fear the Lord, believe in Him." Therefore fear is not an effect of faith. | |
| 2755 </p> | |
| 2756 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p3"> | |
| 2757 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the same thing is not the cause of contraries. Now fear and hope are contraries, as stated above ( | |
| 2758 <a id="SS_Q7_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q23_A2.html">FS, Q[23], A[2]</a>): and faith begets hope, as a gloss observes on | |
| 2759 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.1.2" target="asv"> Mat. 1:2.</a> Therefore fear is not an effect of faith. | |
| 2760 </p> | |
| 2761 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p4"> | |
| 2762 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one contrary does not cause another. Now the object of faith is a good, which is the First Truth, while the object | |
| 2763 of fear is an evil, as stated above ( | |
| 2764 <a id="SS_Q7_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q42_A1.html">FS, Q[42], A[1]</a>). Again, acts take their species from the object, according to what was stated above ( | |
| 2765 <a id="SS_Q7_A1-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">FS, Q[18], A[2]</a>). Therefore faith is not a cause of fear. | |
| 2766 </p> | |
| 2767 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p5"> | |
| 2768 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 2769 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.19" target="asv">James 2:19</a>): "The devils . . . believe and tremble." | |
| 2770 </p> | |
| 2771 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p6"> | |
| 2772 <b>I answer that,</b> Fear is a movement of the appetitive power, as stated above ( | |
| 2773 <a id="SS_Q7_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q41_A1.html">FS, Q[41], A[1]</a>). Now the principle of all appetitive movements is the good or evil apprehended: and consequently the principle of fear and | |
| 2774 of every appetitive movement must be an apprehension. Again, through faith there arises in us an apprehension of certain penal | |
| 2775 evils, which are inflicted in accordance with the Divine judgment. In this way, then, faith is a cause of the | |
| 2776 fear whereby one dreads to be punished by God; and this is servile fear. | |
| 2777 </p> | |
| 2778 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p7"> It is also the cause of filial fear, whereby one dreads to be separated from God, or whereby one shrinks from equalling oneself | |
| 2779 to Him, and holds Him in reverence, inasmuch as faith makes us appreciate God as an unfathomable and supreme good, separation | |
| 2780 from which is the greatest evil, and to which it is wicked to wish to be equalled. Of the first fear, viz. servile fear, lifeless | |
| 2781 faith is the cause, while living faith is the cause of the second, viz. filial fear, because it | |
| 2782 makes man adhere to God and to be subject to Him by charity. | |
| 2783 </p> | |
| 2784 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p8"> | |
| 2785 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Fear of God cannot altogether precede faith, because if we knew nothing at all about Him, with regard to rewards and punishments, | |
| 2786 concerning which faith teaches us, we should nowise fear Him. If, however, faith be presupposed in reference to certain articles | |
| 2787 of faith, for example the Divine excellence, then reverential fear follows, the result of which is that man submits his intellect | |
| 2788 to God, so as to believe in all the Divine promises. Hence the | |
| 2789 text quoted continues: "And your reward shall not be made void." | |
| 2790 </p> | |
| 2791 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p9"> | |
| 2792 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The same thing in respect of contraries can be the cause of contraries, but not under the same aspect. Now faith begets hope, | |
| 2793 in so far as it enables us to appreciate the prize which God awards to the just, while it is the cause of fear, in so far | |
| 2794 as it makes us appreciate the punishments which He intends to inflict on sinners. | |
| 2795 </p> | |
| 2796 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p10"> | |
| 2797 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The primary and formal object of faith is the good which is the First Truth; but the material object of faith includes also | |
| 2798 certain evils; for instance, that it is an evil either not to submit to God, or to be separated from Him, and that sinners | |
| 2799 will suffer penal evils from God: in this way faith can be the cause of fear. | |
| 2800 </p> | |
| 2801 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 2802 <p id="SS_Q7_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 2803 <a href="summa.SS_Q7.html"></a> | |
| 2804 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2805 </div> | |
| 2806 <div id="SS_Q7_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 2807 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2808 <a href="summa.SS_Q8.html"></a> | |
| 2809 <h4 id="SS_Q7_A2-p0.1">Whether faith has the effect of purifying the heart?</h4> | |
| 2810 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 2811 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p2"> | |
| 2812 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that faith does not purify the heart. For purity of the heart pertains chiefly to the affections, whereas faith | |
| 2813 is in the intellect. Therefore faith has not the effect of purifying the heart. | |
| 2814 </p> | |
| 2815 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p3"> | |
| 2816 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which purifies the heart is incompatible with impurity. But faith is compatible with the impurity of sin, as | |
| 2817 may be seen in those who have lifeless faith. Therefore faith does not purify the heart. | |
| 2818 </p> | |
| 2819 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p4"> | |
| 2820 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if faith were to purify the human heart in any way, it would chiefly purify the intellect of man. Now it does not | |
| 2821 purify the intellect from obscurity, since it is a veiled knowledge. Therefore faith nowise purifies the heart. | |
| 2822 </p> | |
| 2823 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p5"> | |
| 2824 <b>On the contrary,</b> Peter said ( | |
| 2825 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.15.9" target="asv">Acts 15:9</a>): "Purifying their hearts by faith." | |
| 2826 </p> | |
| 2827 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p6"> | |
| 2828 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing is impure through being mixed with baser things: for silver is not called impure, when mixed with gold, which betters | |
| 2829 it, but when mixed with lead or tin. Now it is evident that the rational creature is more excellent than all transient and | |
| 2830 corporeal creatures; so that it becomes impure through subjecting itself to transient things by loving them. From this impurity | |
| 2831 the rational creature is purified by means of a contrary movement, namely, by tending | |
| 2832 to that which is above it, viz. God. The first beginning of this movement is faith: since "he that cometh to God must believe | |
| 2833 that He is," according to | |
| 2834 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv"> Heb. 11:6.</a> Hence the first beginning of the heart's purifying is faith; and if this be perfected through being quickened by charity, | |
| 2835 the heart will be perfectly purified thereby. | |
| 2836 </p> | |
| 2837 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p7"> | |
| 2838 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Things that are in the intellect are the principles of those which are in the appetite, in so far as the apprehended good | |
| 2839 moves the appetite. | |
| 2840 </p> | |
| 2841 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p8"> | |
| 2842 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even lifeless faith excludes a certain impurity which is contrary to it, viz. that of error, and which consists in the human | |
| 2843 intellect, adhering inordinately to things below itself, through wishing to measure Divine things by the rule of sensible | |
| 2844 objects. But when it is quickened by charity, then it is incompatible with any kind of impurity, because "charity covereth | |
| 2845 all sins" ( | |
| 2846 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q7_A2-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.10.12" target="asv">Prov. 10:12</a>). | |
| 2847 </p> | |
| 2848 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p9"> | |
| 2849 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The obscurity of faith does not pertain to the impurity of sin, but rather to the natural defect of the human intellect, | |
| 2850 according to the present state of life. | |
| 2851 </p> | |
| 2852 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 2853 <p id="SS_Q7_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 2854 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2855 <a href="summa.SS_Q8.html"></a> | |
| 2856 </div> | |
| 2857 <a href="summa.SS_Q6_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2858 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2859 </div> | |
| 2860 <div id="SS_Q8" class="div3"> | |
| 2861 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2862 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2863 <h3 id="SS_Q8-p0.1">OF THE GIFT OF UNDERSTANDING (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 2864 <p id="SS_Q8-p1"></p> | |
| 2865 <p id="SS_Q8-p2"> We must now consider the gifts of understand and knowledge, which respond to the virtue of faith. With regard to the gift | |
| 2866 of understanding there are eight points of inquiry: | |
| 2867 </p> | |
| 2868 <p id="SS_Q8-p3"> (1) Whether understanding is a gift of the Holy Ghost?</p> | |
| 2869 <p id="SS_Q8-p4"> (2) Whether it can be together with faith in the same person?</p> | |
| 2870 <p id="SS_Q8-p5"> (3) Whether the understanding which is a gift of the Holy Ghost, is only speculative, or practical also?</p> | |
| 2871 <p id="SS_Q8-p6"> (4) Whether all who are in a state of grace have the gift of understanding?</p> | |
| 2872 <p id="SS_Q8-p7"> (5) Whether this gift is to be found in those who are without grace?</p> | |
| 2873 <p id="SS_Q8-p8"> (6) Of the relationship of the gift of understanding to the other gifts;</p> | |
| 2874 <p id="SS_Q8-p9"> (7) Which of the beatitudes corresponds to this gift?</p> | |
| 2875 <p id="SS_Q8-p10"> (8) Which of the fruits?</p> | |
| 2876 <div id="SS_Q8_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 2877 <a href="summa.SS_Q8.html"></a> | |
| 2878 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2879 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A1-p0.1">Whether understanding is a gift of the Holy Ghost?</h4> | |
| 2880 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 2881 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p2"> | |
| 2882 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that understanding is not a gift of the Holy Ghost. For the gifts of grace are distinct from the gifts of nature, | |
| 2883 since they are given in addition to the latter. Now understanding is a natural habit of the soul, whereby self-evident principles | |
| 2884 are known, as stated in Ethic. vi, 6. Therefore it should not be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 2885 </p> | |
| 2886 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p3"> | |
| 2887 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Divine gifts are shared by creatures according to their capacity and mode, as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. iv). | |
| 2888 Now the mode of human nature is to know the truth, not simply (which is a sign of understanding), but discursively (which | |
| 2889 is a sign of reason), as Dionysius explains (Div. Nom. vii). Therefore the Divine knowledge which is bestowed on man, should | |
| 2890 be called a gift of reason rather than a gift of understanding. | |
| 2891 </p> | |
| 2892 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p4"> | |
| 2893 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in the powers of the soul the understanding is condivided with the will (De Anima iii, 9,10). Now no gift of the | |
| 2894 Holy Ghost is called after the will. Therefore no gift of the Holy Ghost should receive the name of understanding. | |
| 2895 </p> | |
| 2896 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p5"> | |
| 2897 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 2898 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.2" target="asv">Is. 11:2</a>): "The Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the Spirit of wisdom of understanding." | |
| 2899 </p> | |
| 2900 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p6"> | |
| 2901 <b>I answer that,</b> Understanding implies an intimate knowledge, for "intelligere" [to understand] is the same as "intus legere" [to read inwardly]. | |
| 2902 This is clear to anyone who considers the difference between intellect and sense, because sensitive knowledge is concerned | |
| 2903 with external sensible qualities, whereas intellective knowledge penetrates into the very essence of a thing, because the | |
| 2904 object of the intellect is "what a thing is," as stated in De Anima iii, 6. | |
| 2905 </p> | |
| 2906 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p7"> Now there are many kinds of things that are hidden within, to find which human knowledge has to penetrate within so to speak. | |
| 2907 Thus, under the accidents lies hidden the nature of the substantial reality, under words lies hidden their meaning; under | |
| 2908 likenesses and figures the truth they denote lies hidden (because the intelligible world is enclosed within as compared with | |
| 2909 the sensible world, which is perceived externally), and effects lie hidden in their causes, and vice versa. | |
| 2910 Hence we may speak of understanding with regard to all these things. | |
| 2911 </p> | |
| 2912 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p8"> Since, however, human knowledge begins with the outside of things as it were, it is evident that the stronger the light of | |
| 2913 the understanding, the further can it penetrate into the heart of things. Now the natural light of our understanding is of | |
| 2914 finite power; wherefore it can reach to a certain fixed point. Consequently man needs a supernatural light in order to penetrate | |
| 2915 further still so as to know what it cannot know by its natural light: and this supernatural light which is | |
| 2916 bestowed on man is called the gift of understanding. | |
| 2917 </p> | |
| 2918 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p9"> | |
| 2919 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The natural light instilled within us, manifests only certain general principles, which are known naturally. But since man | |
| 2920 is ordained to supernatural happiness, as stated above (Q[2], A[3]; | |
| 2921 <a id="SS_Q8_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q3_A8.html">FS, Q[3] , A[8]</a>), man needs to reach to certain higher truths, for which he requires the gift of understanding. | |
| 2922 </p> | |
| 2923 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p10"> | |
| 2924 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The discourse of reason always begins from an understanding and ends at an understanding; because we reason by proceeding | |
| 2925 from certain understood principles, and the discourse of reason is perfected when we come to understand what hitherto we ignored. | |
| 2926 Hence the act of reasoning proceeds from something previously understood. Now a gift of grace does not proceed from the light | |
| 2927 of nature, but is added thereto as perfecting it. Wherefore this addition is | |
| 2928 not called "reason" but "understanding," since the additional light is in comparison with what we know supernaturally, what | |
| 2929 the natural light is in regard to those things which we known from the first. | |
| 2930 </p> | |
| 2931 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p11"> | |
| 2932 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> "Will" denotes simply a movement of the appetite without indicating any excellence; whereas "understanding" denotes a certain | |
| 2933 excellence of a knowledge that penetrates into the heart of things. Hence the supernatural gift is called after the understanding | |
| 2934 rather than after the will. | |
| 2935 </p> | |
| 2936 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 2937 <p id="SS_Q8_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 2938 <a href="summa.SS_Q8.html"></a> | |
| 2939 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2940 </div> | |
| 2941 <div id="SS_Q8_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 2942 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2943 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2944 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A2-p0.1">Whether the gift of understanding is compatible with faith?</h4> | |
| 2945 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 2946 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p2"> | |
| 2947 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the gift of understanding is incompatible with faith. For Augustine says (QQ. lxxxiii, qu. 15) that "the | |
| 2948 thing which is understood is bounded by the comprehension of him who understands it." But the thing which is believed is not | |
| 2949 comprehended, according to the word of the Apostle to the | |
| 2950 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.3.12" target="asv"> Philippians 3:12</a>: "Not as though I had already comprehended [Douay: 'attained'], or were already perfect." Therefore it seems that faith | |
| 2951 and understanding are incompatible in the same subject. | |
| 2952 </p> | |
| 2953 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p3"> | |
| 2954 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is understood is seen by the understanding. But faith is of things that appear not, as stated above ( | |
| 2955 <a id="SS_Q8_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], A[4]</a>; | |
| 2956 <a id="SS_Q8_A2-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html"> Q[4], A[1]</a>). Therefore faith is incompatible with understanding in the same subject. | |
| 2957 </p> | |
| 2958 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p4"> | |
| 2959 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, understanding is more certain than science. But science and faith are incompatible in the same subject, as stated | |
| 2960 above ( | |
| 2961 <a id="SS_Q8_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A4.html">Q[1], AA[4]</a>,5). Much less, therefore, can understanding and faith be in the same subject. | |
| 2962 </p> | |
| 2963 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p5"> | |
| 2964 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. i, 15) that "understanding enlightens the mind concerning the things it has heard." Now one who has | |
| 2965 faith can be enlightened in his mind concerning what he has heard; thus it is written ( | |
| 2966 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.24.27" target="asv">Lk. 24:27</a>, | |
| 2967 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A2-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.24.32" target="asv">32</a>) that Our Lord opened the scriptures to His disciples, that they might understand them. Therefore understanding is compatible | |
| 2968 with faith. | |
| 2969 </p> | |
| 2970 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p6"> | |
| 2971 <b>I answer that,</b> We need to make a twofold distinction here: one on the side of faith, the other on the part of understanding. | |
| 2972 </p> | |
| 2973 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p7"> On the side of faith the distinction to be made is that certain things, of themselves, come directly under faith, such as | |
| 2974 the mystery to three Persons in one God, and the incarnation of God the Son; whereas other things come under faith, through | |
| 2975 being subordinate, in one way or another, to those just mentioned, for instance, all that is contained in the Divine Scriptures. | |
| 2976 </p> | |
| 2977 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p8"> On the part of understanding the distinction to be observed is that there are two ways in which we may be said to understand. | |
| 2978 In one way, we understand a thing perfectly, when we arrive at knowing the essence of the thing we understand, and the very | |
| 2979 truth considered in itself of the proposition understood. In this way, so long as the state of faith lasts, we cannot understand | |
| 2980 those things which are the direct object of faith: although certain other things that are subordinate to | |
| 2981 faith can be understood even in this way. | |
| 2982 </p> | |
| 2983 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p9"> In another way we understand a thing imperfectly, when the essence of a thing or the truth of a proposition is not known | |
| 2984 as to its quiddity or mode of being, and yet we know that whatever be the outward appearances, they do not contradict the | |
| 2985 truth, in so far as we understand that we ought not to depart from matters of faith, for the sake of things that appear externally. | |
| 2986 In this way, even during the state of faith, nothing hinders us from understanding even those things which | |
| 2987 are the direct object of faith. | |
| 2988 </p> | |
| 2989 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p10"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections: for the first three argue in reference to perfect understanding, while the | |
| 2990 last refers to the understanding of matters subordinate to faith. | |
| 2991 </p> | |
| 2992 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 2993 <p id="SS_Q8_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 2994 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A1.html"></a> | |
| 2995 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html"></a> | |
| 2996 </div> | |
| 2997 <div id="SS_Q8_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 2998 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A2.html"></a> | |
| 2999 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3000 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A3-p0.1">Whether the gift of understanding is merely speculative or also practical?</h4> | |
| 3001 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 3002 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p2"> | |
| 3003 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that understanding, considered as a gift of the Holy Ghost, is not practical, but only speculative. For, according | |
| 3004 to Gregory (Moral. i, 32), "understanding penetrates certain more exalted things." But the practical intellect is occupied, | |
| 3005 not with exalted, but with inferior things, viz. singulars, about which actions are concerned. Therefore understanding, considered | |
| 3006 as a gift, is not practical. | |
| 3007 </p> | |
| 3008 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p3"> | |
| 3009 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the gift of understanding is something more excellent than the intellectual virtue of understanding. But the intellectual | |
| 3010 virtue of understanding is concerned with none but necessary things, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 6). Much more, | |
| 3011 therefore, is the gift of understanding concerned with none but necessary matters. Now the practical intellect is not about | |
| 3012 necessary things, but about things which may be otherwise than they are, and which | |
| 3013 may result from man's activity. Therefore the gift of understanding is not practical. | |
| 3014 </p> | |
| 3015 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p4"> | |
| 3016 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gift of understanding enlightens the mind in matters which surpass natural reason. Now human activities, with | |
| 3017 which the practical intellect is concerned, do not surpass natural reason, which is the directing principle in matters of | |
| 3018 action, as was made clear above ( | |
| 3019 <a id="SS_Q8_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q58_A2.html">FS, Q[58], A[2]</a>; | |
| 3020 <a id="SS_Q8_A3-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q71_A6.html">FS, Q[71], A[6]</a>). Therefore the gift of understanding is not practical. | |
| 3021 </p> | |
| 3022 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p5"> | |
| 3023 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 3024 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.110.10" target="asv">Ps. 110:10</a>): "A good understanding to all that do it." | |
| 3025 </p> | |
| 3026 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p6"> | |
| 3027 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 3028 <a id="SS_Q8_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q8_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, the gift of understanding is not only about those things which come under faith first and principally, but also about all | |
| 3029 things subordinate to faith. Now good actions have a certain relationship to faith: since "faith worketh through charity," | |
| 3030 according to the Apostle ( | |
| 3031 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A3-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.6" target="asv">Gal. 5:6</a>). Hence the gift of understanding extends also to certain actions, not as though these were its principal object, | |
| 3032 but in so far as the rule of our actions is the eternal law, to which the higher reason, which is perfected by the gift of | |
| 3033 understanding, adheres by contemplating and consulting it, as Augustine states (De Trin. xii, 7). | |
| 3034 </p> | |
| 3035 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p7"> | |
| 3036 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The things with which human actions are concerned are not surpassingly exalted considered in themselves, but, as referred | |
| 3037 to the rule of the eternal law, and to the end of Divine happiness, they are exalted so that they can be the matter of understanding. | |
| 3038 </p> | |
| 3039 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p8"> | |
| 3040 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The excellence of the gift of understanding consists precisely in its considering eternal or necessary matters, not only | |
| 3041 as they are rules of human actions, because a cognitive virtue is the more excellent, according to the greater extent of its | |
| 3042 object. | |
| 3043 </p> | |
| 3044 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p9"> | |
| 3045 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The rule of human actions is the human reason and the eternal law, as stated above ( | |
| 3046 <a id="SS_Q8_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q71_A6.html">FS, Q[71], A[6]</a>). Now the eternal law surpasses human reason: so that the knowledge of human actions, as ruled by the eternal law, surpasses | |
| 3047 the natural reason, and requires the supernatural light of a gift of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 3048 </p> | |
| 3049 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 3050 <p id="SS_Q8_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 3051 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3052 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3053 </div> | |
| 3054 <div id="SS_Q8_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 3055 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3056 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3057 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A4-p0.1">Whether the gift of understanding is in all who are in a state of grace?</h4> | |
| 3058 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 3059 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p2"> | |
| 3060 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the gift of understanding is not in all who are in a state of grace. For Gregory says (Moral. ii, 49) | |
| 3061 that "the gift of understanding is given as a remedy against dulness of mind." Now many who are in a state of grace suffer | |
| 3062 from dulness of mind. Therefore the gift of understanding is not in all who are in a state of grace. | |
| 3063 </p> | |
| 3064 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p3"> | |
| 3065 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, of all the things that are connected with knowledge, faith alone seems to be necessary for salvation, since by faith | |
| 3066 Christ dwells in our hearts, according to | |
| 3067 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.3.17" target="asv"> Eph. 3:17.</a> Now the gift of understanding is not in everyone that has faith; indeed, those who have faith ought to pray that they may | |
| 3068 understand, as Augustine says (De Trin. xv, 27). Therefore the gift of understanding is not necessary for salvation: and, | |
| 3069 consequently, is not | |
| 3070 in all who are in a state of grace. | |
| 3071 </p> | |
| 3072 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p4"> | |
| 3073 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, those things which are common to all who are in a state of grace, are never withdrawn from them. Now the grace of | |
| 3074 understanding and of the other gifts sometimes withdraws itself profitably, for, at times, "when the mind is puffed up with | |
| 3075 understanding sublime things, it becomes sluggish and dull in base and vile things," as Gregory observes (Moral. ii, 49). | |
| 3076 Therefore the gift of understanding is not in all who are in a state of grace. | |
| 3077 </p> | |
| 3078 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p5"> | |
| 3079 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 3080 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.81.5" target="asv">Ps. 81:5</a>): "They have not known or understood, they walk on in darkness." But no one who is in a state of grace walks in darkness, | |
| 3081 according to | |
| 3082 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#John.8.12" target="asv"> Jn. 8:12</a>: "He that followeth Me, walketh not in darkness." Therefore no one who is in a state of grace is without the gift of understanding. | |
| 3083 </p> | |
| 3084 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p6"> | |
| 3085 <b>I answer that,</b> In all who are in a state of grace, there must needs be rectitude of the will, since grace prepares man's will for good, | |
| 3086 according to Augustine (Contra Julian. Pelag. iv, 3). Now the will cannot be rightly directed to good, unless there be already | |
| 3087 some knowledge of the truth, since the object of the will is good understood, as stated in De Anima iii, 7. Again, just as | |
| 3088 the Holy Ghost directs man's will by the gift of charity, so as to move it directly to some | |
| 3089 supernatural good; so also, by the gift of understanding, He enlightens the human mind, so that it knows some supernatural | |
| 3090 truth, to which the right will needs to tend. | |
| 3091 </p> | |
| 3092 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p7"> Therefore, just as the gift of charity is in all of those who have sanctifying grace, so also is the gift of understanding.</p> | |
| 3093 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p8"> | |
| 3094 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Some who have sanctifying grace may suffer dulness of mind with regard to things that are not necessary for salvation; but | |
| 3095 with regard to those that are necessary for salvation, they are sufficiently instructed by the Holy Ghost, according to | |
| 3096 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A4-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.2.27" target="asv">1 Jn. 2:27</a>: "His unction teacheth you of all things." | |
| 3097 </p> | |
| 3098 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p9"> | |
| 3099 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although not all who have faith understand fully the things that are proposed to be believed, yet they understand that they | |
| 3100 ought to believe them, and that they ought nowise to deviate from them. | |
| 3101 </p> | |
| 3102 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p10"> | |
| 3103 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> With regard to things necessary for salvation, the gift of understanding never withdraws from holy persons: but, in order | |
| 3104 that they may have no incentive to pride, it does withdraw sometimes with regard to other things, so that their mind is unable | |
| 3105 to penetrate all things clearly. | |
| 3106 </p> | |
| 3107 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 3108 <p id="SS_Q8_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 3109 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3110 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3111 </div> | |
| 3112 <div id="SS_Q8_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 3113 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3114 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3115 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A5-p0.1">Whether the gift of understanding is found also in those who have not sanctifying grace?</h4> | |
| 3116 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 3117 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p2"> | |
| 3118 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the gift of understanding is found also in those who have not sanctifying grace. For Augustine, in expounding | |
| 3119 the words of | |
| 3120 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.20" target="asv"> Ps. 118:20</a>: "My soul hath coveted to long for Thy justifications," says: "Understanding flies ahead, and man's will is weak and slow | |
| 3121 to follow." But in all who have sanctifying grace, the will is prompt on account of charity. Therefore the gift of understanding | |
| 3122 can be in those who have not | |
| 3123 sanctifying grace. | |
| 3124 </p> | |
| 3125 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p3"> | |
| 3126 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 3127 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Dan.10.1" target="asv">Dan. 10:1</a>) that "there is need of understanding in a" prophetic "vision," so that, seemingly, there is no prophecy without the gift | |
| 3128 of understanding. But there can be prophecy without sanctifying grace, as evidenced by | |
| 3129 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A5-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.22" target="asv"> Mat. 7:22, </a> where those who say: "We have prophesied in Thy name [*Vulg.: 'Have we not prophesied in Thy name?]," are answered with the | |
| 3130 words: "I never knew you." Therefore the gift | |
| 3131 of understanding can be without sanctifying grace. | |
| 3132 </p> | |
| 3133 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p4"> | |
| 3134 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gift of understanding responds to the virtue of faith, according to | |
| 3135 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.7.9" target="asv"> Is. 7:9, </a> following another reading [*The Septuagint]: "If you will not believe you shall not understand." Now faith can be without | |
| 3136 sanctifying grace. Therefore the gift of understanding can be without it. | |
| 3137 </p> | |
| 3138 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p5"> | |
| 3139 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 3140 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.6.45" target="asv">Jn. 6:45</a>): "Every one that hath heard of the Father, and hath learned, cometh to Me." Now it is by the intellect, as Gregory observes | |
| 3141 (Moral. i, 32), that we learn or understand what we hear. Therefore whoever has the gift of understanding, cometh to Christ, | |
| 3142 which is impossible without sanctifying grace. Therefore the gift of understanding cannot be without sanctifying grace. | |
| 3143 </p> | |
| 3144 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p6"> | |
| 3145 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3146 <a id="SS_Q8_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A1.html">FS, Q[68], AA[1]</a>,2) the gifts of the Holy Ghost perfect the soul, according as it is amenable to the motion of the Holy Ghost. Accordingly | |
| 3147 then, the intellectual light of grace is called the gift of understanding, in so far as man's understanding is easily moved | |
| 3148 by the Holy Ghost, the consideration of which movement depends on a true apprehension of the end. Wherefore unless the human | |
| 3149 intellect be moved by the Holy | |
| 3150 Ghost so far as to have a right estimate of the end, it has not yet obtained the gift of understanding, however much the Holy | |
| 3151 Ghost may have enlightened it in regard to other truths that are preambles to the faith. | |
| 3152 </p> | |
| 3153 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p7"> Now to have a right estimate about the last end one must not be in error about the end, and must adhere to it firmly as to | |
| 3154 the greatest good: and no one can do this without sanctifying grace; even as in moral matters a man has a right estimate about | |
| 3155 the end through a habit of virtue. Therefore no one has the gift of understanding without sanctifying grace. | |
| 3156 </p> | |
| 3157 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p8"> | |
| 3158 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By understanding Augustine means any kind of intellectual light, that, however, does not fulfil all the conditions of a gift, | |
| 3159 unless the mind of man be so far perfected as to have a right estimate about the end. | |
| 3160 </p> | |
| 3161 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p9"> | |
| 3162 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The understanding that is requisite for prophecy, is a kind of enlightenment of the mind with regard to the things revealed | |
| 3163 to the prophet: but it is not an enlightenment of the mind with regard to a right estimate about the last end, which belongs | |
| 3164 to the gift of understanding. | |
| 3165 </p> | |
| 3166 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p10"> | |
| 3167 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Faith implies merely assent to what is proposed but understanding implies a certain perception of the truth, which perception, | |
| 3168 except in one who has sanctifying grace, cannot regard the end, as stated above. Hence the comparison fails between understanding | |
| 3169 and faith. | |
| 3170 </p> | |
| 3171 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 3172 <p id="SS_Q8_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 3173 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3174 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3175 </div> | |
| 3176 <div id="SS_Q8_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 3177 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3178 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A7.html"></a> | |
| 3179 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A6-p0.1">Whether the gift of understanding is distinct from the other gifts?</h4> | |
| 3180 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 3181 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p2"> | |
| 3182 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the gift of understanding is not distinct from the other gifts. For there is no distinction between things | |
| 3183 whose opposites are not distinct. Now "wisdom is contrary to folly, understanding is contrary to dulness, counsel is contrary | |
| 3184 to rashness, knowledge is contrary to ignorance," as Gregory states (Moral. ii, 49). But there would seem to be no difference | |
| 3185 between folly, dulness, ignorance and rashness. Therefore neither does understanding | |
| 3186 differ from the other gifts. | |
| 3187 </p> | |
| 3188 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p3"> | |
| 3189 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellectual virtue of understanding differs from the other intellectual virtues in that it is proper to it | |
| 3190 to be about self-evident principles. But the gift of understanding is not about any self-evident principles, since the natural | |
| 3191 habit of first principles suffices in respect of those matters which are naturally self-evident: while faith is sufficient | |
| 3192 in respect of such things as are supernatural, since the articles of faith are like first | |
| 3193 principles in supernatural knowledge, as stated above ( | |
| 3194 <a id="SS_Q8_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A7.html">Q[1], A[7]</a>). Therefore the gift of understanding does not differ from the other intellectual gifts. | |
| 3195 </p> | |
| 3196 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p4"> | |
| 3197 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, all intellectual knowledge is either speculative or practical. Now the gift of understanding is related to both, | |
| 3198 as stated above | |
| 3199 <a id="SS_Q8_A6-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore it is not distinct from the other intellectual gifts, but comprises them all. | |
| 3200 </p> | |
| 3201 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p5"> | |
| 3202 <b>On the contrary,</b> When several things are enumerated together they must be, in some way, distinct from one another, because distinction is | |
| 3203 the origin of number. Now the gift of understanding is enumerated together with the other gifts, as appears from | |
| 3204 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.2" target="asv"> Is. 11:2.</a> Therefore the gift of understanding is distinct from the other gifts. | |
| 3205 </p> | |
| 3206 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p6"> | |
| 3207 <b>I answer that,</b> The difference between the gift of understanding and three of the others, viz. piety, fortitude, and fear, is evident, since | |
| 3208 the gift of understanding belongs to the cognitive power, while the three belong to the appetitive power. | |
| 3209 </p> | |
| 3210 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p7"> But the difference between this gift of understanding and the remaining three, viz. wisdom, knowledge, and counsel, which | |
| 3211 also belong to the cognitive power, is not so evident. To some [*William of Auxerre, Sum. Aur. III, iii, 8], it seems that | |
| 3212 the gift of understanding differs from the gifts of knowledge and counsel, in that these two belong to practical knowledge, | |
| 3213 while the gift of understanding belongs to speculative knowledge; and that it differs from the gift of wisdom, | |
| 3214 which also belongs to speculative knowledge, in that wisdom is concerned with judgment, while understanding renders the mind | |
| 3215 apt to grasp the things that are proposed, and to penetrate into their very heart. And in this sense we have assigned the | |
| 3216 number of the gifts, above ( | |
| 3217 <a id="SS_Q8_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A4.html">FS, Q[68], A[4]</a>). | |
| 3218 </p> | |
| 3219 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p8"> But if we consider the matter carefully, the gift of understanding is concerned not only with speculative, but also with | |
| 3220 practical matters, as stated above | |
| 3221 <a id="SS_Q8_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q8_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, and likewise, the gift of knowledge regards both matters, as we shall show further on (Q[9], A[3]), and consequently, we | |
| 3222 must take their distinction in some other way. For all these four gifts are ordained to supernatural knowledge, which, in | |
| 3223 us, takes its foundation from faith. Now "faith is | |
| 3224 through hearing" ( | |
| 3225 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A6-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.17" target="asv">Rom. 10:17</a>). Hence some things must be proposed to be believed by man, not as seen, but as heard, to which he assents by faith. But | |
| 3226 faith, first and principally, is about the First Truth, secondarily, about certain considerations concerning creatures, and | |
| 3227 furthermore extends to the direction of human actions, in so far as it works through charity, as appears from what has been | |
| 3228 said above (Q[4], A[2], ad 3). | |
| 3229 </p> | |
| 3230 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p9"> Accordingly on the part of the things proposed to faith for belief, two things are requisite on our part: first that they | |
| 3231 be penetrated or grasped by the intellect, and this belongs to the gift of understanding. Secondly, it is necessary that man | |
| 3232 should judge these things aright, that he should esteem that he ought to adhere to these things, and to withdraw from their | |
| 3233 opposites: and this judgment, with regard to Divine things belong to the gift of wisdom, but with regard to | |
| 3234 created things, belongs to the gift of knowledge, and as to its application to individual actions, belongs to the gift of | |
| 3235 counsel. | |
| 3236 </p> | |
| 3237 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p10"> | |
| 3238 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The foregoing difference between those four gifts is clearly in agreement with the distinction of those things which Gregory | |
| 3239 assigns as their opposites. For dulness is contrary to sharpness, since an intellect is said, by comparison, to be sharp, | |
| 3240 when it is able to penetrate into the heart of the things that are proposed to it. Hence it is dulness of mind that renders | |
| 3241 the mind unable to pierce into the heart of a thing. A man is said to be a fool if | |
| 3242 he judges wrongly about the common end of life, wherefore folly is properly opposed to wisdom, which makes us judge aright | |
| 3243 about the universal cause. Ignorance implies a defect in the mind, even about any particular things whatever, so that it is | |
| 3244 contrary to knowledge, which gives man a right judgment about particular causes, viz. about creatures. Rashness is clearly | |
| 3245 opposed to counsel, whereby man does not proceed to action before deliberating with his reason. | |
| 3246 </p> | |
| 3247 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p11"> | |
| 3248 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The gift of understanding is about the first principles of that knowledge which is conferred by grace; but otherwise than | |
| 3249 faith, because it belongs to faith to assent to them, while it belongs to the gift of understanding to pierce with the mind | |
| 3250 the things that are said. | |
| 3251 </p> | |
| 3252 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p12"> | |
| 3253 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The gift of understanding is related to both kinds of knowledge, viz. speculative and practical, not as to the judgment, | |
| 3254 but as to apprehension, by grasping what is said. | |
| 3255 </p> | |
| 3256 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p13"></p> | |
| 3257 <p id="SS_Q8_A6-p14"></p> | |
| 3258 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3259 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A7.html"></a> | |
| 3260 </div> | |
| 3261 <div id="SS_Q8_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 3262 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3263 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A8.html"></a> | |
| 3264 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A7-p0.1">Whether the sixth beatitude, "Blessed are the clean of heart," etc., responds to the gift of understanding?</h4> | |
| 3265 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 3266 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p2"> | |
| 3267 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sixth beatitude, "Blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God," does not respond to the | |
| 3268 gift of understanding. Because cleanness of heart seems to belong chiefly to the appetite. But the gift of understanding belongs, | |
| 3269 not to the appetite, but rather to the intellectual power. Therefore the aforesaid beatitude does not respond to the gift | |
| 3270 of understanding. | |
| 3271 </p> | |
| 3272 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p3"> | |
| 3273 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 3274 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.15.9" target="asv">Acts 15:9</a>): "Purifying their hearts by faith." Now cleanness of heart is acquired by the heart being purified. Therefore the aforesaid | |
| 3275 beatitude is related to the virtue of faith rather than to the gift of understanding. | |
| 3276 </p> | |
| 3277 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p4"> | |
| 3278 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gifts of the Holy Ghost perfect man in the present state of life. But the sight of God does not belong to the | |
| 3279 present life, since it is that which gives happiness to the Blessed, as stated above ( | |
| 3280 <a id="SS_Q8_A7-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q3_A8.html">FS, Q[3], A[8]</a>). Therefore the sixth beatitude which comprises the sight of God, does not respond to the gift of understanding. | |
| 3281 </p> | |
| 3282 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p5"> | |
| 3283 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 4): "The sixth work of the Holy Ghost which is understanding, is applicable to | |
| 3284 the clean of heart, whose eye being purified, they can see what eye hath not seen." | |
| 3285 </p> | |
| 3286 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p6"> | |
| 3287 <b>I answer that,</b> Two things are contained in the sixth beatitude, as also in the others, one by way of merit, viz. cleanness of heart; the | |
| 3288 other by way of reward, viz. the sight of God, as stated above ( | |
| 3289 <a id="SS_Q8_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q69_A2.html">FS, Q[69], AA[2]</a> ,4), and each of these, in some way, responds to the gift of understanding. | |
| 3290 </p> | |
| 3291 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p7"> For cleanness is twofold. One is a preamble and a disposition to seeing God, and consists in the heart being cleansed of | |
| 3292 inordinate affections: and this cleanness of heart is effected by the virtues and gifts belonging to the appetitive power. | |
| 3293 The other cleanness of heart is a kind of complement to the sight of God; such is the cleanness of the mind that is purged | |
| 3294 of phantasms and errors, so as to receive the truths which are proposed to it about God, no longer by way of | |
| 3295 corporeal phantasms, nor infected with heretical misrepresentations: and this cleanness is the result of the gift of understanding. | |
| 3296 </p> | |
| 3297 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p8"> Again, the sight of God is twofold. One is perfect, whereby God's Essence is seen: the other is imperfect, whereby, though | |
| 3298 we see not what God is, yet we see what He is not; and whereby, the more perfectly do we know God in this life, the more we | |
| 3299 understand that He surpasses all that the mind comprehends. Each of these visions of God belongs to the gift of understanding; | |
| 3300 the first, to the gift of understanding in its state of perfection, as possessed in heaven; the second, to | |
| 3301 the gift of understanding in its state of inchoation, as possessed by wayfarers. | |
| 3302 </p> | |
| 3303 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections: for the first two arguments refer to the first kind of cleanness; while | |
| 3304 the third refers to the perfect vision of God. Moreover the gifts both perfect us in this life by way of inchoation, and will | |
| 3305 be fulfilled, as stated above ( | |
| 3306 <a id="SS_Q8_A7-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q69_A2.html">FS, Q[69], A[2]</a>). | |
| 3307 </p> | |
| 3308 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p10"></p> | |
| 3309 <p id="SS_Q8_A7-p11"></p> | |
| 3310 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3311 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A8.html"></a> | |
| 3312 </div> | |
| 3313 <div id="SS_Q8_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 3314 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A7.html"></a> | |
| 3315 <a href="summa.SS_Q9.html"></a> | |
| 3316 <h4 id="SS_Q8_A8-p0.1">Whether faith, among the fruits, responds to the gift of understanding?</h4> | |
| 3317 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 3318 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p2"> | |
| 3319 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that, among the fruits, faith does not respond to the gift of understanding. For understanding is the fruit | |
| 3320 of faith, since it is written ( | |
| 3321 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.7.9" target="asv">Is. 7:9</a>) according to another reading [*The Septuagint]: "If you will not believe you shall not understand," where our version has: | |
| 3322 "If you will not believe, you shall not continue." Therefore fruit is not the fruit of understanding. | |
| 3323 </p> | |
| 3324 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p3"> | |
| 3325 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which precedes is not the fruit of what follows. But faith seems to precede understanding, since it is the | |
| 3326 foundation of the entire spiritual edifice, as stated above ( | |
| 3327 <a id="SS_Q8_A8-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A1.html">Q[4], AA[1]</a>,7). Therefore faith is not the fruit of understanding. | |
| 3328 </p> | |
| 3329 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p4"> | |
| 3330 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, more gifts pertain to the intellect than to the appetite. Now, among the fruits, only one pertains to the intellect; | |
| 3331 namely, faith, while all the others pertain to the appetite. Therefore faith, seemingly, does not pertain to understanding | |
| 3332 more than to wisdom, knowledge or counsel. | |
| 3333 </p> | |
| 3334 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p5"> | |
| 3335 <b>On the contrary,</b> The end of a thing is its fruit. Now the gift of understanding seems to be ordained chiefly to the certitude of faith, which | |
| 3336 certitude is reckoned a fruit. For a gloss on | |
| 3337 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q8_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.22" target="asv"> Gal. 5:22 </a>says that the "faith which is a fruit, is certitude about the unseen." Therefore faith, among the fruits, responds to the | |
| 3338 gift of understanding. | |
| 3339 </p> | |
| 3340 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p6"> | |
| 3341 <b>I answer that,</b> The fruits of the Spirit, as stated above ( | |
| 3342 <a id="SS_Q8_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q70_A1.html">FS, Q[70], A[1]</a>), when we were discussing them, are so called because they are something ultimate and delightful, produced in us by the power | |
| 3343 of the Holy Ghost. Now the ultimate and delightful has the nature of an end, which is the proper object of the will: and consequently | |
| 3344 that which is ultimate and delightful with regard to the will, must be, after a fashion, the fruit of all the other | |
| 3345 things that pertain to the other powers. | |
| 3346 </p> | |
| 3347 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p7"> Accordingly, therefore, to this kind of gift of virtue that perfects a power, we may distinguish a double fruit: one, belonging | |
| 3348 to the same power; the other, the last of all as it were, belonging to the will. In this way we must conclude that the fruit | |
| 3349 which properly responds to the gift of understanding is faith, i.e. the certitude of faith; while the fruit that responds | |
| 3350 to it last of all is joy, which belongs to the will. | |
| 3351 </p> | |
| 3352 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p8"> | |
| 3353 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Understanding is the fruit of faith, taken as a virtue. But we are not taking faith in this sense here, but for a kind of | |
| 3354 certitude of faith, to which man attains by the gift of understanding. | |
| 3355 </p> | |
| 3356 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p9"> | |
| 3357 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faith cannot altogether precede understanding, for it would be impossible to assent by believing what is proposed to be believed, | |
| 3358 without understanding it in some way. However, the perfection of understanding follows the virtue of faith: which perfection | |
| 3359 of understanding is itself followed by a kind of certainty of faith. | |
| 3360 </p> | |
| 3361 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p10"> | |
| 3362 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The fruit of practical knowledge cannot consist in that very knowledge, since knowledge of that kind is known not for its | |
| 3363 own sake, but for the sake of something else. On the other hand, speculative knowledge has its fruit in its very self, which | |
| 3364 fruit is the certitude about the thing known. Hence the gift of counsel, which belongs only to practical knowledge, has no | |
| 3365 corresponding fruit of its own: while the gifts of wisdom, understanding and | |
| 3366 knowledge, which can belongs also to speculative knowledge, have but one corresponding fruit, which is certainly denoted by | |
| 3367 the name of faith. The reason why there are several fruits pertaining to the appetitive faculty, is because, as already stated, | |
| 3368 the character of end, which the word fruit implies, pertains to the appetitive rather than to the intellective part. | |
| 3369 </p> | |
| 3370 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 3371 <p id="SS_Q8_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 3372 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A7.html"></a> | |
| 3373 <a href="summa.SS_Q9.html"></a> | |
| 3374 </div> | |
| 3375 <a href="summa.SS_Q7_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3376 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3377 </div> | |
| 3378 <div id="SS_Q9" class="div3"> | |
| 3379 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A8.html"></a> | |
| 3380 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3381 <h3 id="SS_Q9-p0.1">OF THE GIFT OF KNOWLEDGE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 3382 <p id="SS_Q9-p1"></p> | |
| 3383 <p id="SS_Q9-p2"> We must now consider the gift of knowledge, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 3384 <p id="SS_Q9-p3"> (1) Whether knowledge is a gift?</p> | |
| 3385 <p id="SS_Q9-p4"> (2) Whether it is about Divine things?</p> | |
| 3386 <p id="SS_Q9-p5"> (3) Whether it is speculative or practical?</p> | |
| 3387 <p id="SS_Q9-p6"> (4) Which beatitude responds to it?</p> | |
| 3388 <div id="SS_Q9_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 3389 <a href="summa.SS_Q9.html"></a> | |
| 3390 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3391 <h4 id="SS_Q9_A1-p0.1">Whether knowledge is a gift?</h4> | |
| 3392 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 3393 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p2"> | |
| 3394 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that knowledge is not a gift. For the gifts of the Holy Ghost surpass the natural faculty. But knowledge implies | |
| 3395 an effect of natural reason: for the Philosopher says (Poster. i, 2) that a "demonstration is a syllogism which produces knowledge." | |
| 3396 Therefore knowledge is not a gift of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 3397 </p> | |
| 3398 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p3"> | |
| 3399 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the gifts of the Holy Ghost are common to all holy persons, as stated above (Q[8], A[4]; | |
| 3400 <a id="SS_Q9_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A5.html">FS, Q[68], A[5]</a>). Now Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 1) that "many of the faithful lack knowledge though they have faith." Therefore knowledge | |
| 3401 is not a gift. | |
| 3402 </p> | |
| 3403 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p4"> | |
| 3404 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gifts are more perfect than the virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 3405 <a id="SS_Q9_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A8.html">FS, Q[68], A[8]</a>). Therefore one gift suffices for the perfection of one virtue. Now the gift of understanding responds to the virtue of faith, | |
| 3406 as stated above (Q[8], A[2]). Therefore the gift of knowledge does not respond to that virtue, nor does it appear to which | |
| 3407 other virtue it can respond. Since, then, the gifts are perfections of virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 3408 <a id="SS_Q9_A1-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A1.html">FS, Q[68], AA[1]</a>,2), it seems that knowledge is not a gift. | |
| 3409 </p> | |
| 3410 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p5"> | |
| 3411 <b>On the contrary,</b> Knowledge is reckoned among the seven gifts ( | |
| 3412 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.2" target="asv">Is. 11:2</a>). | |
| 3413 </p> | |
| 3414 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p6"> | |
| 3415 <b>I answer that,</b> Grace is more perfect than nature, and, therefore, does not fail in those things wherein man can be perfected by nature. | |
| 3416 Now, when a man, by his natural reason, assents by his intellect to some truth, he is perfected in two ways in respect of | |
| 3417 that truth: first, because he grasps it; secondly, because he forms a sure judgment on it. | |
| 3418 </p> | |
| 3419 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p7"> Accordingly, two things are requisite in order that the human intellect may perfectly assent to the truth of the faith: one | |
| 3420 of these is that he should have a sound grasp of the things that are proposed to be believed, and this pertains to the gift | |
| 3421 of understanding, as stated above ( | |
| 3422 <a id="SS_Q9_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q8_A6.html">Q[8], A[6]</a>): while the other is that he should have a sure and right judgment on them, so as to discern what is to be believed, from | |
| 3423 what is not to be believed, and for this | |
| 3424 the gift of knowledge is required. | |
| 3425 </p> | |
| 3426 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p8"> | |
| 3427 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Certitude of knowledge varies in various natures, according to the various conditions of each nature. Because man forms a | |
| 3428 sure judgment about a truth by the discursive process of his reason: and so human knowledge is acquired by means of demonstrative | |
| 3429 reasoning. On the other hand, in God, there is a sure judgment of truth, without any discursive process, by simple intuition, | |
| 3430 as was stated in the | |
| 3431 <a id="SS_Q9_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A7.html">FP, Q[14], A[7]</a>; wherefore | |
| 3432 God's knowledge is not discursive, or argumentative, but absolute and simple, to which that knowledge is likened which is | |
| 3433 a gift of the Holy Ghost, since it is a participated likeness thereof. | |
| 3434 </p> | |
| 3435 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p9"> | |
| 3436 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A twofold knowledge may be had about matters of belief. One is the knowledge of what one ought to believe by discerning things | |
| 3437 to be believed from things not to be believe: in this way knowledge is a gift and is common to all holy persons. The other | |
| 3438 is a knowledge about matters of belief, whereby one knows not only what one ought to believe, but also how to make the faith | |
| 3439 known, how to induce others to believe, and confute those who deny the faith. | |
| 3440 This knowledge is numbered among the gratuitous graces, which are not given to all, but to some. Hence Augustine, after the | |
| 3441 words quoted, adds: "It is one thing for a man merely to know what he ought to believe, and another to know how to dispense | |
| 3442 what he believes to the godly, and to defend it against the ungodly." | |
| 3443 </p> | |
| 3444 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p10"> | |
| 3445 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The gifts are more perfect than the moral and intellectual virtues; but they are not more perfect than the theological virtues; | |
| 3446 rather are all the gifts ordained to the perfection of the theological virtues, as to their end. Hence it is not unreasonable | |
| 3447 if several gifts are ordained to one theological virtue. | |
| 3448 </p> | |
| 3449 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 3450 <p id="SS_Q9_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 3451 <a href="summa.SS_Q9.html"></a> | |
| 3452 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3453 </div> | |
| 3454 <div id="SS_Q9_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 3455 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3456 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3457 <h4 id="SS_Q9_A2-p0.1">Whether the gift of knowledge is about Divine things?</h4> | |
| 3458 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 3459 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p2"> | |
| 3460 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the gift of knowledge is about Divine things. For Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 1) that "knowledge begets, | |
| 3461 nourishes and strengthens faith." Now faith is about Divine things, because its object is the First Truth, as stated above | |
| 3462 ( | |
| 3463 <a id="SS_Q9_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). Therefore the gift of knowledge also is about Divine things. | |
| 3464 </p> | |
| 3465 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p3"> | |
| 3466 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the gift of knowledge is more excellent than acquired knowledge. But there is an acquired knowledge about Divine | |
| 3467 things, for instance, the science of metaphysics. Much more therefore is the gift of knowledge about Divine things. | |
| 3468 </p> | |
| 3469 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p4"> | |
| 3470 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to | |
| 3471 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv"> Rom. 1:20, </a> "the invisible things of God . . . are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made." If therefore there is | |
| 3472 knowledge about created things, it seems that there is also knowledge of Divine things. | |
| 3473 </p> | |
| 3474 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p5"> | |
| 3475 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xiv, 1): "The knowledge of Divine things may be properly called wisdom, and the knowledge of human | |
| 3476 affairs may properly receive the name of knowledge." | |
| 3477 </p> | |
| 3478 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p6"> | |
| 3479 <b>I answer that,</b> A sure judgment about a thing formed chiefly from its cause, and so the order of judgments should be according to the order | |
| 3480 of causes. For just as the first cause is the cause of the second, so ought the judgment about the second cause to be formed | |
| 3481 through the first cause: nor is it possible to judge of the first cause through any other cause; wherefore the judgment which | |
| 3482 is formed through the first cause, is the first and most perfect judgment. | |
| 3483 </p> | |
| 3484 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p7"> Now in those things where we find something most perfect, the common name of the genus is appropriated for those things which | |
| 3485 fall short of the most perfect, and some special name is adapted to the most perfect thing, as is the case in Logic. For in | |
| 3486 the genus of convertible terms, that which signifies "what a thing is," is given the special name of "definition," but the | |
| 3487 convertible terms which fall short of this, retain the common name, and are called "proper" terms. | |
| 3488 </p> | |
| 3489 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p8"> Accordingly, since the word knowledge implies certitude of judgment as stated above | |
| 3490 <a id="SS_Q9_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q9_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, if this certitude of the judgment is derived from the highest cause, the knowledge has a special name, which is wisdom: | |
| 3491 for a wise man in any branch of knowledge is one who knows the highest cause of that kind of knowledge, and is able to judge | |
| 3492 of all matters by that cause: and a wise man "absolutely," is one who knows the cause which is absolutely highest, namely | |
| 3493 God. Hence the knowledge of Divine things is called "wisdom," while the knowledge of human things is called "knowledge," this | |
| 3494 being the common name denoting certitude of judgment, and appropriated to the judgment which is formed through second causes. | |
| 3495 Accordingly, if we take knowledge in this way, it is a distinct gift from the gift of wisdom, so that the gift of knowledge | |
| 3496 is only about human or created things. | |
| 3497 </p> | |
| 3498 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p9"> | |
| 3499 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although matters of faith are Divine and eternal, yet faith itself is something temporal in the mind of the believer. Hence | |
| 3500 to know what one ought to believe, belongs to the gift of knowledge, but to know in themselves the very things we believe, | |
| 3501 by a kind of union with them, belongs to the gift of wisdom. Therefore the gift of wisdom corresponds more to charity which | |
| 3502 unites man's mind to God. | |
| 3503 </p> | |
| 3504 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p10"> | |
| 3505 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument takes knowledge in the generic acceptation of the term: it is not thus that knowledge is a special gift, but | |
| 3506 according as it is restricted to judgments formed through created things. | |
| 3507 </p> | |
| 3508 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p11"> | |
| 3509 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3510 <a id="SS_Q9_A2-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>), every cognitive habit regards formally the mean through which things are known, and materially, the things that are known | |
| 3511 through the mean. And since that which is formal, is of most account, it follows that those sciences which draw conclusions | |
| 3512 about physical matter from mathematical principles, are reckoned rather among the mathematical sciences, though, as to their | |
| 3513 matter they have more in | |
| 3514 common with physical sciences: and for this reason it is stated in Phys. ii, 2 that they are more akin to physics. Accordingly, | |
| 3515 since man knows God through His creatures, this seems to pertain to "knowledge," to which it belongs formally, rather than | |
| 3516 to "wisdom," to which it belongs materially: and, conversely, when we judge of creatures according to Divine things, this | |
| 3517 pertains to "wisdom" rather than to "knowledge." | |
| 3518 </p> | |
| 3519 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 3520 <p id="SS_Q9_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 3521 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3522 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3523 </div> | |
| 3524 <div id="SS_Q9_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 3525 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3526 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3527 <h4 id="SS_Q9_A3-p0.1">Whether the gift of knowledge is practical knowledge?</h4> | |
| 3528 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 3529 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p2"> | |
| 3530 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the knowledge, which is numbered among the gifts, is practical knowledge. For Augustine says (De Trin. | |
| 3531 xii, 14) that "knowledge is concerned with the actions in which we make use of external things." But the knowledge which is | |
| 3532 concerned about actions is practical. Therefore the gift of knowledge is practical. | |
| 3533 </p> | |
| 3534 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p3"> | |
| 3535 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Gregory says (Moral. i, 32): "Knowledge is nought if it hath not its use for piety . . . and piety is very useless | |
| 3536 if it lacks the discernment of knowledge." Now it follows from this authority that knowledge directs piety. But this cannot | |
| 3537 apply to a speculative science. Therefore the gift of knowledge is not speculative but practical. | |
| 3538 </p> | |
| 3539 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p4"> | |
| 3540 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gifts of the Holy Ghost are only in the righteous, as stated above ( | |
| 3541 <a id="SS_Q9_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q9_A5.html">Q[9], A[5]</a>). But speculative knowledge can be also in the unrighteous, according to | |
| 3542 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A3-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Jas.4.17" target="asv"> James 4:17</a>: "To him . . . who knoweth to do good, and doth it not, to him it is a sin." Therefore the gift of knowledge is not speculative | |
| 3543 but practical. | |
| 3544 </p> | |
| 3545 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p5"> | |
| 3546 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. i, 32): "Knowledge on her own day prepares a feast, because she overcomes the fast of ignorance in the | |
| 3547 mind." Now ignorance is not entirely removed, save by both kinds of knowledge, viz. speculative and practical. Therefore the | |
| 3548 gift of knowledge is both speculative and practical. | |
| 3549 </p> | |
| 3550 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p6"> | |
| 3551 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3552 <a id="SS_Q9_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q9_A8.html">Q[9], A[8]</a>), the gift of knowledge, like the gift of understanding, is ordained to the certitude of faith. Now faith consists primarily | |
| 3553 and principally in speculation, in as much as it is founded on the First Truth. But since the First Truth is also the last | |
| 3554 end for the sake of which our works are done, hence it is that faith extends to works, according to | |
| 3555 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A3-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.6" target="asv"> Gal. 5:6</a>: "Faith . . . worketh by | |
| 3556 charity." | |
| 3557 </p> | |
| 3558 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p7"> The consequence is that the gift of knowledge also, primarily and principally indeed, regards speculation, in so far as man | |
| 3559 knows what he ought to hold by faith; yet, secondarily, it extends to works, since we are directed in our actions by the knowledge | |
| 3560 of matters of faith, and of conclusions drawn therefrom. | |
| 3561 </p> | |
| 3562 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p8"> | |
| 3563 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of the gift of knowledge, in so far as it extends to works; for action is ascribed to knowledge, yet | |
| 3564 not action solely, nor primarily: and in this way it directs piety. | |
| 3565 </p> | |
| 3566 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p9"> Hence the Reply to the Second Objection is clear.</p> | |
| 3567 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p10"> | |
| 3568 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As we have already stated ( | |
| 3569 <a id="SS_Q9_A3-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q8_A5.html">Q[8], A[5]</a>) about the gift of understanding, not everyone who understands, has the gift of understanding, but only he that understands | |
| 3570 through a habit of grace: and so we must take note, with regard to the gift of knowledge, that they alone have the gift of | |
| 3571 knowledge, who judge aright about matters of faith and action, through the grace bestowed on them, so as never to wander from | |
| 3572 the straight path of | |
| 3573 justice. This is the knowledge of holy things, according to | |
| 3574 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A3-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.10.10" target="asv"> Wis. 10:10</a>: "She conducted the just . . . through the right ways . . . and gave him the knowledge of holy things." | |
| 3575 </p> | |
| 3576 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 3577 <p id="SS_Q9_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 3578 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3579 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3580 </div> | |
| 3581 <div id="SS_Q9_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 3582 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3583 <a href="summa.SS_Q10.html"></a> | |
| 3584 <h4 id="SS_Q9_A4-p0.1">Whether the third beatitude, "Blessed are they that mourn," etc. corresponds to the gift of knowledge?</h4> | |
| 3585 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 3586 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p2"> | |
| 3587 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the third beatitude, "Blessed are they that mourn," does not correspond to the gift of knowledge. For, | |
| 3588 even as evil is the cause of sorrow and grief, so is good the cause of joy. Now knowledge brings good to light rather than | |
| 3589 evil, since the latter is known through evil: for "the straight line rules both itself and the crooked line" (De Anima i, | |
| 3590 5). Therefore the aforesaid beatitude does not suitably correspond to the gift of knowledge. | |
| 3591 </p> | |
| 3592 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p3"> | |
| 3593 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, consideration of truth is an act of knowledge. Now there is no sorrow in the consideration of truth; rather is there | |
| 3594 joy, since it is written ( | |
| 3595 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.8.16" target="asv">Wis. 8:16</a>): "Her conversation hath no bitterness, nor her company any tediousness, but joy and gladness." Therefore the aforesaid beatitude | |
| 3596 does not suitably correspond with the gift of knowledge. | |
| 3597 </p> | |
| 3598 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p4"> | |
| 3599 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gift of knowledge consists in speculation, before operation. Now, in so far as it consists in speculation, sorrow | |
| 3600 does not correspond to it, since "the speculative intellect is not concerned about things to be sought or avoided" (De Anima | |
| 3601 iii, 9). Therefore the aforesaid beatitude is not suitably reckoned to correspond with the gift of knowledge. | |
| 3602 </p> | |
| 3603 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p5"> | |
| 3604 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte iv): "Knowledge befits the mourner, who has discovered that he has been mastered by | |
| 3605 the evil which he coveted as though it were good." | |
| 3606 </p> | |
| 3607 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p6"> | |
| 3608 <b>I answer that,</b> Right judgment about creatures belongs properly to knowledge. Now it is through creatures that man's aversion from God is | |
| 3609 occasioned, according to | |
| 3610 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q9_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.14.11" target="asv"> Wis. 14:11</a>: "Creatures . . . are turned to an abomination . . . and a snare to the feet of the unwise," of those, namely, who do not | |
| 3611 judge aright about creatures, since they deem the perfect good to consist in them. Hence they sin by placing their last end | |
| 3612 in them, and lose the true good. It | |
| 3613 is by forming a right judgment of creatures that man becomes aware of the loss (of which they may be the occasion), which | |
| 3614 judgment he exercises through the gift of knowledge. | |
| 3615 </p> | |
| 3616 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p7"> Hence the beatitude of sorrow is said to correspond to the gift of knowledge.</p> | |
| 3617 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p8"> | |
| 3618 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Created goods do not cause spiritual joy, except in so far as they are referred to the Divine good, which is the proper cause | |
| 3619 of spiritual joy. Hence spiritual peace and the resulting joy correspond directly to the gift of wisdom: but to the gift of | |
| 3620 knowledge there corresponds, in the first place, sorrow for past errors, and, in consequence, consolation, since, by his right | |
| 3621 judgment, man directs creatures to the Divine good. For this reason sorrow is | |
| 3622 set forth in this beatitude, as the merit, and the resulting consolation, as the reward; which is begun in this life, and | |
| 3623 is perfected in the life to come. | |
| 3624 </p> | |
| 3625 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p9"> | |
| 3626 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Man rejoices in the very consideration of truth; yet he may sometimes grieve for the thing, the truth of which he considers: | |
| 3627 it is thus that sorrow is ascribed to knowledge. | |
| 3628 </p> | |
| 3629 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p10"> | |
| 3630 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> No beatitude corresponds to knowledge, in so far as it consists in speculation, because man's beatitude consists, not in | |
| 3631 considering creatures, but in contemplating God. But man's beatitude does consist somewhat in the right use of creatures, | |
| 3632 and in well-ordered love of them: and this I say with regard to the beatitude of a wayfarer. Hence beatitude relating to contemplation | |
| 3633 is not ascribed to knowledge, but to understanding and wisdom, which are | |
| 3634 about Divine things. | |
| 3635 </p> | |
| 3636 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 3637 <p id="SS_Q9_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 3638 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3639 <a href="summa.SS_Q10.html"></a> | |
| 3640 </div> | |
| 3641 <a href="summa.SS_Q8_A8.html"></a> | |
| 3642 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3643 </div> | |
| 3644 <div id="SS_Q10" class="div3"> | |
| 3645 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3646 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3647 <h3 id="SS_Q10-p0.1">OF UNBELIEF IN GENERAL (TWELVE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 3648 <p id="SS_Q10-p1"></p> | |
| 3649 <p id="SS_Q10-p2"> In due sequence we must consider the contrary vices: first, unbelief, which is contrary to faith; secondly, blasphemy, which | |
| 3650 is opposed to confession of faith; thirdly, ignorance and dulness of mind, which are contrary to knowledge and understanding. | |
| 3651 </p> | |
| 3652 <p id="SS_Q10-p3"> As to the first, we must consider (1) unbelief in general; (2) heresy; (3) apostasy from the faith.</p> | |
| 3653 <p id="SS_Q10-p4"> Under the first head there are twelve points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 3654 <p id="SS_Q10-p5"> (1) Whether unbelief is a sin?</p> | |
| 3655 <p id="SS_Q10-p6"> (2) What is its subject?</p> | |
| 3656 <p id="SS_Q10-p7"> (3) Whether it is the greatest of sins?</p> | |
| 3657 <p id="SS_Q10-p8"> (4) Whether every action of unbelievers is a sin?</p> | |
| 3658 <p id="SS_Q10-p9"> (5) Of the species of unbelief;</p> | |
| 3659 <p id="SS_Q10-p10"> (6) Of their comparison, one with another;</p> | |
| 3660 <p id="SS_Q10-p11"> (7) Whether we ought to dispute about faith with unbelievers?</p> | |
| 3661 <p id="SS_Q10-p12"> (8) Whether they ought to be compelled to the faith?</p> | |
| 3662 <p id="SS_Q10-p13"> (9) Whether we ought to have communications with them?</p> | |
| 3663 <p id="SS_Q10-p14"> (10) Whether unbelievers can have authority over Christians?</p> | |
| 3664 <p id="SS_Q10-p15"> (11) Whether the rites of unbelievers should be tolerated?</p> | |
| 3665 <p id="SS_Q10-p16"> (12) Whether the children of unbelievers are to be baptized against their parents' will?</p> | |
| 3666 <div id="SS_Q10_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 3667 <a href="summa.SS_Q10.html"></a> | |
| 3668 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3669 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A1-p0.1">Whether unbelief is a sin?</h4> | |
| 3670 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 3671 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p2"> | |
| 3672 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that unbelief is not a sin. For every sin is contrary to nature, as Damascene proves (De Fide Orth. ii, 4). | |
| 3673 Now unbelief seems not to be contrary to nature; for Augustine says (De Praedest. Sanct. v) that "to be capable to having | |
| 3674 faith, just as to be capable of having charity, is natural to all men; whereas to have faith, even as to have charity, belongs | |
| 3675 to the grace of the faithful." Therefore not to have faith, which is to be an unbeliever, is | |
| 3676 not a sin. | |
| 3677 </p> | |
| 3678 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p3"> | |
| 3679 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no one sins that which he cannot avoid, since every sin is voluntary. Now it is not in a man's power to avoid unbelief, | |
| 3680 for he cannot avoid it unless he have faith, because the Apostle says ( | |
| 3681 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.10.14" target="asv">Rom. 10:14</a>): "How shall they believe in Him, of Whom they have not heard? And how shall they hear without a preacher?" Therefore unbelief | |
| 3682 does not seem to be a sin. | |
| 3683 </p> | |
| 3684 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p4"> | |
| 3685 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as stated above ( | |
| 3686 <a id="SS_Q10_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q84_A4.html">FS, Q[84], A[4]</a>), there are seven capital sins, to which all sins are reduced. But unbelief does not seem to be comprised under any of them. | |
| 3687 Therefore unbelief is not a sin. | |
| 3688 </p> | |
| 3689 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p5"> | |
| 3690 <b>On the contrary,</b> Vice is opposed to virtue. Now faith is a virtue, and unbelief is opposed to it. Therefore unbelief is a sin. | |
| 3691 </p> | |
| 3692 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p6"> | |
| 3693 <b>I answer that,</b> Unbelief may be taken in two ways: first, by way of pure negation, so that a man be called an unbeliever, merely because | |
| 3694 he has not the faith. Secondly, unbelief may be taken by way of opposition to the faith; in which sense a man refuses to hear | |
| 3695 the faith, or despises it, according to | |
| 3696 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.53.1" target="asv"> Is. 53:1</a>: "Who hath believed our report?" It is this that completes the notion of unbelief, and it is in this sense that unbelief | |
| 3697 is a sin. | |
| 3698 </p> | |
| 3699 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p7"> If, however, we take it by way of pure negation, as we find it in those who have heard nothing about the faith, it bears | |
| 3700 the character, not of sin, but of punishment, because such like ignorance of Divine things is a result of the sin of our first | |
| 3701 parent. If such like unbelievers are damned, it is on account of other sins, which cannot be taken away without faith, but | |
| 3702 not on account of their sin of unbelief. Hence Our Lord said ( | |
| 3703 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.22" target="asv">Jn. 15:22</a>) "If I had not | |
| 3704 come, and spoken to them, they would not have sin"; which Augustine expounds (Tract. lxxxix in Joan.) as "referring to the | |
| 3705 sin whereby they believed not in Christ." | |
| 3706 </p> | |
| 3707 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p8"> | |
| 3708 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> To have the faith is not part of human nature, but it is part of human nature that man's mind should not thwart his inner | |
| 3709 instinct, and the outward preaching of the truth. Hence, in this way, unbelief is contrary to nature. | |
| 3710 </p> | |
| 3711 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p9"> | |
| 3712 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument takes unbelief as denoting a pure negation. | |
| 3713 </p> | |
| 3714 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p10"> | |
| 3715 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Unbelief, in so far as it is a sin, arises from pride, through which man is unwilling to subject his intellect to the rules | |
| 3716 of faith, and to the sound interpretation of the Fathers. Hence Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45) that "presumptuous innovations | |
| 3717 arise from vainglory." | |
| 3718 </p> | |
| 3719 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p11"> It might also be replied that just as the theological virtues are not reduced to the cardinal virtues, but precede them, | |
| 3720 so too, the vices opposed to the theological virtues are not reduced to the capital vices. | |
| 3721 </p> | |
| 3722 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 3723 <p id="SS_Q10_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 3724 <a href="summa.SS_Q10.html"></a> | |
| 3725 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3726 </div> | |
| 3727 <div id="SS_Q10_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 3728 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3729 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3730 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A2-p0.1">Whether unbelief is in the intellect as its subject?</h4> | |
| 3731 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 3732 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p2"> | |
| 3733 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that unbelief is not in the intellect as its subject. For every sin is in the will, according to Augustine | |
| 3734 (De Duabus Anim. x, xi). Now unbelief is a sin, as stated above | |
| 3735 <a id="SS_Q10_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore unbelief resides in the will and not in the intellect. | |
| 3736 </p> | |
| 3737 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p3"> | |
| 3738 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, unbelief is sinful through contempt of the preaching of the faith. But contempt pertains to the will. Therefore | |
| 3739 unbelief is in the will. | |
| 3740 </p> | |
| 3741 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p4"> | |
| 3742 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a gloss [*Augustine, Enchiridion lx.] on | |
| 3743 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.11.14" target="asv">2 Cor. 11:14 </a>"Satan . . . transformeth himself into an angel of light," says that if "a wicked angel pretend to be a good angel, and be | |
| 3744 taken for a good angel, it is not a dangerous or an unhealthy error, if he does or says what is becoming to a good angel." | |
| 3745 This seems to be because of the rectitude of the will of the man who adheres to the angel, since his intention is to adhere | |
| 3746 to a good | |
| 3747 angel. Therefore the sin of unbelief seems to consist entirely in a perverse will: and, consequently, it does not reside in | |
| 3748 the intellect. | |
| 3749 </p> | |
| 3750 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p5"> | |
| 3751 <b>On the contrary,</b> Things which are contrary to one another are in the same subject. Now faith, to which unbelief is opposed, resides in the | |
| 3752 intellect. Therefore unbelief also is in the intellect. | |
| 3753 </p> | |
| 3754 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p6"> | |
| 3755 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3756 <a id="SS_Q10_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A1.html">FS, Q[74], AA[1]</a>,2), sin is said to be in the power which is the principle of the sinful act. Now a sinful act may have two principles: one | |
| 3757 is its first and universal principle, which commands all acts of sin; and this is the will, because every sin is voluntary. | |
| 3758 The other principle of the sinful act is the proper and proximate principle which elicits the sinful act: thus the concupiscible | |
| 3759 is the principle of | |
| 3760 gluttony and lust, wherefore these sins are said to be in the concupiscible. Now dissent, which is the act proper to unbelief, | |
| 3761 is an act of the intellect, moved, however, by the will, just as assent is. | |
| 3762 </p> | |
| 3763 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p7"> Therefore unbelief, like faith, is in the intellect as its proximate subject. But it is in the will as its first moving principle, | |
| 3764 in which way every sin is said to be in the will. | |
| 3765 </p> | |
| 3766 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p8"> Hence the Reply to the First Objection is clear.</p> | |
| 3767 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p9"> | |
| 3768 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The will's contempt causes the intellect's dissent, which completes the notion of unbelief. Hence the cause of unbelief is | |
| 3769 in the will, while unbelief itself is in the intellect. | |
| 3770 </p> | |
| 3771 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p10"> | |
| 3772 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> He that believes a wicked angel to be a good one, does not dissent from a matter of faith, because "his bodily senses are | |
| 3773 deceived, while his mind does not depart from a true and right judgment" as the gloss observes [*Augustine, Enchiridion lx]. | |
| 3774 But, according to the same authority, to adhere to Satan when he begins to invite one to his abode, i.e. wickedness and error, | |
| 3775 is not without sin. | |
| 3776 </p> | |
| 3777 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 3778 <p id="SS_Q10_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 3779 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html"></a> | |
| 3780 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3781 </div> | |
| 3782 <div id="SS_Q10_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 3783 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3784 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3785 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A3-p0.1">Whether unbelief is the greatest of sin?</h4> | |
| 3786 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 3787 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p2"> | |
| 3788 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that unbelief is not the greatest of sins. For Augustine says (De Bapt. contra Donat. iv, 20): "I should hesitate | |
| 3789 to decide whether a very wicked Catholic ought to be preferred to a heretic, in whose life one finds nothing reprehensible | |
| 3790 beyond the fact that he is a heretic." But a heretic is an unbeliever. Therefore we ought not to say absolutely that unbelief | |
| 3791 is the greatest of sins. | |
| 3792 </p> | |
| 3793 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p3"> | |
| 3794 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which diminishes or excuses a sin is not, seemingly, the greatest of sins. Now unbelief excuses or diminishes | |
| 3795 sin: for the Apostle says ( | |
| 3796 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.12" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:12,13</a>): "I . . . before was a blasphemer, and a persecutor and contumelious; but I obtained . . . mercy . . . because I did it | |
| 3797 ignorantly in unbelief." Therefore unbelief is not the greatest of sins. | |
| 3798 </p> | |
| 3799 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p4"> | |
| 3800 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the greater sin deserves the greater punishment, according to | |
| 3801 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.25.2" target="asv"> Dt. 25:2</a>: "According to the measure of the sin shall the measure also of the stripes be." Now a greater punishment is due to believers | |
| 3802 than to unbelievers, according to | |
| 3803 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A3-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Heb.10.29" target="asv"> Heb. 10:29</a>: "How much more, do you think, he deserveth worse punishments, who hath trodden under foot the Son of God, and hath esteemed | |
| 3804 the blood of the testament unclean, by which | |
| 3805 he was sanctified?" Therefore unbelief is not the greatest of sins. | |
| 3806 </p> | |
| 3807 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p5"> | |
| 3808 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine, commenting on | |
| 3809 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.22" target="asv"> Jn. 15:22, </a> "If I had not come, and spoken to them, they would not have sin," says (Tract. lxxxix in Joan.): "Under the general name, | |
| 3810 He refers to a singularly great sin. For this," viz. infidelity, "is the sin to which all others may be traced." Therefore | |
| 3811 unbelief is the greatest of sins. | |
| 3812 </p> | |
| 3813 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p6"> | |
| 3814 <b>I answer that,</b> Every sin consists formally in aversion from God, as stated above ( | |
| 3815 <a id="SS_Q10_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q71_A6.html">FS, Q[71], A[6]</a>; | |
| 3816 <a id="SS_Q10_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q73_A3.html">FS, Q[73], A[3]</a>). Hence the more a sin severs man from God, the graver it is. Now man is more than ever separated from God by unbelief, because | |
| 3817 he has not even true knowledge of God: and by false knowledge of God, man does not approach Him, but is severed from Him. | |
| 3818 </p> | |
| 3819 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p7"> Nor is it possible for one who has a false opinion of God, to know Him in any way at all, because the object of his opinion | |
| 3820 is not God. Therefore it is clear that the sin of unbelief is greater than any sin that occurs in the perversion of morals. | |
| 3821 This does not apply to the sins that are opposed to the theological virtues, as we shall stated further on ( | |
| 3822 <a id="SS_Q10_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q20_A3.html">Q[20], A[3]</a>; | |
| 3823 <a id="SS_Q10_A3-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A2.html"> Q[34], A[2]</a>, ad 2; | |
| 3824 <a id="SS_Q10_A3-p7.3" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q39_A2.html"> Q[39], A[2]</a>, ad | |
| 3825 3). | |
| 3826 </p> | |
| 3827 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p8"> | |
| 3828 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nothing hinders a sin that is more grave in its genus from being less grave in respect of some circumstances. Hence Augustine | |
| 3829 hesitated to decide between a bad Catholic, and a heretic not sinning otherwise, because although the heretic's sin is more | |
| 3830 grave generically, it can be lessened by a circumstance, and conversely the sin of the Catholic can, by some circumstance, | |
| 3831 be aggravated. | |
| 3832 </p> | |
| 3833 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p9"> | |
| 3834 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Unbelief includes both ignorance, as an accessory thereto, and resistance to matters of faith, and in the latter respect | |
| 3835 it is a most grave sin. In respect, however, of this ignorance, it has a certain reason for excuse, especially when a man | |
| 3836 sins not from malice, as was the case with the Apostle. | |
| 3837 </p> | |
| 3838 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p10"> | |
| 3839 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> An unbeliever is more severely punished for his sin of unbelief than another sinner is for any sin whatever, if we consider | |
| 3840 the kind of sin. But in the case of another sin, e.g. adultery, committed by a believer, and by an unbeliever, the believer, | |
| 3841 other things being equal, sins more gravely than the unbeliever, both on account of his knowledge of the truth through faith, | |
| 3842 and on account of the sacraments of faith with which he has been satiated, and | |
| 3843 which he insults by committing sin. | |
| 3844 </p> | |
| 3845 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 3846 <p id="SS_Q10_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 3847 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html"></a> | |
| 3848 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3849 </div> | |
| 3850 <div id="SS_Q10_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 3851 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3852 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3853 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A4-p0.1">Whether every act of an unbeliever is a sin?</h4> | |
| 3854 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 3855 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p2"> | |
| 3856 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that each act of an unbeliever is a sin. Because a gloss on | |
| 3857 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.23" target="asv"> Rom. 14:23, </a> "All that is not of faith is sin," says: "The whole life of unbelievers is a sin." Now the life of unbelievers consists of | |
| 3858 their actions. Therefore every action of an unbeliever is a sin. | |
| 3859 </p> | |
| 3860 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p3"> | |
| 3861 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, faith directs the intention. Now there can be no good save what comes from a right intention. Therefore, among unbelievers, | |
| 3862 no action can be good. | |
| 3863 </p> | |
| 3864 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p4"> | |
| 3865 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, when that which precedes is corrupted, that which follows is corrupted also. Now an act of faith precedes the acts | |
| 3866 of all the virtues. Therefore, since there is no act of faith in unbelievers, they can do no good work, but sin in every action | |
| 3867 of theirs. | |
| 3868 </p> | |
| 3869 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p5"> | |
| 3870 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is said of Cornelius, while yet an unbeliever ( | |
| 3871 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.10.4" target="asv">Acts 10:4</a>, | |
| 3872 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Acts.10.31" target="asv">31</a>), that his alms were acceptable to God. Therefore not every action of an unbeliever is a sin, but some of his actions are | |
| 3873 good. | |
| 3874 </p> | |
| 3875 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p6"> | |
| 3876 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3877 <a id="SS_Q10_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q85_A2.html">FS, Q[85], AA[2]</a>,4) mortal sin takes away sanctifying grace, but does not wholly corrupt the good of nature. Since therefore, unbelief is | |
| 3878 a mortal sin, unbelievers are without grace indeed, yet some good of nature remains in them. Consequently it is evident that | |
| 3879 unbelievers cannot do those good works which proceed from grace, viz. meritorious works; yet they can, to a certain extent, | |
| 3880 do those good works for which the | |
| 3881 good of nature suffices. | |
| 3882 </p> | |
| 3883 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p7"> Hence it does not follow that they sin in everything they do; but whenever they do anything out of their unbelief, then they | |
| 3884 sin. For even as one who has the faith, can commit an actual sin, venial or even mortal, which he does not refer to the end | |
| 3885 of faith, so too, an unbeliever can do a good deed in a matter which he does not refer to the end of his unbelief. | |
| 3886 </p> | |
| 3887 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p8"> | |
| 3888 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The words quoted must be taken to mean either that the life of unbelievers cannot be sinless, since without faith no sin | |
| 3889 is taken away, or that whatever they do out of unbelief, is a sin. Hence the same authority adds: "Because every one that | |
| 3890 lives or acts according to his unbelief, sins grievously." | |
| 3891 </p> | |
| 3892 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p9"> | |
| 3893 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faith directs the intention with regard to the supernatural last end: but even the light of natural reason can direct the | |
| 3894 intention in respect of a connatural good. | |
| 3895 </p> | |
| 3896 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p10"> | |
| 3897 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Unbelief does not so wholly destroy natural reason in unbelievers, but that some knowledge of the truth remains in them, | |
| 3898 whereby they are able to do deeds that are generically good. With regard, however, to Cornelius, it is to be observed that | |
| 3899 he was not an unbeliever, else his works would not have been acceptable to God, whom none can please without faith. Now he | |
| 3900 had implicit faith, as the truth of the Gospel was not yet made manifest: hence Peter | |
| 3901 was sent to him to give him fuller instruction in the faith. | |
| 3902 </p> | |
| 3903 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 3904 <p id="SS_Q10_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 3905 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html"></a> | |
| 3906 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3907 </div> | |
| 3908 <div id="SS_Q10_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 3909 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3910 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3911 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A5-p0.1">Whether there are several species of unbelief?</h4> | |
| 3912 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 3913 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p2"> | |
| 3914 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there are not several species of unbelief. For, since faith and unbelief are contrary to one another, | |
| 3915 they must be about the same thing. Now the formal object of faith is the First Truth, whence it derives its unity, although | |
| 3916 its matter contains many points of belief. Therefore the object of unbelief also is the First Truth; while the things which | |
| 3917 an unbeliever disbelieves are the matter of his unbelief. Now the specific difference depends | |
| 3918 not on material but on formal principles. Therefore there are not several species of unbelief, according to the various points | |
| 3919 which the unbeliever disbelieves. | |
| 3920 </p> | |
| 3921 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p3"> | |
| 3922 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is possible to stray from the truth of faith in an infinite number of ways. If therefore the various species | |
| 3923 of unbelief correspond to the number of various errors, it would seem to follow that there is an infinite number of species | |
| 3924 of unbelief, and consequently, that we ought not to make these species the object of our consideration. | |
| 3925 </p> | |
| 3926 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p4"> | |
| 3927 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the same thing does not belong to different species. Now a man may be an unbeliever through erring about different | |
| 3928 points of truth. Therefore diversity of errors does not make a diversity of species of unbelief: and so there are not several | |
| 3929 species of unbelief. | |
| 3930 </p> | |
| 3931 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p5"> | |
| 3932 <b>On the contrary,</b> Several species of vice are opposed to each virtue, because "good happens in one way, but evil in many ways," according to | |
| 3933 Dionysius (Div. Nom. iv) and the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 6). Now faith is a virtue. Therefore several species of vice are | |
| 3934 opposed to it. | |
| 3935 </p> | |
| 3936 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p6"> | |
| 3937 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 3938 <a id="SS_Q10_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q55_A4.html">FS, Q[55], A[4]</a>; | |
| 3939 <a id="SS_Q10_A5-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q64_A1.html">FS, Q[64], A[1]</a>), every virtue consists in following some rule of human knowledge or operation. Now conformity to a rule happens one way | |
| 3940 in one matter, whereas a breach of the rule happens in many ways, so that many vices are opposed to one virtue. The diversity | |
| 3941 of the vices that are opposed to each virtue may be considered in two ways, first, with regard to their different | |
| 3942 relations to the virtue: and in this way there are determinate species of vices contrary to a virtue: thus to a moral virtue | |
| 3943 one vice is opposed by exceeding the virtue, and another, by falling short of the virtue. Secondly, the diversity of vices | |
| 3944 opposed to one virtue may be considered in respect of the corruption of the various conditions required for that virtue. In | |
| 3945 this way an infinite number of vices are opposed to one virtue, e.g. temperance or fortitude, according to the infinite number | |
| 3946 of ways in which the various circumstances of a virtue may be corrupted, so that the rectitude of virtue is forsaken. For | |
| 3947 this reason the Pythagoreans held evil to be infinite. | |
| 3948 </p> | |
| 3949 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p7"> Accordingly we must say that if unbelief be considered in comparison to faith, there are several species of unbelief, determinate | |
| 3950 in number. For, since the sin of unbelief consists in resisting the faith, this may happen in two ways: either the faith is | |
| 3951 resisted before it has been accepted, and such is the unbelief of pagans or heathens; or the Christian faith is resisted after | |
| 3952 it has been accepted, and this either in the figure, and such is the unbelief of the Jews, or in the | |
| 3953 very manifestation of truth, and such is the unbelief of heretics. Hence we may, in a general way, reckon these three as species | |
| 3954 of unbelief. | |
| 3955 </p> | |
| 3956 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p8"> If, however, the species of unbelief be distinguished according to the various errors that occur in matters of faith, there | |
| 3957 are not determinate species of unbelief: for errors can be multiplied indefinitely, as Augustine observes (De Haeresibus). | |
| 3958 </p> | |
| 3959 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p9"> | |
| 3960 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The formal aspect of a sin can be considered in two ways. First, according to the intention of the sinner, in which case | |
| 3961 the thing to which the sinner turns is the formal object of his sin, and determines the various species of that sin. Secondly, | |
| 3962 it may be considered as an evil, and in this case the good which is forsaken is the formal object of the sin; which however | |
| 3963 does not derive its species from this point of view, in fact it is a privation. We | |
| 3964 must therefore reply that the object of unbelief is the First Truth considered as that which unbelief forsakes, but its formal | |
| 3965 aspect, considered as that to which unbelief turns, is the false opinion that it follows: and it is from this point of view | |
| 3966 that unbelief derives its various species. Hence, even as charity is one, because it adheres to the Sovereign Good, while | |
| 3967 there are various species of vice opposed to charity, which turn away from the Sovereign Good by turning to various temporal | |
| 3968 goods, and also in respect of various inordinate relations to God, so too, faith is one virtue through adhering to the one | |
| 3969 First Truth, yet there are many species of unbelief, because unbelievers follow many false opinions. | |
| 3970 </p> | |
| 3971 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p10"> | |
| 3972 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers the various species of unbelief according to various points in which errors occur. | |
| 3973 </p> | |
| 3974 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p11"> | |
| 3975 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since faith is one because it believes in many things in relation to one, so may unbelief, although it errs in many things, | |
| 3976 be one in so far as all those things are related to one. Yet nothing hinders one man from erring in various species of unbelief, | |
| 3977 even as one man may be subject to various vices, and to various bodily diseases. | |
| 3978 </p> | |
| 3979 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 3980 <p id="SS_Q10_A5-p13"></p> | |
| 3981 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A4.html"></a> | |
| 3982 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A6.html"></a> | |
| 3983 </div> | |
| 3984 <div id="SS_Q10_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 3985 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html"></a> | |
| 3986 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A7.html"></a> | |
| 3987 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A6-p0.1">Whether the unbelief of pagans or heathens is graver than other kinds?</h4> | |
| 3988 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 3989 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p2"> | |
| 3990 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the unbelief of heathens or pagans is graver than other kinds. For just as bodily disease is graver according | |
| 3991 as it endangers the health of a more important member of the body, so does sin appear to be graver, according as it is opposed | |
| 3992 to that which holds a more important place in virtue. Now that which is most important in faith, is belief in the unity of | |
| 3993 God, from which the heathens deviate by believing in many gods. Therefore their | |
| 3994 unbelief is the gravest of all. | |
| 3995 </p> | |
| 3996 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p3"> | |
| 3997 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, among heresies, the more detestable are those which contradict the truth of faith in more numerous and more important | |
| 3998 points: thus, the heresy of Arius, who severed the Godhead, was more detestable than that of Nestorius who severed the humanity | |
| 3999 of Christ from the Person of God the Son. Now the heathens deny the faith in more numerous and more important points than | |
| 4000 Jews and heretics; since they do not accept the faith at all. Therefore their unbelief | |
| 4001 is the gravest. | |
| 4002 </p> | |
| 4003 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p4"> | |
| 4004 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every good diminishes evil. Now there is some good in the Jews, since they believe in the Old Testament as being | |
| 4005 from God, and there is some good in heretics, since they venerate the New Testament. Therefore they sin less grievously than | |
| 4006 heathens, who receive neither Testament. | |
| 4007 </p> | |
| 4008 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p5"> | |
| 4009 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 4010 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiPet.2.21" target="asv">2 Pet. 2:21</a>): "It had been better for them not to have known the way of justice, than after they have known it, to turn back." Now the | |
| 4011 heathens have not known the way of justice, whereas heretics and Jews have abandoned it after knowing it in some way. Therefore | |
| 4012 theirs is the graver sin. | |
| 4013 </p> | |
| 4014 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p6"> | |
| 4015 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 4016 <a id="SS_Q10_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html">(A[5])</a>, two things may be considered in unbelief. One of these is its relation to faith: and from this point of view, he who resists | |
| 4017 the faith after accepting it, sins more grievously against faith, than he who resists it without having accepted it, even | |
| 4018 as he who fails to fulfil what he has promised, sins more grievously than if he had never promised it. In this way the unbelief | |
| 4019 of heretics, who confess their belief | |
| 4020 in the Gospel, and resist that faith by corrupting it, is a more grievous sin than that of the Jews, who have never accepted | |
| 4021 the Gospel faith. Since, however, they accepted the figure of that faith in the Old Law, which they corrupt by their false | |
| 4022 interpretations, their unbelief is a more grievous sin than that of the heathens, because the latter have not accepted the | |
| 4023 Gospel faith in any way at all. | |
| 4024 </p> | |
| 4025 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p7"> The second thing to be considered in unbelief is the corruption of matters of faith. In this respect, since heathens err | |
| 4026 on more points than Jews, and these in more points than heretics, the unbelief of heathens is more grievous than the unbelief | |
| 4027 of the Jews, and that of the Jews than that of the heretics, except in such cases as that of the Manichees, who, in matters | |
| 4028 of faith, err even more than heathens do. | |
| 4029 </p> | |
| 4030 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p8"> Of these two gravities the first surpasses the second from the point of view of guilt; since, as stated above | |
| 4031 <a id="SS_Q10_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html">(A[1])</a> unbelief has the character of guilt, from its resisting faith rather than from the mere absence of faith, for the latter | |
| 4032 as was stated | |
| 4033 <a id="SS_Q10_A6-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html">(A[1])</a> seems rather to bear the character of punishment. Hence, speaking absolutely, the unbelief of heretics is the worst. | |
| 4034 </p> | |
| 4035 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 4036 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 4037 <p id="SS_Q10_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 4038 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html"></a> | |
| 4039 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A7.html"></a> | |
| 4040 </div> | |
| 4041 <div id="SS_Q10_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 4042 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A6.html"></a> | |
| 4043 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A8.html"></a> | |
| 4044 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A7-p0.1">Whether one ought to dispute with unbelievers in public?</h4> | |
| 4045 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 4046 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p2"> | |
| 4047 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one ought not to dispute with unbelievers in public. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 4048 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.14" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:14</a>): "Contend not in words, for it is to no profit, but to the subverting of the hearers." But it is impossible to dispute with | |
| 4049 unbelievers publicly without contending in words. Therefore one ought not to dispute publicly with unbelievers. | |
| 4050 </p> | |
| 4051 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p3"> | |
| 4052 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the law of Martianus Augustus confirmed by the canons [*De Sum. Trin. Cod. lib. i, leg. Nemo] expresses itself thus: | |
| 4053 "It is an insult to the judgment of the most religious synod, if anyone ventures to debate or dispute in public about matters | |
| 4054 which have once been judged and disposed of." Now all matters of faith have been decided by the holy councils. Therefore it | |
| 4055 is an insult to the councils, and consequently a grave sin to presume to dispute in | |
| 4056 public about matters of faith. | |
| 4057 </p> | |
| 4058 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p4"> | |
| 4059 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, disputations are conducted by means of arguments. But an argument is a reason in settlement of a dubious matter: | |
| 4060 whereas things that are of faith, being most certain, ought not to be a matter of doubt. Therefore one ought not to dispute | |
| 4061 in public about matters of faith. | |
| 4062 </p> | |
| 4063 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p5"> | |
| 4064 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 4065 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.9.22" target="asv">Acts 9:22</a>, | |
| 4066 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A7-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Acts.9.29" target="asv">29</a>) that "Saul increased much more in strength, and confounded the Jews," and that "he spoke . . . to the gentiles and disputed | |
| 4067 with the Greeks." | |
| 4068 </p> | |
| 4069 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p6"> | |
| 4070 <b>I answer that,</b> In disputing about the faith, two things must be observed: one on the part of the disputant; the other on the part of his | |
| 4071 hearers. On the part of the disputant, we must consider his intention. For if he were to dispute as though he had doubts about | |
| 4072 the faith, and did not hold the truth of faith for certain, and as though he intended to probe it with arguments, without | |
| 4073 doubt he would sin, as being doubtful of the faith and an unbeliever. On the other hand, it | |
| 4074 is praiseworthy to dispute about the faith in order to confute errors, or for practice. | |
| 4075 </p> | |
| 4076 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p7"> On the part of the hearers we must consider whether those who hear the disputation are instructed and firm in the faith, | |
| 4077 or simple and wavering. As to those who are well instructed and firm in the faith, there can be no danger in disputing about | |
| 4078 the faith in their presence. But as to simple-minded people, we must make a distinction; because either they are provoked | |
| 4079 and molested by unbelievers, for instance, Jews or heretics, or pagans who strive to corrupt the faith in them, or | |
| 4080 else they are not subject to provocation in this matter, as in those countries where there are not unbelievers. In the first | |
| 4081 case it is necessary to dispute in public about the faith, provided there be those who are equal and adapted to the task of | |
| 4082 confuting errors; since in this way simple people are strengthened in the faith, and unbelievers are deprived of the opportunity | |
| 4083 to deceive, while if those who ought to withstand the perverters of the truth of faith were silent, this would tend to | |
| 4084 strengthen error. Hence Gregory says (Pastor. ii, 4): "Even as a thoughtless speech gives rise to error, so does an indiscreet | |
| 4085 silence leave those in error who might have been instructed." On the other hand, in the second case it is dangerous to dispute | |
| 4086 in public about the faith, in the presence of simple people, whose faith for this very reason is more firm, that they have | |
| 4087 never heard anything differing from what they believe. Hence it is not expedient for them to hear what unbelievers have to | |
| 4088 say against the faith. | |
| 4089 </p> | |
| 4090 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p8"> | |
| 4091 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle does not entirely forbid disputations, but such as are inordinate, and consist of contentious words rather than | |
| 4092 of sound speeches. | |
| 4093 </p> | |
| 4094 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p9"> | |
| 4095 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That law forbade those public disputations about the faith, which arise from doubting the faith, but not those which are | |
| 4096 for the safeguarding thereof. | |
| 4097 </p> | |
| 4098 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p10"> | |
| 4099 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> One ought to dispute about matters of faith, not as though one doubted about them, but in order to make the truth known, | |
| 4100 and to confute errors. For, in order to confirm the faith, it is necessary sometimes to dispute with unbelievers, sometimes | |
| 4101 by defending the faith, according to | |
| 4102 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A7-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iPet.3.15" target="asv">1 Pet. 3:15</a>: "Being ready always to satisfy everyone that asketh you a reason of that hope and faith which is in you [*Vulg.: 'Of that | |
| 4103 hope which is in | |
| 4104 you' St. Thomas' reading is apparently taken from Bede]." Sometimes again, it is necessary, in order to convince those who | |
| 4105 are in error, according to | |
| 4106 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A7-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Titus.1.9" target="asv"> Titus 1:9</a>: "That he may be able to exhort in sound doctrine and to convince the gainsayers." | |
| 4107 </p> | |
| 4108 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p11"></p> | |
| 4109 <p id="SS_Q10_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 4110 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A6.html"></a> | |
| 4111 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A8.html"></a> | |
| 4112 </div> | |
| 4113 <div id="SS_Q10_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 4114 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A7.html"></a> | |
| 4115 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A9.html"></a> | |
| 4116 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A8-p0.1">Whether unbelievers ought to be compelled to the faith?</h4> | |
| 4117 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 4118 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p2"> | |
| 4119 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that unbelievers ought by no means to be compelled to the faith. For it is written ( | |
| 4120 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.13.28" target="asv">Mat. 13:28</a>) that the servants of the householder, in whose field cockle had been sown, asked him: "Wilt thou that we go and gather it | |
| 4121 up?" and that he answered: "No, lest perhaps gathering up the cockle, you root up the wheat also together with it": on which | |
| 4122 passage Chrysostom says (Hom. xlvi in Matth.): "Our Lord says this so as to forbid the | |
| 4123 slaying of men. For it is not right to slay heretics, because if you do you will necessarily slay many innocent persons." | |
| 4124 Therefore it seems that for the same reason unbelievers ought not to be compelled to the faith. | |
| 4125 </p> | |
| 4126 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p3"> | |
| 4127 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, we read in the Decretals (Dist. xlv can., De Judaeis): "The holy synod prescribes, with regard to the Jews, that | |
| 4128 for the future, none are to be compelled to believe." Therefore, in like manner, neither should unbelievers be compelled to | |
| 4129 the faith. | |
| 4130 </p> | |
| 4131 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p4"> | |
| 4132 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (Tract. xxvi in Joan.) that "it is possible for a man to do other things against his will, but he | |
| 4133 cannot believe unless he is willing." Therefore it seems that unbelievers ought not to be compelled to the faith. | |
| 4134 </p> | |
| 4135 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p5"> | |
| 4136 <b>Objection 4:</b> It is said in God's person ( | |
| 4137 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.18.32" target="asv">Ezech. 18:32</a> [* | |
| 4138 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A8-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Ezek.33.11" target="asv">Ezech. 33:11</a>]): "I desire not the death of the sinner [Vulg.: 'of him that dieth']." Now we ought to conform our will to the Divine will, | |
| 4139 as stated above ( | |
| 4140 <a id="SS_Q10_A8-p5.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A9.html">FS, Q[19], AA[9]</a>,10). Therefore we should not even wish unbelievers to be put to death. | |
| 4141 </p> | |
| 4142 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p6"> | |
| 4143 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 4144 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A8-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.23" target="asv">Lk. 14:23</a>): "Go out into the highways and hedges; and compel them to come in." Now men enter into the house of God, i.e. into Holy | |
| 4145 Church, by faith. Therefore some ought to be compelled to the faith. | |
| 4146 </p> | |
| 4147 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p7"> | |
| 4148 <b>I answer that,</b> Among unbelievers there are some who have never received the faith, such as the heathens and the Jews: and these are by no | |
| 4149 means to be compelled to the faith, in order that they may believe, because to believe depends on the will: nevertheless they | |
| 4150 should be compelled by the faithful, if it be possible to do so, so that they do not hinder the faith, by their blasphemies, | |
| 4151 or by their evil persuasions, or even by their open persecutions. It is for this reason | |
| 4152 that Christ's faithful often wage war with unbelievers, not indeed for the purpose of forcing them to believe, because even | |
| 4153 if they were to conquer them, and take them prisoners, they should still leave them free to believe, if they will, but in | |
| 4154 order to prevent them from hindering the faith of Christ. | |
| 4155 </p> | |
| 4156 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p8"> On the other hand, there are unbelievers who at some time have accepted the faith, and professed it, such as heretics and | |
| 4157 all apostates: such should be submitted even to bodily compulsion, that they may fulfil what they have promised, and hold | |
| 4158 what they, at one time, received. | |
| 4159 </p> | |
| 4160 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p9"> | |
| 4161 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Some have understood the authority quoted to forbid, not the excommunication but the slaying of heretics, as appears from | |
| 4162 the words of Chrysostom. Augustine too, says (Ep. ad Vincent. xciii) of himself: "It was once my opinion that none should | |
| 4163 be compelled to union with Christ, that we should deal in words, and fight with arguments. However this opinion of mine is | |
| 4164 undone, not by words of contradiction, but by convincing examples. Because fear of the | |
| 4165 law was so profitable, that many say: Thanks be to the Lord Who has broken our chains asunder." Accordingly the meaning of | |
| 4166 Our Lord's words, "Suffer both to grow until the harvest," must be gathered from those which precede, "lest perhaps gathering | |
| 4167 up the cockle, you root the wheat also together with it." For, Augustine says (Contra Ep. Parmen. iii, 2) "these words show | |
| 4168 that when this is not to be feared, that is to say, when a man's crime is so publicly known, and so hateful to all, that he | |
| 4169 has no defenders, or none such as might cause a schism, the severity of discipline should not slacken." | |
| 4170 </p> | |
| 4171 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p10"> | |
| 4172 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Those Jews who have in no way received the faith, ought not by no means to be compelled to the faith: if, however, they have | |
| 4173 received it, they ought to be compelled to keep it, as is stated in the same chapter. | |
| 4174 </p> | |
| 4175 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p11"> | |
| 4176 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as taking a vow is a matter of will, and keeping a vow, a matter of obligation, so acceptance of the faith is a matter | |
| 4177 of the will, whereas keeping the faith, when once one has received it, is a matter of obligation. Wherefore heretics should | |
| 4178 be compelled to keep the faith. Thus Augustine says to the Count Boniface (Ep. clxxxv): "What do these people mean by crying | |
| 4179 out continually: 'We may believe or not believe just as we choose. Whom did Christ | |
| 4180 compel?' They should remember that Christ at first compelled Paul and afterwards taught Him." | |
| 4181 </p> | |
| 4182 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p12"> | |
| 4183 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As Augustine says in the same letter, "none of us wishes any heretic to perish. But the house of David did not deserve to | |
| 4184 have peace, unless his son Absalom had been killed in the war which he had raised against his father. Thus if the Catholic | |
| 4185 Church gathers together some of the perdition of others, she heals the sorrow of her maternal heart by the delivery of so | |
| 4186 many nations." | |
| 4187 </p> | |
| 4188 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p13"></p> | |
| 4189 <p id="SS_Q10_A8-p14"></p> | |
| 4190 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A7.html"></a> | |
| 4191 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A9.html"></a> | |
| 4192 </div> | |
| 4193 <div id="SS_Q10_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 4194 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A8.html"></a> | |
| 4195 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A10.html"></a> | |
| 4196 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A9-p0.1">Whether it is lawful to communicate with unbelievers?</h4> | |
| 4197 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 4198 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p2"> | |
| 4199 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is lawful to communicate with unbelievers. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 4200 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.10.27" target="asv">1 Cor. 10:27</a>): "If any of them that believe not, invite you, and you be willing to go, eat of anything that is set before you." And Chrysostom | |
| 4201 says (Hom. xxv super Epist. ad Heb.): "If you wish to go to dine with pagans, we permit it without any reservation." Now to | |
| 4202 sit at table with anyone is to communicate with him. Therefore it is lawful to | |
| 4203 communicate with unbelievers. | |
| 4204 </p> | |
| 4205 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p3"> | |
| 4206 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 4207 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.5.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 5:12</a>): "What have I to do to judge them that are without?" Now unbelievers are without. When, therefore, the Church forbids the | |
| 4208 faithful to communicate with certain people, it seems that they ought not to be forbidden to communicate with unbelievers. | |
| 4209 </p> | |
| 4210 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p4"> | |
| 4211 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a master cannot employ his servant, unless he communicate with him, at least by word, since the master moves his | |
| 4212 servant by command. Now Christians can have unbelievers, either Jews, or pagans, or Saracens, for servants. Therefore they | |
| 4213 can lawfully communicate with them. | |
| 4214 </p> | |
| 4215 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p5"> | |
| 4216 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 4217 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.7.2" target="asv">Dt. 7:2,3</a>): "Thou shalt make no league with them, nor show mercy to them; neither shalt thou make marriages with them": and a gloss | |
| 4218 on | |
| 4219 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Lev.15.19" target="asv"> Lev. 15:19, </a> "The woman who at the return of the month," etc. says: "It is so necessary to shun idolatry, that we should not come in touch | |
| 4220 with idolaters or their disciples, nor have any dealings with them." | |
| 4221 </p> | |
| 4222 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p6"> | |
| 4223 <b>I answer that,</b> Communication with a particular person is forbidden to the faithful, in two ways: first, as a punishment of the person with | |
| 4224 whom they are forbidden to communicate; secondly, for the safety of those who are forbidden to communicate with others. Both | |
| 4225 motives can be gathered from the Apostle's words ( | |
| 4226 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.5.6" target="asv">1 Cor. 5:6</a>). For after he had pronounced sentence of excommunication, he adds as his reason: "Know you not that a little leaven corrupts | |
| 4227 the | |
| 4228 whole lump?" and afterwards he adds the reason on the part of the punishment inflicted by the sentence of the Church when | |
| 4229 he says ( | |
| 4230 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.5.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 5:12</a>): "Do not you judge them that are within?" | |
| 4231 </p> | |
| 4232 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p7"> Accordingly, in the first way the Church does not forbid the faithful to communicate with unbelievers, who have not in any | |
| 4233 way received the Christian faith, viz. with pagans and Jews, because she has not the right to exercise spiritual judgment | |
| 4234 over them, but only temporal judgment, in the case when, while dwelling among Christians they are guilty of some misdemeanor, | |
| 4235 and are condemned by the faithful to some temporal punishment. On the other hand, in this way, i.e. as a | |
| 4236 punishment, the Church forbids the faithful to communicate with those unbelievers who have forsaken the faith they once received, | |
| 4237 either by corrupting the faith, as heretics, or by entirely renouncing the faith, as apostates, because the Church pronounces | |
| 4238 sentence of excommunication on both. | |
| 4239 </p> | |
| 4240 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p8"> With regard to the second way, it seems that one ought to distinguish according to the various conditions of persons, circumstances | |
| 4241 and time. For some are firm in the faith; and so it is to be hoped that their communicating with unbelievers will lead to | |
| 4242 the conversion of the latter rather than to the aversion of the faithful from the faith. These are not to be forbidden to | |
| 4243 communicate with unbelievers who have not received the faith, such as pagans or Jews, especially if there | |
| 4244 be some urgent necessity for so doing. But in the case of simple people and those who are weak in the faith, whose perversion | |
| 4245 is to be feared as a probable result, they should be forbidden to communicate with unbelievers, and especially to be on very | |
| 4246 familiar terms with them, or to communicate with them without necessity. | |
| 4247 </p> | |
| 4248 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p9"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 4249 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p10"> | |
| 4250 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The Church does not exercise judgment against unbelievers in the point of inflicting spiritual punishment on them: but she | |
| 4251 does exercise judgment over some of them in the matter of temporal punishment. It is under this head that sometimes the Church, | |
| 4252 for certain special sins, withdraws the faithful from communication with certain unbelievers. | |
| 4253 </p> | |
| 4254 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p11"> | |
| 4255 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There is more probability that a servant who is ruled by his master's commands, will be converted to the faith of his master | |
| 4256 who is a believer, than if the case were the reverse: and so the faithful are not forbidden to have unbelieving servants. | |
| 4257 If, however, the master were in danger, through communicating with such a servant, he should send him away, according to Our | |
| 4258 Lord's command ( | |
| 4259 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.8" target="asv">Mat. 18:8</a>): "If . . . thy foot scandalize thee, | |
| 4260 cut it off, and cast it from thee." | |
| 4261 </p> | |
| 4262 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p12"> With regard to the argument in the contrary [*The Leonine Edition gives this solution before the Reply OBJ 2] sense the reply | |
| 4263 is that the Lord gave this command in reference to those nations into whose territory the Jews were about to enter. For the | |
| 4264 latter were inclined to idolatry, so that it was to be feared lest, through frequent dealings with those nations, they should | |
| 4265 be estranged from the faith: hence the text goes on ( | |
| 4266 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A9-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.7.4" target="asv">Dt. 7:4</a>): "For she will turn away | |
| 4267 thy son from following Me." | |
| 4268 </p> | |
| 4269 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p13"></p> | |
| 4270 <p id="SS_Q10_A9-p14"></p> | |
| 4271 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A8.html"></a> | |
| 4272 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A10.html"></a> | |
| 4273 </div> | |
| 4274 <div id="SS_Q10_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 4275 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A9.html"></a> | |
| 4276 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A11.html"></a> | |
| 4277 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A10-p0.1">Whether unbelievers may have authority or dominion over the faithful?</h4> | |
| 4278 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 4279 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p2"> | |
| 4280 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that unbelievers may have authority or dominion over the faithful. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 4281 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.6.1" target="asv">1 Tim. 6:1</a>): "Whosoever are servants under the yoke, let them count their masters worthy of all honor": and it is clear that he is speaking | |
| 4282 of unbelievers, since he adds ( | |
| 4283 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p2.2" href="./asv.html#iTim.6.2" target="asv">1 Tim. 6:2</a>): "But they that have believing masters, let them not despise them." Moreover it is written ( | |
| 4284 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p2.3" href="./asv.html#iPet.2.18" target="asv">1 Pet. 2:18</a>): "Servants | |
| 4285 be subject to your masters with all fear, not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward." Now this command would | |
| 4286 not be contained in the apostolic teaching unless unbelievers could have authority over the faithful. Therefore it seems that | |
| 4287 unbelievers can have authority over the faithful. | |
| 4288 </p> | |
| 4289 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p3"> | |
| 4290 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, all the members of a prince's household are his subjects. Now some of the faithful were members of unbelieving princes' | |
| 4291 households, for we read in the Epistle to the Philippians (4:22): "All the saints salute you, especially they that are of | |
| 4292 Caesar's household," referring to Nero, who was an unbeliever. Therefore unbelievers can have authority over the faithful. | |
| 4293 </p> | |
| 4294 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p4"> | |
| 4295 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to the Philosopher (Polit. i, 2) a slave is his master's instrument in matters concerning everyday life, | |
| 4296 even as a craftsman's laborer is his instrument in matters concerning the working of his art. Now, in such matters, a believer | |
| 4297 can be subject to an unbeliever, for he may work on an unbeliever's farm. Therefore unbelievers may have authority over the | |
| 4298 faithful even as to dominion. | |
| 4299 </p> | |
| 4300 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p5"> | |
| 4301 <b>On the contrary,</b> Those who are in authority can pronounce judgment on those over whom they are placed. But unbelievers cannot pronounce judgment | |
| 4302 on the faithful, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 4303 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.6.1" target="asv">1 Cor. 6:1</a>): "Dare any of you, having a matter against another, go to be judged before the unjust," i.e. unbelievers, "and not before | |
| 4304 the saints?" Therefore it seems that unbelievers cannot have authority over the faithful. | |
| 4305 </p> | |
| 4306 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p6"> | |
| 4307 <b>I answer that,</b> That this question may be considered in two ways. First, we may speak of dominion or authority of unbelievers over the faithful | |
| 4308 as of a thing to be established for the first time. This ought by no means to be allowed, since it would provoke scandal and | |
| 4309 endanger the faith, for subjects are easily influenced by their superiors to comply with their commands, unless the subjects | |
| 4310 are of great virtue: moreover unbelievers hold the faith in contempt, if they see | |
| 4311 the faithful fall away. Hence the Apostle forbade the faithful to go to law before an unbelieving judge. And so the Church | |
| 4312 altogether forbids unbelievers to acquire dominion over believers, or to have authority over them in any capacity whatever. | |
| 4313 </p> | |
| 4314 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p7"> Secondly, we may speak of dominion or authority, as already in force: and here we must observe that dominion and authority | |
| 4315 are institutions of human law, while the distinction between faithful and unbelievers arises from the Divine law. Now the | |
| 4316 Divine law which is the law of grace, does not do away with human law which is the law of natural reason. Wherefore the distinction | |
| 4317 between faithful and unbelievers, considered in itself, does not do away with dominion and authority of | |
| 4318 unbelievers over the faithful. | |
| 4319 </p> | |
| 4320 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p8"> Nevertheless this right of dominion or authority can be justly done away with by the sentence or ordination of the Church | |
| 4321 who has the authority of God: since unbelievers in virtue of their unbelief deserve to forfeit their power over the faithful | |
| 4322 who are converted into children of God. | |
| 4323 </p> | |
| 4324 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p9"> This the Church does sometimes, and sometimes not. For among those unbelievers who are subject, even in temporal matters, | |
| 4325 to the Church and her members, the Church made the law that if the slave of a Jew became a Christian, he should forthwith | |
| 4326 receive his freedom, without paying any price, if he should be a "vernaculus," i.e. born in slavery; and likewise if, when | |
| 4327 yet an unbeliever, he had been bought for his service: if, however, he had been bought for sale, then he should be | |
| 4328 offered for sale within three months. Nor does the Church harm them in this, because since those Jews themselves are subject | |
| 4329 to the Church, she can dispose of their possessions, even as secular princes have enacted many laws to be observed by their | |
| 4330 subjects, in favor of liberty. On the other hand, the Church has not applied the above law to those unbelievers who are not | |
| 4331 subject to her or her members, in temporal matters, although she has the right to do so: and this, in order to avoid scandal, | |
| 4332 for as Our Lord showed ( | |
| 4333 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.17.25" target="asv">Mat. 17:25,26</a>) that He could be excused from paying the tribute, because "the children are free," yet He ordered the tribute to be paid | |
| 4334 in order to avoid giving scandal. Thus Paul too, after saying that servants should honor their masters, adds, "lest the name | |
| 4335 of the Lord and His doctrine be blasphemed." | |
| 4336 </p> | |
| 4337 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p10"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 4338 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p11"> | |
| 4339 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The authority of Caesar preceded the distinction of faithful from unbelievers. Hence it was not cancelled by the conversion | |
| 4340 of some to the faith. Moreover it was a good thing that there should be a few of the faithful in the emperor's household, | |
| 4341 that they might defend the rest of the faithful. Thus the Blessed Sebastian encouraged those whom he saw faltering under torture, | |
| 4342 and, the while, remained hidden under the military cloak in the palace of | |
| 4343 Diocletian. | |
| 4344 </p> | |
| 4345 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p12"> | |
| 4346 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Slaves are subject to their masters for their whole lifetime, and are subject to their overseers in everything: whereas the | |
| 4347 craftsman's laborer is subject to him for certain special works. Hence it would be more dangerous for unbelievers to have | |
| 4348 dominion or authority over the faithful, than that they should be allowed to employ them in some craft. Wherefore the Church | |
| 4349 permits Christians to work on the land of Jews, because this does not entail their | |
| 4350 living together with them. Thus Solomon besought the King of Tyre to send master workmen to hew the trees, as related in | |
| 4351 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A10-p12.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">3 Kings 5:6.</a> Yet, if there be reason to fear that the faithful will be perverted by such communications and dealings, they should be absolutely | |
| 4352 forbidden. | |
| 4353 </p> | |
| 4354 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p13"></p> | |
| 4355 <p id="SS_Q10_A10-p14"></p> | |
| 4356 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A9.html"></a> | |
| 4357 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A11.html"></a> | |
| 4358 </div> | |
| 4359 <div id="SS_Q10_A11" class="div4"> | |
| 4360 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A10.html"></a> | |
| 4361 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A12.html"></a> | |
| 4362 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A11-p0.1">Whether the rites of unbelievers ought to be tolerated?</h4> | |
| 4363 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p1"></p> | |
| 4364 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p2"> | |
| 4365 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that rites of unbelievers ought not to be tolerated. For it is evident that unbelievers sin in observing their | |
| 4366 rites: and not to prevent a sin, when one can, seems to imply consent therein, as a gloss observes on | |
| 4367 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A11-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.32" target="asv"> Rom. 1:32</a>: "Not only they that do them, but they also that consent to them that do them." Therefore it is a sin to tolerate their rites. | |
| 4368 </p> | |
| 4369 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p3"> | |
| 4370 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the rites of the Jews are compared to idolatry, because a gloss on | |
| 4371 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A11-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.1" target="asv"> Gal. 5:1, </a> "Be not held again under the yoke of bondage," says: "The bondage of that law was not lighter than that of idolatry." But | |
| 4372 it would not be allowable for anyone to observe the rites of idolatry, in fact Christian princes at first caused the temples | |
| 4373 of idols to be closed, and afterwards, to be destroyed, as Augustine relates (De Civ. Dei xviii, 54). | |
| 4374 Therefore it follows that even the rites of Jews ought not to be tolerated. | |
| 4375 </p> | |
| 4376 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p4"> | |
| 4377 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, unbelief is the greatest of sins, as stated above (A[3] ). Now other sins such as adultery, theft and the like, | |
| 4378 are not tolerated, but are punishable by law. Therefore neither ought the rites of unbelievers to be tolerated. | |
| 4379 </p> | |
| 4380 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p5"> | |
| 4381 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory [*Regist. xi, | |
| 4382 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A11-p5.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">Ep. 15</a>: cf. Decret., dist. xlv, can., Qui sincera] says, speaking of the Jews: "They should be allowed to observe all their feasts, | |
| 4383 just as hitherto they and their fathers have for ages observed them." | |
| 4384 </p> | |
| 4385 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p6"> | |
| 4386 <b>I answer that,</b> Human government is derived from the Divine government, and should imitate it. Now although God is all-powerful and supremely | |
| 4387 good, nevertheless He allows certain evils to take place in the universe, which He might prevent, lest, without them, greater | |
| 4388 goods might be forfeited, or greater evils ensue. Accordingly in human government also, those who are in authority, rightly | |
| 4389 tolerate certain evils, lest certain goods be lost, or certain greater evils be | |
| 4390 incurred: thus Augustine says (De Ordine ii, 4): "If you do away with harlots, the world will be convulsed with lust." Hence, | |
| 4391 though unbelievers sin in their rites, they may be tolerated, either on account of some good that ensues therefrom, or because | |
| 4392 of some evil avoided. Thus from the fact that the Jews observe their rites, which, of old, foreshadowed the truth of the faith | |
| 4393 which we hold, there follows this good---that our very enemies bear witness to our faith, and that our faith is | |
| 4394 represented in a figure, so to speak. For this reason they are tolerated in the observance of their rites. | |
| 4395 </p> | |
| 4396 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p7"> On the other hand, the rites of other unbelievers, which are neither truthful nor profitable are by no means to be tolerated, | |
| 4397 except perchance in order to avoid an evil, e.g. the scandal or disturbance that might ensue, or some hindrance to the salvation | |
| 4398 of those who if they were unmolested might gradually be converted to the faith. For this reason the Church, at times, has | |
| 4399 tolerated the rites even of heretics and pagans, when unbelievers were very numerous. | |
| 4400 </p> | |
| 4401 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p8"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 4402 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p9"></p> | |
| 4403 <p id="SS_Q10_A11-p10"></p> | |
| 4404 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A10.html"></a> | |
| 4405 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A12.html"></a> | |
| 4406 </div> | |
| 4407 <div id="SS_Q10_A12" class="div4"> | |
| 4408 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A11.html"></a> | |
| 4409 <a href="summa.SS_Q11.html"></a> | |
| 4410 <h4 id="SS_Q10_A12-p0.1">Whether the children of Jews and other unbelievers ought to be baptized against their parents' will?</h4> | |
| 4411 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p1"></p> | |
| 4412 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p2"> | |
| 4413 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the children of Jews and of other unbelievers ought to be baptized against their parents' will. For the | |
| 4414 bond of marriage is stronger than the right of parental authority over children, since the right of parental authority can | |
| 4415 be made to cease, when a son is set at liberty; whereas the marriage bond cannot be severed by man, according to | |
| 4416 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A12-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.19.6" target="asv"> Mat. 19:6</a>: "What . . . God hath joined together let no man put asunder." And yet the | |
| 4417 marriage bond is broken on account of unbelief: for the Apostle says ( | |
| 4418 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A12-p2.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.7.15" target="asv">1 Cor. 7:15</a>): "If the unbeliever depart, let him depart. For a brother or sister is not under servitude in such cases": and a canon [*Can. | |
| 4419 Uxor legitima, and Idololatria, qu. i] says that "if the unbelieving partner is unwilling to abide with the other, without | |
| 4420 insult to their Creator, then the other partner is not bound to cohabitation." Much more, therefore, does unbelief abrogate | |
| 4421 the right of | |
| 4422 unbelieving parents' authority over their children: and consequently their children may be baptized against their parents' | |
| 4423 will. | |
| 4424 </p> | |
| 4425 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p3"> | |
| 4426 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, one is more bound to succor a man who is in danger of everlasting death, than one who is in danger of temporal death. | |
| 4427 Now it would be a sin, if one saw a man in danger of temporal death and failed to go to his aid. Since, then, the children | |
| 4428 of Jews and other unbelievers are in danger of everlasting death, should they be left to their parents who would imbue them | |
| 4429 with their unbelief, it seems that they ought to be taken away from them and baptized, and | |
| 4430 instructed in the faith. | |
| 4431 </p> | |
| 4432 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p4"> | |
| 4433 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the children of a bondsman are themselves bondsmen, and under the power of his master. Now the Jews are bondsmen | |
| 4434 of kings and princes: therefore their children are also. Consequently kings and princes have the power to do what they will | |
| 4435 with Jewish children. Therefore no injustice is committed if they baptize them against their parents' wishes. | |
| 4436 </p> | |
| 4437 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p5"> | |
| 4438 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, every man belongs more to God, from Whom he has his soul, than to his carnal father, from whom he has his body. | |
| 4439 Therefore it is not unjust if Jewish children be taken away from their parents, and consecrated to God in Baptism. | |
| 4440 </p> | |
| 4441 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p6"> | |
| 4442 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, Baptism avails for salvation more than preaching does, since Baptism removes forthwith the stain of sin and the | |
| 4443 debt of punishment, and opens the gate of heaven. Now if danger ensue through not preaching, it is imputed to him who omitted | |
| 4444 to preach, according to the words of | |
| 4445 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A12-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.33.6" target="asv"> Ezech. 33:6 </a>about the man who "sees the sword coming and sounds not the trumpet." Much more therefore, if Jewish children are lost through | |
| 4446 not being baptized | |
| 4447 are they accounted guilty of sin, who could have baptized them and did not. | |
| 4448 </p> | |
| 4449 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p7"> | |
| 4450 <b>On the contrary,</b> Injustice should be done to no man. Now it would be an injustice to Jews if their children were to be baptized against their | |
| 4451 will, since they would lose the rights of parental authority over their children as soon as these were Christians. Therefore | |
| 4452 these should not be baptized against their parents' will. | |
| 4453 </p> | |
| 4454 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p8"> | |
| 4455 <b>I answer that,</b> The custom of the Church has very great authority and ought to be jealously observed in all things, since the very doctrine | |
| 4456 of catholic doctors derives its authority from the Church. Hence we ought to abide by the authority of the Church rather than | |
| 4457 by that of an Augustine or a Jerome or of any doctor whatever. Now it was never the custom of the Church to baptize the children | |
| 4458 of the Jews against the will of their parents, although at times past there have | |
| 4459 been many very powerful catholic princes like Constantine and Theodosius, with whom most holy bishops have been on most friendly | |
| 4460 terms, as Sylvester with Constantine, and Ambrose with Theodosius, who would certainly not have failed to obtain this favor | |
| 4461 from them if it had been at all reasonable. It seems therefore hazardous to repeat this assertion, that the children of Jews | |
| 4462 should be baptized against their parents' wishes, in contradiction to the Church's custom observed hitherto. | |
| 4463 </p> | |
| 4464 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p9"> There are two reasons for this custom. One is on account of the danger to the faith. For children baptized before coming | |
| 4465 to the use of reason, afterwards when they come to perfect age, might easily be persuaded by their parents to renounce what | |
| 4466 they had unknowingly embraced; and this would be detrimental to the faith. | |
| 4467 </p> | |
| 4468 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p10"> The other reason is that it is against natural justice. For a child is by nature part of its father: thus, at first, it is | |
| 4469 not distinct from its parents as to its body, so long as it is enfolded within its mother's womb; and later on after birth, | |
| 4470 and before it has the use of its free-will, it is enfolded in the care of its parents, which is like a spiritual womb, for | |
| 4471 so long as man has not the use of reason, he differs not from an irrational animal; so that even as an ox or a | |
| 4472 horse belongs to someone who, according to the civil law, can use them when he likes, as his own instrument, so, according | |
| 4473 to the natural law, a son, before coming to the use of reason, is under his father's care. Hence it would be contrary to natural | |
| 4474 justice, if a child, before coming to the use of reason, were to be taken away from its parents' custody, or anything done | |
| 4475 to it against its parents' wish. As soon, however, as it begins to have the use of its free-will, it begins to belong to | |
| 4476 itself, and is able to look after itself, in matters concerning the Divine or the natural law, and then it should be induced, | |
| 4477 not by compulsion but by persuasion, to embrace the faith: it can then consent to the faith, and be baptized, even against | |
| 4478 its parents' wish; but not before it comes to the use of reason. Hence it is said of the children of the fathers of old that | |
| 4479 they were saved in the faith of their parents; whereby we are given to understand that it is the parents' duty to look after | |
| 4480 the salvation of their children, especially before they come to the use of reason. | |
| 4481 </p> | |
| 4482 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p11"> | |
| 4483 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the marriage bond, both husband and wife have the use of the free-will, and each can assent to the faith without the other's | |
| 4484 consent. But this does not apply to a child before it comes to the use of reason: yet the comparison holds good after the | |
| 4485 child has come to the use of reason, if it is willing to be converted. | |
| 4486 </p> | |
| 4487 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p12"> | |
| 4488 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> No one should be snatched from natural death against the order of civil law: for instance, if a man were condemned by the | |
| 4489 judge to temporal death, nobody ought to rescue him by violence: hence no one ought to break the order of the natural law, | |
| 4490 whereby a child is in the custody of its father, in order to rescue it from the danger of everlasting death. | |
| 4491 </p> | |
| 4492 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p13"> | |
| 4493 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Jews are bondsmen of princes by civil bondage, which does not exclude the order of natural or Divine law. | |
| 4494 </p> | |
| 4495 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p14"> | |
| 4496 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Man is directed to God by his reason, whereby he can know Him. Hence a child before coming to the use of reason, in the natural | |
| 4497 order of things, is directed to God by its parents' reason, under whose care it lies by nature: and it is for them to dispose | |
| 4498 of the child in all matters relating to God. | |
| 4499 </p> | |
| 4500 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p15"> | |
| 4501 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The peril that ensues from the omission of preaching, threatens only those who are entrusted with the duty of preaching. | |
| 4502 Hence it had already been said ( | |
| 4503 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q10_A12-p15.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.3.17" target="asv">Ezech. 3:17</a>): "I have made thee a watchman to the children [Vulg.: 'house'] of Israel." On the other hand, to provide the sacraments | |
| 4504 of salvation for the children of unbelievers is the duty of their parents. Hence it is they whom the danger threatens, if | |
| 4505 through being deprived of | |
| 4506 the sacraments their children fail to obtain salvation. | |
| 4507 </p> | |
| 4508 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p16"></p> | |
| 4509 <p id="SS_Q10_A12-p17"></p> | |
| 4510 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A11.html"></a> | |
| 4511 <a href="summa.SS_Q11.html"></a> | |
| 4512 </div> | |
| 4513 <a href="summa.SS_Q9_A4.html"></a> | |
| 4514 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4515 </div> | |
| 4516 <div id="SS_Q11" class="div3"> | |
| 4517 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A12.html"></a> | |
| 4518 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4519 <h3 id="SS_Q11-p0.1">OF HERESY (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 4520 <p id="SS_Q11-p1"></p> | |
| 4521 <p id="SS_Q11-p2"> We must now consider heresy: under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 4522 <p id="SS_Q11-p3"> (1) Whether heresy is a kind of unbelief?</p> | |
| 4523 <p id="SS_Q11-p4"> (2) Of the matter about which it is;</p> | |
| 4524 <p id="SS_Q11-p5"> (3) Whether heretics should be tolerated?</p> | |
| 4525 <p id="SS_Q11-p6"> (4) Whether converts should be received?</p> | |
| 4526 <div id="SS_Q11_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 4527 <a href="summa.SS_Q11.html"></a> | |
| 4528 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4529 <h4 id="SS_Q11_A1-p0.1">Whether heresy is a species of unbelief?</h4> | |
| 4530 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 4531 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p2"> | |
| 4532 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that heresy is not a species of unbelief. For unbelief is in the understanding, as stated above (Q[10], A[2]). | |
| 4533 Now heresy would seem not to pertain to the understanding, but rather to the appetitive power; for Jerome says on | |
| 4534 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.19" target="asv"> Gal. 5:19</a>: [*Cf. Decretals xxiv, qu. iii, cap. 27] "The works of the flesh are manifest: Heresy is derived from a Greek word meaning | |
| 4535 choice, whereby a man makes choice of that school which he deems best." | |
| 4536 But choice is an act of the appetitive power, as stated above ( | |
| 4537 <a id="SS_Q11_A1-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html">FS, Q[13], A[1]</a>). Therefore heresy is not a species of unbelief. | |
| 4538 </p> | |
| 4539 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p3"> | |
| 4540 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, vice takes its species chiefly from its end; hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 2) that "he who commits adultery | |
| 4541 that he may steal, is a thief rather than an adulterer." Now the end of heresy is temporal profit, especially lordship and | |
| 4542 glory, which belong to the vice of pride or covetousness: for Augustine says (De Util. Credendi i) that "a heretic is one | |
| 4543 who either devises or follows false and new opinions, for the sake of some temporal profit, | |
| 4544 especially that he may lord and be honored above others." Therefore heresy is a species of pride rather than of unbelief. | |
| 4545 </p> | |
| 4546 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p4"> | |
| 4547 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since unbelief is in the understanding, it would seem not to pertain to the flesh. Now heresy belongs to the works | |
| 4548 of the flesh, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 4549 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.19" target="asv">Gal. 5:19</a>): "The works of the flesh are manifest, which are fornication, uncleanness," and among the others, he adds, "dissensions, | |
| 4550 sects," which are the same as heresies. Therefore heresy is not a species of unbelief. | |
| 4551 </p> | |
| 4552 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p5"> | |
| 4553 <b>On the contrary,</b> Falsehood is contrary to truth. Now a heretic is one who devises or follows false or new opinions. Therefore heresy is opposed | |
| 4554 to the truth, on which faith is founded; and consequently it is a species of unbelief. | |
| 4555 </p> | |
| 4556 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p6"> | |
| 4557 <b>I answer that,</b> The word heresy as stated in the first objection denotes a choosing. Now choice as stated above ( | |
| 4558 <a id="SS_Q11_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html">FS, Q[13], A[3]</a>) is about things directed to the end, the end being presupposed. Now, in matters of faith, the will assents to some truth, | |
| 4559 as to its proper good, as was shown above (Q[4], A[3]): wherefore that which is the chief truth, has the character of last | |
| 4560 end, while those which are secondary truths, have the character of being | |
| 4561 directed to the end. | |
| 4562 </p> | |
| 4563 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p7"> Now, whoever believes, assents to someone's words; so that, in every form of unbelief, the person to whose words assent is | |
| 4564 given seems to hold the chief place and to be the end as it were; while the things by holding which one assents to that person | |
| 4565 hold a secondary place. Consequently he that holds the Christian faith aright, assents, by his will, to Christ, in those things | |
| 4566 which truly belong to His doctrine. | |
| 4567 </p> | |
| 4568 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p8"> Accordingly there are two ways in which a man may deviate from the rectitude of the Christian faith. First, because he is | |
| 4569 unwilling to assent to Christ: and such a man has an evil will, so to say, in respect of the very end. This belongs to the | |
| 4570 species of unbelief in pagans and Jews. Secondly, because, though he intends to assent to Christ, yet he fails in his choice | |
| 4571 of those things wherein he assents to Christ, because he chooses not what Christ really taught, but the | |
| 4572 suggestions of his own mind. | |
| 4573 </p> | |
| 4574 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p9"> Therefore heresy is a species of unbelief, belonging to those who profess the Christian faith, but corrupt its dogmas.</p> | |
| 4575 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p10"> | |
| 4576 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Choice regards unbelief in the same way as the will regards faith, as stated above. | |
| 4577 </p> | |
| 4578 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p11"> | |
| 4579 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Vices take their species from their proximate end, while, from their remote end, they take their genus and cause. Thus in | |
| 4580 the case of adultery committed for the sake of theft, there is the species of adultery taken from its proper end and object; | |
| 4581 but the ultimate end shows that the act of adultery is both the result of the theft, and is included under it, as an effect | |
| 4582 under its cause, or a species under its genus, as appears from what we have said | |
| 4583 about acts in general ( | |
| 4584 <a id="SS_Q11_A1-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html">FS, Q[18], A[7]</a>). Wherefore, as to the case in point also, the proximate end of heresy is adherence to one's own false opinion, and from | |
| 4585 this it derives its species, while its remote end reveals its cause, viz. that it arises from pride or covetousness. | |
| 4586 </p> | |
| 4587 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p12"> | |
| 4588 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as heresy is so called from its being a choosing [*From the Greek {airein} [hairein], to cut off], so does sect derive | |
| 4589 its name from its being a cutting off [secando], as Isidore states (Etym. viii, 3). Wherefore heresy and sect are the same | |
| 4590 thing, and each belongs to the works of the flesh, not indeed by reason of the act itself of unbelief in respect of its proximate | |
| 4591 object, but by reason of its cause, which is either the desire of an undue end | |
| 4592 in which way it arises from pride or covetousness, as stated in the second objection, or some illusion of the imagination | |
| 4593 (which gives rise to error, as the Philosopher states in Metaph. iv; Ed. Did. iii, 5), for this faculty has a certain connection | |
| 4594 with the flesh, in as much as its act is independent on a bodily organ. | |
| 4595 </p> | |
| 4596 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 4597 <p id="SS_Q11_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 4598 <a href="summa.SS_Q11.html"></a> | |
| 4599 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4600 </div> | |
| 4601 <div id="SS_Q11_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 4602 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4603 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A3.html"></a> | |
| 4604 <h4 id="SS_Q11_A2-p0.1">Whether heresy is properly about matters of faith?</h4> | |
| 4605 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 4606 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p2"> | |
| 4607 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that heresy is not properly about matters of faith. For just as there are heresies and sects among Christians, | |
| 4608 so were there among the Jews, and Pharisees, as Isidore observes (Etym. viii, 3,4,5). Now their dissensions were not about | |
| 4609 matters of faith. Therefore heresy is not about matters of faith, as though they were its proper matter. | |
| 4610 </p> | |
| 4611 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p3"> | |
| 4612 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the matter of faith is the thing believed. Now heresy is not only about things, but also about works, and about | |
| 4613 interpretations of Holy Writ. For Jerome says on | |
| 4614 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv"> Gal. 5:20 </a>that "whoever expounds the Scriptures in any sense but that of the Holy Ghost by Whom they were written, may be called a heretic, | |
| 4615 though he may not have left the Church": and elsewhere he says that "heresies spring up from words spoken amiss." [*St. Thomas | |
| 4616 quotes | |
| 4617 this saying elsewhere, in Sent. iv, D, 13, and | |
| 4618 <a id="SS_Q11_A2-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.TP_Q16_A8.html">TP, Q[16], A[8]</a>, but it is not to be found in St. Jerome's works.] Therefore heresy is not properly about the matter of faith. | |
| 4619 </p> | |
| 4620 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p4"> | |
| 4621 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, we find the holy doctors differing even about matters pertaining to the faith, for example Augustine and Jerome, | |
| 4622 on the question about the cessation of the legal observances: and yet this was without any heresy on their part. Therefore | |
| 4623 heresy is not properly about the matter of faith. | |
| 4624 </p> | |
| 4625 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p5"> | |
| 4626 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says against the Manichees [*Cf. De Civ. Dei xviii, 51]: "In Christ's Church, those are heretics, who hold mischievous | |
| 4627 and erroneous opinions, and when rebuked that they may think soundly and rightly, offer a stubborn resistance, and, refusing | |
| 4628 to mend their pernicious and deadly doctrines, persist in defending them." Now pernicious and deadly doctrines are none but | |
| 4629 those which are contrary to the dogmas of faith, whereby "the just man liveth" | |
| 4630 ( | |
| 4631 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.17" target="asv">Rom. 1:17</a>). Therefore heresy is about matters of faith, as about its proper matter. | |
| 4632 </p> | |
| 4633 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p6"> | |
| 4634 <b>I answer that,</b> We are speaking of heresy now as denoting a corruption of the Christian faith. Now it does not imply a corruption of the | |
| 4635 Christian faith, if a man has a false opinion in matters that are not of faith, for instance, in questions of geometry and | |
| 4636 so forth, which cannot belong to the faith by any means; but only when a person has a false opinion about things belonging | |
| 4637 to the faith. | |
| 4638 </p> | |
| 4639 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p7"> Now a thing may be of the faith in two ways, as stated above ( | |
| 4640 <a id="SS_Q11_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q32_A4.html">FP, Q[32], A[4]</a>; | |
| 4641 <a id="SS_Q11_A2-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A6.html">FS, Q[1], A[6]</a>, ad 1; | |
| 4642 <a id="SS_Q11_A2-p7.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q2_A5.html">FS, Q[2], A[5]</a>), in one way, directly and principally, e.g. the articles of faith; in another way, indirectly and secondarily, e.g. those | |
| 4643 matters, the denial of which leads to the corruption of some article of faith; and there may be heresy in either way, even | |
| 4644 as there can be faith. | |
| 4645 </p> | |
| 4646 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p8"> | |
| 4647 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Just as the heresies of the Jews and Pharisees were about opinions relating to Judaism or Pharisaism, so also heresies among | |
| 4648 Christians are about matter touching the Christian faith. | |
| 4649 </p> | |
| 4650 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p9"> | |
| 4651 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A man is said to expound Holy Writ in another sense than that required by the Holy Ghost, when he so distorts the meaning | |
| 4652 of Holy Writ, that it is contrary to what the Holy Ghost has revealed. Hence it is written ( | |
| 4653 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.13.6" target="asv">Ezech. 13:6</a>) about the false prophets: "They have persisted to confirm what they have said," viz. by false interpretations of Scripture. | |
| 4654 Moreover a man professes his faith by the words that he utters, since confession is | |
| 4655 an act of faith, as stated above ( | |
| 4656 <a id="SS_Q11_A2-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html">Q[3], A[1]</a> ). Wherefore inordinate words about matters of faith may lead to corruption of the faith; and hence it is that Pope Leo says | |
| 4657 in a letter to Proterius, Bishop of Alexandria: "The enemies of Christ's cross lie in wait for our every deed and word, so | |
| 4658 that, if we but give them the slightest pretext, they may accuse us mendaciously of agreeing with Nestorius." | |
| 4659 </p> | |
| 4660 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p10"> | |
| 4661 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says (Ep. xliii) and we find it stated in the Decretals (xxiv, qu. 3, can. Dixit Apostolus): "By no means should | |
| 4662 we accuse of heresy those who, however false and perverse their opinion may be, defend it without obstinate fervor, and seek | |
| 4663 the truth with careful anxiety, ready to mend their opinion, when they have found the truth," because, to wit, they do not | |
| 4664 make a choice in contradiction to the doctrine of the Church. Accordingly, | |
| 4665 certain doctors seem to have differed either in matters the holding of which in this or that way is of no consequence, so | |
| 4666 far as faith is concerned, or even in matters of faith, which were not as yet defined by the Church; although if anyone were | |
| 4667 obstinately to deny them after they had been defined by the authority of the universal Church, he would be deemed a heretic. | |
| 4668 This authority resides chiefly in the Sovereign Pontiff. For we read [*Decret. xxiv, qu. 1, can. Quoties]: "Whenever a question | |
| 4669 of faith is in dispute, I think, that all our brethren and fellow bishops ought to refer the matter to none other than Peter, | |
| 4670 as being the source of their name and honor, against whose authority neither Jerome nor Augustine nor any of the holy doctors | |
| 4671 defended their opinion." Hence Jerome says (Exposit. Symbol [*Among the supposititious works of St. Jerome]): "This, most | |
| 4672 blessed Pope, is the faith that we have been taught in the Catholic Church. If anything therein has been incorrectly or | |
| 4673 carelessly expressed, we beg that it may be set aright by you who hold the faith and see of Peter. If however this, our profession, | |
| 4674 be approved by the judgment of your apostleship, whoever may blame me, will prove that he himself is ignorant, or malicious, | |
| 4675 or even not a catholic but a heretic." | |
| 4676 </p> | |
| 4677 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 4678 <p id="SS_Q11_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 4679 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4680 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A3.html"></a> | |
| 4681 </div> | |
| 4682 <div id="SS_Q11_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 4683 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4684 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A4.html"></a> | |
| 4685 <h4 id="SS_Q11_A3-p0.1">Whether heretics ought to be tolerated?</h4> | |
| 4686 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 4687 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p2"> | |
| 4688 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that heretics ought to be tolerated. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 4689 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.24" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:24,25</a>): "The servant of the Lord must not wrangle . . . with modesty admonishing them that resist the truth, if peradventure God | |
| 4690 may give them repentance to know the truth, and they may recover themselves from the snares of the devil." Now if heretics | |
| 4691 are not tolerated but put to death, they lose the opportunity of repentance. Therefore it seems contrary to the | |
| 4692 Apostle's command. | |
| 4693 </p> | |
| 4694 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p3"> | |
| 4695 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is necessary in the Church should be tolerated. Now heresies are necessary in the Church, since the Apostle | |
| 4696 says ( | |
| 4697 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.19" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:19</a>): "There must be . . . heresies, that they . . . who are reproved, may be manifest among you." Therefore it seems that heretics | |
| 4698 should be tolerated. | |
| 4699 </p> | |
| 4700 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p4"> | |
| 4701 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Master commanded his servants ( | |
| 4702 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.13.30" target="asv">Mat. 13:30</a>) to suffer the cockle "to grow until the harvest," i.e. the end of the world, as a gloss explains it. Now holy men explain | |
| 4703 that the cockle denotes heretics. Therefore heretics should be tolerated. | |
| 4704 </p> | |
| 4705 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p5"> | |
| 4706 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 4707 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Titus.3.10" target="asv">Titus 3:10,11</a>): "A man that is a heretic, after the first and second admonition, avoid: knowing that he, that is such an one, is subverted." | |
| 4708 </p> | |
| 4709 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p6"> | |
| 4710 <b>I answer that,</b> With regard to heretics two points must be observed: one, on their own side; the other, on the side of the Church. On their | |
| 4711 own side there is the sin, whereby they deserve not only to be separated from the Church by excommunication, but also to be | |
| 4712 severed from the world by death. For it is a much graver matter to corrupt the faith which quickens the soul, than to forge | |
| 4713 money, which supports temporal life. Wherefore if forgers of money and other evil-doers | |
| 4714 are forthwith condemned to death by the secular authority, much more reason is there for heretics, as soon as they are convicted | |
| 4715 of heresy, to be not only excommunicated but even put to death. | |
| 4716 </p> | |
| 4717 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p7"> On the part of the Church, however, there is mercy which looks to the conversion of the wanderer, wherefore she condemns | |
| 4718 not at once, but "after the first and second admonition," as the Apostle directs: after that, if he is yet stubborn, the Church | |
| 4719 no longer hoping for his conversion, looks to the salvation of others, by excommunicating him and separating him from the | |
| 4720 Church, and furthermore delivers him to the secular tribunal to be exterminated thereby from the world by death. | |
| 4721 For Jerome commenting on | |
| 4722 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.9" target="asv"> Gal. 5:9, </a> "A little leaven," says: "Cut off the decayed flesh, expel the mangy sheep from the fold, lest the whole house, the whole | |
| 4723 paste, the whole body, the whole flock, burn, perish, rot, die. Arius was but one spark in Alexandria, but as that spark was | |
| 4724 not at once put out, the whole earth was laid waste by its flame." | |
| 4725 </p> | |
| 4726 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p8"> | |
| 4727 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This very modesty demands that the heretic should be admonished a first and second time: and if he be unwilling to retract, | |
| 4728 he must be reckoned as already "subverted," as we may gather from the words of the Apostle quoted above. | |
| 4729 </p> | |
| 4730 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p9"> | |
| 4731 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The profit that ensues from heresy is beside the intention of heretics, for it consists in the constancy of the faithful | |
| 4732 being put to the test, and "makes us shake off our sluggishness, and search the Scriptures more carefully," as Augustine states | |
| 4733 (De Gen. cont. Manich. i, 1). What they really intend is the corruption of the faith, which is to inflict very great harm | |
| 4734 indeed. Consequently we should consider what they directly intend, and expel them, | |
| 4735 rather than what is beside their intention, and so, tolerate them. | |
| 4736 </p> | |
| 4737 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p10"> | |
| 4738 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> According to Decret. (xxiv, qu. iii, can. Notandum), "to be excommunicated is not to be uprooted." A man is excommunicated, | |
| 4739 as the Apostle says ( | |
| 4740 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A3-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.5.5" target="asv">1 Cor. 5:5</a>) that his "spirit may be saved in the day of Our Lord." Yet if heretics be altogether uprooted by death, this is not contrary | |
| 4741 to Our Lord's command, which is to be understood as referring to the case when the cockle cannot be plucked up without plucking | |
| 4742 up the wheat, as we | |
| 4743 explained above ( | |
| 4744 <a id="SS_Q11_A3-p10.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A8.html">Q[10], A[8]</a>, ad 1), when treating of unbelievers in general. | |
| 4745 </p> | |
| 4746 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 4747 <p id="SS_Q11_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 4748 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4749 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A4.html"></a> | |
| 4750 </div> | |
| 4751 <div id="SS_Q11_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 4752 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A3.html"></a> | |
| 4753 <a href="summa.SS_Q12.html"></a> | |
| 4754 <h4 id="SS_Q11_A4-p0.1">Whether the Church should receive those who return from heresy?</h4> | |
| 4755 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 4756 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p2"> | |
| 4757 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the Church ought in all cases to receive those who return from heresy. For it is written ( | |
| 4758 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.3.1" target="asv">Jer. 3:1</a>) in the person of the Lord: "Thou hast prostituted thyself to many lovers; nevertheless return to Me saith the Lord." Now | |
| 4759 the sentence of the Church is God's sentence, according to | |
| 4760 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Deut.1.17" target="asv"> Dt. 1:17</a>: "You shall hear the little as well as the great: neither shall you respect any man's person, because it is the | |
| 4761 judgment of God." Therefore even those who are guilty of the prostitution of unbelief which is spiritual prostitution, should | |
| 4762 be received all the same. | |
| 4763 </p> | |
| 4764 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p3"> | |
| 4765 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Our Lord commanded Peter ( | |
| 4766 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.22" target="asv">Mat. 18:22</a>) to forgive his offending brother "not" only "till seven times, but till seventy times seven times," which Jerome expounds | |
| 4767 as meaning that "a man should be forgiven, as often as he has sinned." Therefore he ought to be received by the Church as | |
| 4768 often as he has sinned by falling back into heresy. | |
| 4769 </p> | |
| 4770 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p4"> | |
| 4771 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, heresy is a kind of unbelief. Now other unbelievers who wish to be converted are received by the Church. Therefore | |
| 4772 heretics also should be received. | |
| 4773 </p> | |
| 4774 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p5"> | |
| 4775 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Decretal Ad abolendam (De Haereticis, cap. ix) says that "those who are found to have relapsed into the error which they | |
| 4776 had already abjured, must be left to the secular tribunal." Therefore they should not be received by the Church. | |
| 4777 </p> | |
| 4778 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p6"> | |
| 4779 <b>I answer that,</b> In obedience to Our Lord's institution, the Church extends her charity to all, not only to friends, but also to foes who | |
| 4780 persecute her, according to | |
| 4781 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.44" target="asv"> Mat. 5:44</a>: "Love your enemies; do good to them that hate you." Now it is part of charity that we should both wish and work our neighbor's | |
| 4782 good. Again, good is twofold: one is spiritual, namely the health of the soul, which good is chiefly the object of charity, | |
| 4783 since it is this chiefly that | |
| 4784 we should wish for one another. Consequently, from this point of view, heretics who return after falling no matter how often, | |
| 4785 are admitted by the Church to Penance whereby the way of salvation is opened to them. | |
| 4786 </p> | |
| 4787 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p7"> The other good is that which charity considers secondarily, viz. temporal good, such as life of the body, worldly possessions, | |
| 4788 good repute, ecclesiastical or secular dignity, for we are not bound by charity to wish others this good, except in relation | |
| 4789 to the eternal salvation of them and of others. Hence if the presence of one of these goods in one individual might be an | |
| 4790 obstacle to eternal salvation in many, we are not bound out of charity to wish such a good to that person, | |
| 4791 rather should we desire him to be without it, both because eternal salvation takes precedence of temporal good, and because | |
| 4792 the good of the many is to be preferred to the good of one. Now if heretics were always received on their return, in order | |
| 4793 to save their lives and other temporal goods, this might be prejudicial to the salvation of others, both because they would | |
| 4794 infect others if they relapsed again, and because, if they escaped without punishment, others would feel more assured in lapsing | |
| 4795 into heresy. For it is written ( | |
| 4796 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.8.11" target="asv">Eccles. 8:11</a>): "For because sentence is not speedily pronounced against the evil, the children of men commit evils without any fear." | |
| 4797 </p> | |
| 4798 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p8"> For this reason the Church not only admits to Penance those who return from heresy for the first time, but also safeguards | |
| 4799 their lives, and sometimes by dispensation, restores them to the ecclesiastical dignities which they may have had before, | |
| 4800 should their conversion appear to be sincere: we read of this as having frequently been done for the good of peace. But when | |
| 4801 they fall again, after having been received, this seems to prove them to be inconstant in faith, wherefore when | |
| 4802 they return again, they are admitted to Penance, but are not delivered from the pain of death. | |
| 4803 </p> | |
| 4804 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p9"> | |
| 4805 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In God's tribunal, those who return are always received, because God is a searcher of hearts, and knows those who return | |
| 4806 in sincerity. But the Church cannot imitate God in this, for she presumes that those who relapse after being once received, | |
| 4807 are not sincere in their return; hence she does not debar them from the way of salvation, but neither does she protect them | |
| 4808 from the sentence of death. | |
| 4809 </p> | |
| 4810 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p10"> | |
| 4811 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Our Lord was speaking to Peter of sins committed against oneself, for one should always forgive such offenses and spare our | |
| 4812 brother when he repents. These words are not to be applied to sins committed against one's neighbor or against God, for it | |
| 4813 is not left to our discretion to forgive such offenses, as Jerome says on | |
| 4814 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q11_A4-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.15" target="asv"> Mat. 18:15, </a> "If thy brother shall offend against thee." Yet even in this matter the law prescribes limits | |
| 4815 according as God's honor or our neighbor's good demands. | |
| 4816 </p> | |
| 4817 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p11"> | |
| 4818 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When other unbelievers, who have never received the faith are converted, they do not as yet show signs of inconstancy in | |
| 4819 faith, as relapsed heretics do; hence the comparison fails. | |
| 4820 </p> | |
| 4821 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 4822 <p id="SS_Q11_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 4823 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A3.html"></a> | |
| 4824 <a href="summa.SS_Q12.html"></a> | |
| 4825 </div> | |
| 4826 <a href="summa.SS_Q10_A12.html"></a> | |
| 4827 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4828 </div> | |
| 4829 <div id="SS_Q12" class="div3"> | |
| 4830 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A4.html"></a> | |
| 4831 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4832 <h3 id="SS_Q12-p0.1">OF APOSTASY (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 4833 <p id="SS_Q12-p1"></p> | |
| 4834 <p id="SS_Q12-p2"> We must now consider apostasy: about which there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 4835 <p id="SS_Q12-p3"> (1) Whether apostasy pertains to unbelief?</p> | |
| 4836 <p id="SS_Q12-p4"> (2) Whether, on account of apostasy from the faith, subjects are absolved from allegiance to an apostate prince?</p> | |
| 4837 <div id="SS_Q12_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 4838 <a href="summa.SS_Q12.html"></a> | |
| 4839 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4840 <h4 id="SS_Q12_A1-p0.1">Whether apostasy pertains to unbelief?</h4> | |
| 4841 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 4842 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p2"> | |
| 4843 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that apostasy does not pertain to unbelief. For that which is the origin of all sins, does not, seemingly, | |
| 4844 pertain to unbelief, since many sins there are without unbelief. Now apostasy seems to be the origin of every sin, for it | |
| 4845 is written ( | |
| 4846 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.10.14" target="asv">Ecclus. 10:14</a>): "The beginning of the pride of man is apostasy [Douay: 'to fall off'] from God," and further on, ( | |
| 4847 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Sir.10.15" target="asv">Ecclus. 10:15</a>): "Pride is the beginning of all sin." | |
| 4848 Therefore apostasy does not pertain to unbelief. | |
| 4849 </p> | |
| 4850 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p3"> | |
| 4851 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, unbelief is an act of the understanding: whereas apostasy seems rather to consist in some outward deed or utterance, | |
| 4852 or even in some inward act of the will, for it is written ( | |
| 4853 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.6.12" target="asv">Prov. 6:12-14</a>): "A man that is an apostate, an unprofitable man walketh with a perverse mouth. He winketh with the eyes, presseth with | |
| 4854 the foot, speaketh with the finger. With a wicked heart he deviseth evil, and at all times he soweth discord." Moreover if | |
| 4855 anyone were to have himself circumcised, or to worship at the tomb of Mahomet, he would be deemed an apostate. Therefore apostasy | |
| 4856 does not pertain to unbelief. | |
| 4857 </p> | |
| 4858 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p4"> | |
| 4859 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, heresy, since it pertains to unbelief, is a determinate species of unbelief. If then, apostasy pertained to unbelief, | |
| 4860 it would follow that it is a determinate species of unbelief, which does not seem to agree with what has been said ( | |
| 4861 <a id="SS_Q12_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A5.html">Q[10], A[5]</a>). Therefore apostasy does not pertain to unbelief. | |
| 4862 </p> | |
| 4863 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p5"> | |
| 4864 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 4865 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.6.67" target="asv">Jn. 6:67</a>): "Many of his disciples went back," i.e. apostatized, of whom Our Lord had said previously ( | |
| 4866 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#John.6.65" target="asv">Jn. 6:65</a>): "There are some of you that believe not." Therefore apostasy pertains to unbelief. | |
| 4867 </p> | |
| 4868 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p6"> | |
| 4869 <b>I answer that,</b> Apostasy denotes a backsliding from God. This may happen in various ways according to the different kinds of union between | |
| 4870 man and God. For, in the first place, man is united to God by faith; secondly, by having his will duly submissive in obeying | |
| 4871 His commandments; thirdly, by certain special things pertaining to supererogation such as the religious life, the clerical | |
| 4872 state, or Holy Orders. Now if that which follows be removed, that which precedes, remains, | |
| 4873 but the converse does not hold. Accordingly a man may apostatize from God, by withdrawing from the religious life to which | |
| 4874 he was bound by profession, or from the Holy Order which he had received: and this is called "apostasy from religious life" | |
| 4875 or "Orders." A man may also apostatize from God, by rebelling in his mind against the Divine commandments: and though man | |
| 4876 may apostatize in both the above ways, he may still remain united to God by faith. | |
| 4877 </p> | |
| 4878 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p7"> But if he give up the faith, then he seems to turn away from God altogether: and consequently, apostasy simply and absolutely | |
| 4879 is that whereby a man withdraws from the faith, and is called "apostasy of perfidy." In this way apostasy, simply so called, | |
| 4880 pertains to unbelief. | |
| 4881 </p> | |
| 4882 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p8"> | |
| 4883 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This objection refers to the second kind of apostasy, which denotes an act of the will in rebellion against God's commandments, | |
| 4884 an act that is to be found in every mortal sin. | |
| 4885 </p> | |
| 4886 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p9"> | |
| 4887 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It belongs to faith not only that the heart should believe, but also that external words and deeds should bear witness to | |
| 4888 the inward faith, for confession is an act of faith. In this way too, certain external words or deeds pertain to unbelief, | |
| 4889 in so far as they are signs of unbelief, even as a sign of health is said itself to be healthy. Now although the authority | |
| 4890 quoted may be understood as referring to every kind of apostate, yet it applies most | |
| 4891 truly to an apostate from the faith. For since faith is the first foundation of things to be hoped for, and since, without | |
| 4892 faith it is "impossible to please God"; when once faith is removed, man retains nothing that may be useful for the obtaining | |
| 4893 of eternal salvation, for which reason it is written ( | |
| 4894 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.6.12" target="asv">Prov. 6:12</a>): "A man that is an apostate, an unprofitable man": because faith is the life of the soul, according to | |
| 4895 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.17" target="asv"> Rom. 1:17</a>: "The just man liveth by faith." Therefore, just as | |
| 4896 when the life of the body is taken away, man's every member and part loses its due disposition, so when the life of justice, | |
| 4897 which is by faith, is done away, disorder appears in all his members. First, in his mouth, whereby chiefly his mind stands | |
| 4898 revealed; secondly, in his eyes; thirdly, in the instrument of movement; fourthly, in his will, which tends to evil. The result | |
| 4899 is that "he sows discord," endeavoring to sever others from the faith even as he severed himself. | |
| 4900 </p> | |
| 4901 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p10"> | |
| 4902 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The species of a quality or form are not diversified by the fact of its being the term "wherefrom" or "whereto" of movement: | |
| 4903 on the contrary, it is the movement that takes its species from the terms. Now apostasy regards unbelief as the term "whereto" | |
| 4904 of the movement of withdrawal from the faith; wherefore apostasy does not imply a special kind of unbelief, but an aggravating | |
| 4905 circumstance thereof, according to | |
| 4906 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A1-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iiPet.2.21" target="asv">2 Pet. 2:21</a>: "It had | |
| 4907 been better for them not to know the truth [Vulg.: 'the way of justice'], than after they had known it, to turn back." | |
| 4908 </p> | |
| 4909 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 4910 <p id="SS_Q12_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 4911 <a href="summa.SS_Q12.html"></a> | |
| 4912 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4913 </div> | |
| 4914 <div id="SS_Q12_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 4915 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4916 <a href="summa.SS_Q13.html"></a> | |
| 4917 <h4 id="SS_Q12_A2-p0.1">Whether a prince forfeits his dominion over his subjects, on account of apostasy from the faith, so that they no longer owe | |
| 4918 him allegiance? | |
| 4919 </h4> | |
| 4920 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 4921 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p2"> | |
| 4922 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a prince does not so forfeit his dominion over his subjects, on account of apostasy from the faith, that | |
| 4923 they no longer owe him allegiance. For Ambrose [*St. Augustine, Super | |
| 4924 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.124.3" target="asv"> Ps. 124:3</a>] says that the Emperor Julian, though an apostate, nevertheless had under him Christian soldiers, who when he said to them, | |
| 4925 "Fall into line for the defense of the republic," were bound to obey. Therefore subjects are not absolved from | |
| 4926 their allegiance to their prince on account of his apostasy. | |
| 4927 </p> | |
| 4928 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p3"> | |
| 4929 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an apostate from the faith is an unbeliever. Now we find that certain holy men served unbelieving masters; thus | |
| 4930 Joseph served Pharaoh, Daniel served Nabuchodonosor, and Mardochai served Assuerus. Therefore apostasy from the faith does | |
| 4931 not release subjects from allegiance to their sovereign. | |
| 4932 </p> | |
| 4933 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p4"> | |
| 4934 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as by apostasy from the faith, a man turns away from God, so does every sin. Consequently if, on account of | |
| 4935 apostasy from the faith, princes were to lose their right to command those of their subjects who are believers, they would | |
| 4936 equally lose it on account of other sins: which is evidently not the case. Therefore we ought not to refuse allegiance to | |
| 4937 a sovereign on account of his apostatizing from the faith. | |
| 4938 </p> | |
| 4939 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p5"> | |
| 4940 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory VII says (Council, Roman V): "Holding to the institutions of our holy predecessors, we, by our apostolic authority, | |
| 4941 absolve from their oath those who through loyalty or through the sacred bond of an oath owe allegiance to excommunicated persons: | |
| 4942 and we absolutely forbid them to continue their allegiance to such persons, until these shall have made amends." Now apostates | |
| 4943 from the faith, like heretics, are excommunicated, according to the Decretal | |
| 4944 [*Extra, De Haereticis, cap. Ad abolendam]. Therefore princes should not be obeyed when they have apostatized from the faith. | |
| 4945 </p> | |
| 4946 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p6"> | |
| 4947 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 4948 <a id="SS_Q12_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A10.html">Q[10], A[10]</a>), unbelief, in itself, is not inconsistent with dominion, since dominion is a device of the law of nations which is a human | |
| 4949 law: whereas the distinction between believers and unbelievers is of Divine right, which does not annul human right. Nevertheless | |
| 4950 a man who sins by unbelief may be sentenced to the loss of his right of dominion, as also, sometimes, on account of other | |
| 4951 sins. | |
| 4952 </p> | |
| 4953 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p7"> Now it is not within the competency of the Church to punish unbelief in those who have never received the faith, according | |
| 4954 to the saying of the Apostle ( | |
| 4955 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q12_A2-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.5.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 5:12</a>): "What have I to do to judge them that are without?" She can, however, pass sentence of punishment on the unbelief of those | |
| 4956 who have received the faith: and it is fitting that they should be punished by being deprived of the allegiance of their subjects: | |
| 4957 for this same allegiance might conduce to | |
| 4958 great corruption of the faith, since, as was stated above (A[1], OBJ[2]), "a man that is an apostate . . . with a wicked heart | |
| 4959 deviseth evil, and . . . soweth discord," in order to sever others from the faith. Consequently, as soon as sentence of excommunication | |
| 4960 is passed on a man on account of apostasy from the faith, his subjects are "ipso facto" absolved from his authority and from | |
| 4961 the oath of allegiance whereby they were bound to him. | |
| 4962 </p> | |
| 4963 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p8"> | |
| 4964 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> At that time the Church was but recently instituted, and had not, as yet, the power of curbing earthly princes; and so she | |
| 4965 allowed the faithful to obey Julian the apostate, in matters that were not contrary to the faith, in order to avoid incurring | |
| 4966 a yet greater danger. | |
| 4967 </p> | |
| 4968 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p9"> | |
| 4969 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As stated in the article, it is not a question of those unbelievers who have never received the faith. | |
| 4970 </p> | |
| 4971 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p10"> | |
| 4972 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Apostasy from the faith severs man from God altogether, as stated above | |
| 4973 <a id="SS_Q12_A2-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q12_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, which is not the case in any other sin. | |
| 4974 </p> | |
| 4975 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 4976 <p id="SS_Q12_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 4977 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4978 <a href="summa.SS_Q13.html"></a> | |
| 4979 </div> | |
| 4980 <a href="summa.SS_Q11_A4.html"></a> | |
| 4981 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4982 </div> | |
| 4983 <div id="SS_Q13" class="div3"> | |
| 4984 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4985 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html"></a> | |
| 4986 <h3 id="SS_Q13-p0.1">OF THE SIN OF BLASPHEMY, IN GENERAL (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 4987 <p id="SS_Q13-p1"></p> | |
| 4988 <p id="SS_Q13-p2"> We must now consider the sin of blasphemy, which is opposed to the confession of faith; and (1) blasphemy in general, (2) | |
| 4989 that blasphemy which is called the sin against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 4990 </p> | |
| 4991 <p id="SS_Q13-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 4992 <p id="SS_Q13-p4"> (1) Whether blasphemy is opposed to the confession of faith?</p> | |
| 4993 <p id="SS_Q13-p5"> (2) Whether blasphemy is always a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 4994 <p id="SS_Q13-p6"> (3) Whether blasphemy is the most grievous sin?</p> | |
| 4995 <p id="SS_Q13-p7"> (4) Whether blasphemy is in the damned?</p> | |
| 4996 <div id="SS_Q13_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 4997 <a href="summa.SS_Q13.html"></a> | |
| 4998 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A2.html"></a> | |
| 4999 <h4 id="SS_Q13_A1-p0.1">Whether blasphemy is opposed to the confession of faith?</h4> | |
| 5000 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 5001 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p2"> | |
| 5002 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that blasphemy is not opposed to the confession of faith. Because to blaspheme is to utter an affront or insult | |
| 5003 against the Creator. Now this pertains to ill-will against God rather than to unbelief. Therefore blasphemy is not opposed | |
| 5004 to the confession of faith. | |
| 5005 </p> | |
| 5006 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p3"> | |
| 5007 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, on | |
| 5008 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.31" target="asv"> Eph. 4:31, </a> "Let blasphemy . . . be put away from you," a gloss says, "that which is committed against God or the saints." But confession | |
| 5009 of faith, seemingly, is not about other things than those pertaining to God, Who is the object of faith. Therefore blasphemy | |
| 5010 is not always opposed to the confession of faith. | |
| 5011 </p> | |
| 5012 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p4"> | |
| 5013 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to some, there are three kinds of blasphemy. The first of these is when something unfitting is affirmed | |
| 5014 of God; the second is when something fitting is denied of Him; and the third, when something proper to God is ascribed to | |
| 5015 a creature, so that, seemingly, blasphemy is not only about God, but also about His creatures. Now the object of faith is | |
| 5016 God. Therefore blasphemy is not opposed to confession of faith. | |
| 5017 </p> | |
| 5018 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p5"> | |
| 5019 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 5020 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.12" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:12,13</a>): "I . . . before was a blasphemer and a persecutor," and afterwards, "I did it ignorantly in" my "unbelief." Hence it seems | |
| 5021 that blasphemy pertains to unbelief. | |
| 5022 </p> | |
| 5023 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p6"> | |
| 5024 <b>I answer that,</b> The word blasphemy seems to denote the disparagement of some surpassing goodness, especially that of God. Now God, as Dionysius | |
| 5025 says (Div. Nom. i), is the very essence of true goodness. Hence whatever befits God, pertains to His goodness, and whatever | |
| 5026 does not befit Him, is far removed from the perfection of goodness which is His Essence. Consequently whoever either denies | |
| 5027 anything befitting God, or affirms anything unbefitting Him, disparages the Divine | |
| 5028 goodness. | |
| 5029 </p> | |
| 5030 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p7"> Now this may happen in two ways. In the first way it may happen merely in respect of the opinion in the intellect; in the | |
| 5031 second way this opinion is united to a certain detestation in the affections, even as, on the other hand, faith in God is | |
| 5032 perfected by love of Him. Accordingly this disparagement of the Divine goodness is either in the intellect alone, or in the | |
| 5033 affections also. If it is in thought only, it is blasphemy of the heart, whereas if it betrays itself outwardly in | |
| 5034 speech it is blasphemy is opposed to confession of faith. | |
| 5035 </p> | |
| 5036 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p8"> | |
| 5037 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> He that speaks against God, with the intention of reviling Him, disparages the Divine goodness, not only in respect of the | |
| 5038 falsehood in his intellect, but also by reason of the wickedness of his will, whereby he detests and strives to hinder the | |
| 5039 honor due to God, and this is perfect blasphemy. | |
| 5040 </p> | |
| 5041 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p9"> | |
| 5042 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even as God is praised in His saints, in so far as praise is given to the works which God does in His saints, so does blasphemy | |
| 5043 against the saints, redound, as a consequence, against God. | |
| 5044 </p> | |
| 5045 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p10"> | |
| 5046 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Properly speaking, the sin of blasphemy is not in this way divided into three species: since to affirm unfitting things, | |
| 5047 or to deny fitting things of God, differ merely as affirmation and negation. For this diversity does not cause distinct species | |
| 5048 of habits, since the falsehood of affirmations and negations is made known by the same knowledge, and it is the same ignorance | |
| 5049 which errs in either way, since negatives are proved by affirmatives, according | |
| 5050 to Poster. i, 25. Again to ascribe to creatures things that are proper to God, seems to amount to the same as affirming something | |
| 5051 unfitting of Him, since whatever is proper to God is God Himself: and to ascribe to a creature, that which is proper to God, | |
| 5052 is to assert that God is the same as a creature. | |
| 5053 </p> | |
| 5054 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 5055 <p id="SS_Q13_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 5056 <a href="summa.SS_Q13.html"></a> | |
| 5057 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5058 </div> | |
| 5059 <div id="SS_Q13_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 5060 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5061 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5062 <h4 id="SS_Q13_A2-p0.1">Whether blasphemy is always a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 5063 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 5064 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p2"> | |
| 5065 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that blasphemy is not always a mortal sin. Because a gloss on the words, "Now lay you also all away," etc. | |
| 5066 ( | |
| 5067 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Col.3.8" target="asv">Col. 3:8</a>) says: "After prohibiting greater crimes he forbids lesser sins": and yet among the latter he includes blasphemy. Therefore | |
| 5068 blasphemy is comprised among the lesser, i.e. venial, sins. | |
| 5069 </p> | |
| 5070 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p3"> | |
| 5071 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every mortal sin is opposed to one of the precepts of the decalogue. But, seemingly, blasphemy is not contrary to | |
| 5072 any of them. Therefore blasphemy is not a mortal sin. | |
| 5073 </p> | |
| 5074 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p4"> | |
| 5075 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, sins committed without deliberation, are not mortal: hence first movements are not mortal sins, because they precede | |
| 5076 the deliberation of the reason, as was shown above ( | |
| 5077 <a id="SS_Q13_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A3.html">FS, Q[74], AA[3]</a>,10). Now blasphemy sometimes occurs without deliberation of the reason. Therefore it is not always a mortal sin. | |
| 5078 </p> | |
| 5079 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p5"> | |
| 5080 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 5081 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.24.16" target="asv">Lev. 24:16</a>): "He that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, dying let him die." Now the death punishment is not inflicted except for a mortal | |
| 5082 sin. Therefore blasphemy is a mortal sin. | |
| 5083 </p> | |
| 5084 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p6"> | |
| 5085 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 5086 <a id="SS_Q13_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q72_A5.html">FS, Q[72], A[5]</a>), a mortal sin is one whereby a man is severed from the first principle of spiritual life, which principle is the charity | |
| 5087 of God. Therefore whatever things are contrary to charity, are mortal sins in respect of their genus. Now blasphemy, as to | |
| 5088 its genus, is opposed to Divine charity, because, as stated above | |
| 5089 <a id="SS_Q13_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it disparages the Divine goodness, which is the object of | |
| 5090 charity. Consequently blasphemy is a mortal sin, by reason of its genus. | |
| 5091 </p> | |
| 5092 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p7"> | |
| 5093 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This gloss is not to be understood as meaning that all the sins which follow, are mortal, but that whereas all those mentioned | |
| 5094 previously are more grievous sins, some of those mentioned afterwards are less grievous; and yet among the latter some more | |
| 5095 grievous sins are included. | |
| 5096 </p> | |
| 5097 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p8"> | |
| 5098 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since, as stated above | |
| 5099 <a id="SS_Q13_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, blasphemy is contrary to the confession of faith, its prohibition is comprised under the prohibition of unbelief, expressed | |
| 5100 by the words: "I am the Lord thy God," etc. ( | |
| 5101 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A2-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.1" target="asv">Ex. 20:1</a>). Or else, it is forbidden by the words: "Thou shalt not take the name of . . . God in vain" ( | |
| 5102 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A2-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.7" target="asv">Ex. 20:7</a>). Because he who asserts something false about God, takes His name in vain even more than he who | |
| 5103 uses the name of God in confirmation of a falsehood. | |
| 5104 </p> | |
| 5105 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p9"> | |
| 5106 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There are two ways in which blasphemy may occur unawares and without deliberation. In the first way, by a man failing to | |
| 5107 advert to the blasphemous nature of his words, and this may happen through his being moved suddenly by passion so as to break | |
| 5108 out into words suggested by his imagination, without heeding to the meaning of those words: this is a venial sin, and is not | |
| 5109 a blasphemy properly so called. In the second way, by adverting to the meaning of | |
| 5110 his words, and to their blasphemous nature: in which case he is not excused from mortal sin, even as neither is he who, in | |
| 5111 a sudden movement of anger, kills one who is sitting beside him. | |
| 5112 </p> | |
| 5113 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 5114 <p id="SS_Q13_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 5115 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5116 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5117 </div> | |
| 5118 <div id="SS_Q13_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 5119 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5120 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5121 <h4 id="SS_Q13_A3-p0.1">Whether the sin of blasphemy is the greatest sin?</h4> | |
| 5122 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 5123 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p2"> | |
| 5124 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sin of blasphemy is not the greatest sin. For, according to Augustine (Enchiridion xii), a thing is | |
| 5125 said to be evil because it does harm. Now the sin of murder, since it destroys a man's life, does more harm than the sin of | |
| 5126 blasphemy, which can do no harm to God. Therefore the sin of murder is more grievous than that of blasphemy. | |
| 5127 </p> | |
| 5128 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p3"> | |
| 5129 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a perjurer calls upon God to witness to a falsehood, and thus seems to assert that God is false. But not every blasphemer | |
| 5130 goes so far as to say that God is false. Therefore perjury is a more grievous sin than blasphemy. | |
| 5131 </p> | |
| 5132 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p4"> | |
| 5133 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, on | |
| 5134 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.74.6" target="asv"> Ps. 74:6, </a> "Lift not up your horn on high," a gloss says: "To excuse oneself for sin is the greatest sin of all." Therefore blasphemy | |
| 5135 is not the greatest sin. | |
| 5136 </p> | |
| 5137 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p5"> | |
| 5138 <b>On the contrary,</b> On | |
| 5139 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.18.2" target="asv"> Is. 18:2, </a> "To a terrible people," etc. a gloss says: "In comparison with blasphemy, every sin is slight." | |
| 5140 </p> | |
| 5141 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p6"> | |
| 5142 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 5143 <a id="SS_Q13_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, blasphemy is opposed to the confession of faith, so that it contains the gravity of unbelief: while the sin is aggravated | |
| 5144 if the will's detestation is added thereto, and yet more, if it breaks out into words, even as love and confession add to | |
| 5145 the praise of faith. | |
| 5146 </p> | |
| 5147 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p7"> Therefore, since, as stated above ( | |
| 5148 <a id="SS_Q13_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html">Q[10], A[3]</a>), unbelief is the greatest of sins in respect of its genus, it follows that blasphemy also is a very great sin, through belonging | |
| 5149 to the same genus as unbelief and being an aggravated form of that sin. | |
| 5150 </p> | |
| 5151 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p8"> | |
| 5152 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If we compare murder and blasphemy as regards the objects of those sins, it is clear that blasphemy, which is a sin committed | |
| 5153 directly against God, is more grave than murder, which is a sin against one's neighbor. On the other hand, if we compare them | |
| 5154 in respect of the harm wrought by them, murder is the graver sin, for murder does more harm to one's neighbor, than blasphemy | |
| 5155 does to God. Since, however, the gravity of a sin depends on the intention of | |
| 5156 the evil will, rather than on the effect of the deed, as was shown above ( | |
| 5157 <a id="SS_Q13_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q73_A8.html">FS, Q[73], A[8]</a>), it follows that, as the blasphemer intends to do harm to God's honor, absolutely speaking, he sins more grievously that | |
| 5158 the murderer. Nevertheless murder takes precedence, as to punishment, among sins committed against our neighbor. | |
| 5159 </p> | |
| 5160 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p9"> | |
| 5161 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A gloss on the words, "Let . . . blasphemy be put away from you" ( | |
| 5162 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A3-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.31" target="asv">Eph. 4:31</a>) says: "Blasphemy is worse than perjury." The reason is that the perjurer does not say or think something false about God, | |
| 5163 as the blasphemer does: but he calls God to witness to a falsehood, not that he deems God a false witness, but in the hope, | |
| 5164 as it were, that God will not testify to the matter by some evident sign. | |
| 5165 </p> | |
| 5166 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p10"> | |
| 5167 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To excuse oneself for sin is a circumstance that aggravates every sin, even blasphemy itself: and it is called the most grievous | |
| 5168 sin, for as much as it makes every sin more grievous. | |
| 5169 </p> | |
| 5170 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 5171 <p id="SS_Q13_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 5172 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5173 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5174 </div> | |
| 5175 <div id="SS_Q13_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 5176 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5177 <a href="summa.SS_Q14.html"></a> | |
| 5178 <h4 id="SS_Q13_A4-p0.1">Whether the damned blaspheme?</h4> | |
| 5179 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 5180 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p2"> | |
| 5181 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the damned do not blaspheme. Because some wicked men are deterred from blaspheming now, on account of | |
| 5182 the fear of future punishment. But the damned are undergoing these punishments, so that they abhor them yet more. Therefore, | |
| 5183 much more are they restrained from blaspheming. | |
| 5184 </p> | |
| 5185 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p3"> | |
| 5186 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, since blasphemy is a most grievous sin, it is most demeritorious. Now in the life to come there is no state of meriting | |
| 5187 or demeriting. Therefore there will be no place for blasphemy. | |
| 5188 </p> | |
| 5189 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p4"> | |
| 5190 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 5191 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.11.3" target="asv">Eccles. 11:3</a>) that "the tree . . . in what place soever it shall fall, there shall it be": whence it clearly follows that, after this | |
| 5192 life, man acquires neither merit nor sin, which he did not already possess in this life. Now many will be damned who were | |
| 5193 not blasphemous in this life. Neither, therefore, will they blaspheme in the life to come. | |
| 5194 </p> | |
| 5195 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p5"> | |
| 5196 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 5197 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q13_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rev.16.9" target="asv">Apoc. 16:9</a>): "The men were scorched with great heat, and they blasphemed the name of God, Who hath power over these plagues," and a | |
| 5198 gloss on these words says that "those who are in hell, though aware that they are deservedly punished, will nevertheless complain | |
| 5199 that God is so powerful as to torture them thus." Now this would be blasphemy in their present state: and consequently it | |
| 5200 will also be in their future state. | |
| 5201 </p> | |
| 5202 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p6"> | |
| 5203 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 5204 <a id="SS_Q13_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,3), detestation of the Divine goodness is a necessary condition of blasphemy. Now those who are in hell retain their wicked | |
| 5205 will which is turned away from God's justice, since they love the things for which they are punished, would wish to use them | |
| 5206 if they could, and hate the punishments inflicted on them for those same sins. They regret indeed the sins which they have | |
| 5207 committed, not because they hate them, but | |
| 5208 because they are punished for them. Accordingly this detestation of the Divine justice is, in them, the interior blasphemy | |
| 5209 of the heart: and it is credible that after the resurrection they will blaspheme God with the tongue, even as the saints will | |
| 5210 praise Him with their voices. | |
| 5211 </p> | |
| 5212 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p7"> | |
| 5213 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the present life men are deterred from blasphemy through fear of punishment which they think they can escape: whereas, | |
| 5214 in hell, the damned have no hope of escape, so that, in despair, they are borne towards whatever their wicked will suggests | |
| 5215 to them. | |
| 5216 </p> | |
| 5217 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p8"> | |
| 5218 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Merit and demerit belong to the state of a wayfarer, wherefore good is meritorious in them, while evil is demeritorious. | |
| 5219 In the blessed, on the other hand, good is not meritorious, but is part of their blissful reward, and, in like manner, in | |
| 5220 the damned, evil is not demeritorious, but is part of the punishment of damnation. | |
| 5221 </p> | |
| 5222 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p9"> | |
| 5223 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whoever dies in mortal sin, bears with him a will that detests the Divine justice with regard to a certain thing, and in | |
| 5224 this respect there can be blasphemy in him. | |
| 5225 </p> | |
| 5226 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 5227 <p id="SS_Q13_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 5228 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5229 <a href="summa.SS_Q14.html"></a> | |
| 5230 </div> | |
| 5231 <a href="summa.SS_Q12_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5232 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5233 </div> | |
| 5234 <div id="SS_Q14" class="div3"> | |
| 5235 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5236 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5237 <h3 id="SS_Q14-p0.1">OF BLASPHEMY AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 5238 <p id="SS_Q14-p1"></p> | |
| 5239 <p id="SS_Q14-p2"> We must now consider in particular blasphemy against the Holy Ghost: under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 5240 <p id="SS_Q14-p3"> (1) Whether blasphemy or the sin against the Holy Ghost is the same as the sin committed through certain malice?</p> | |
| 5241 <p id="SS_Q14-p4"> (2) Of the species of this sin;</p> | |
| 5242 <p id="SS_Q14-p5"> (3) Whether it can be forgiven?</p> | |
| 5243 <p id="SS_Q14-p6"> (4) Whether it is possible to begin by sinning against the Holy Ghost before committing other sins?</p> | |
| 5244 <div id="SS_Q14_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 5245 <a href="summa.SS_Q14.html"></a> | |
| 5246 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5247 <h4 id="SS_Q14_A1-p0.1">Whether the sin against the Holy Ghost is the same as the sin committed through certain malice?</h4> | |
| 5248 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 5249 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p2"> | |
| 5250 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sin against the Holy Ghost is not the same as the sin committed through certain malice. Because the | |
| 5251 sin against the Holy Ghost is the sin of blasphemy, according to | |
| 5252 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.32" target="asv"> Mat. 12:32.</a> But not every sin committed through certain malice is a sin of blasphemy: since many other kinds of sin may be committed | |
| 5253 through certain malice. Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost is not the same as the sin committed through certain | |
| 5254 malice. | |
| 5255 </p> | |
| 5256 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p3"> | |
| 5257 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the sin committed through certain malice is condivided with sin committed through ignorance, and sin committed through | |
| 5258 weakness: whereas the sin against the Holy Ghost is condivided with the sin against the Son of Man ( | |
| 5259 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.32" target="asv">Mat. 12:32</a>). Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost is not the same as the sin committed through certain malice, since things whose | |
| 5260 opposites differ, are themselves different. | |
| 5261 </p> | |
| 5262 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p4"> | |
| 5263 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the sin against the Holy Ghost is itself a generic sin, having its own determinate species: whereas sin committed | |
| 5264 through certain malice is not a special kind of sin, but a condition or general circumstance of sin, which can affect any | |
| 5265 kind of sin at all. Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost is not the same as the sin committed through certain malice. | |
| 5266 </p> | |
| 5267 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p5"> | |
| 5268 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Master says (Sent. ii, D, 43) that "to sin against the Holy Ghost is to take pleasure in the malice of sin for its own | |
| 5269 sake." Now this is to sin through certain malice. Therefore it seems that the sin committed through certain malice is the | |
| 5270 same as the sin against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5271 </p> | |
| 5272 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p6"> | |
| 5273 <b>I answer that,</b> Three meanings have been given to the sin against the Holy Ghost. For the earlier doctors, viz. Athanasius (Super Matth. | |
| 5274 xii, 32), Hilary (Can. xii in Matth.), Ambrose (Super Luc. xii, 10), Jerome (Super Matth. xii), and Chrysostom (Hom. xli in | |
| 5275 Matth.), say that the sin against the Holy Ghost is literally to utter a blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, whether by Holy | |
| 5276 Spirit we understand the essential name applicable to the whole Trinity, each Person of which | |
| 5277 is a Spirit and is holy, or the personal name of one of the Persons of the Trinity, in which sense blasphemy against the Holy | |
| 5278 Ghost is distinct from the blasphemy against the Son of Man ( | |
| 5279 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.32" target="asv">Mat. 12:32</a>), for Christ did certain things in respect of His human nature, by eating, drinking, and such like actions, while He did | |
| 5280 others in respect of His Godhead, by casting out devils, raising the dead, and the like: which things He did both by the power | |
| 5281 of His own Godhead and by the | |
| 5282 operation of the Holy Ghost, of Whom He was full, according to his human nature. Now the Jews began by speaking blasphemy | |
| 5283 against the Son of Man, when they said ( | |
| 5284 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.11.19" target="asv">Mat. 11:19</a>) that He was "a glutton . . . a wine drinker," and a "friend of publicans": but afterwards they blasphemed against the Holy | |
| 5285 Ghost, when they ascribed to the prince of devils those works which Christ did by the power of His own Divine Nature and by | |
| 5286 the operation of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5287 </p> | |
| 5288 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p7"> Augustine, however (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi), says that blasphemy or the sin against the Holy Ghost, is final impenitence | |
| 5289 when, namely, a man perseveres in mortal sin until death, and that it is not confined to utterance by word of mouth, but extends | |
| 5290 to words in thought and deed, not to one word only, but to many. Now this word, in this sense, is said to be uttered against | |
| 5291 the Holy Ghost, because it is contrary to the remission of sins, which is the work of the Holy Ghost, Who | |
| 5292 is the charity both of the Father and of the Son. Nor did Our Lord say this to the Jews, as though they had sinned against | |
| 5293 the Holy Ghost, since they were not yet guilty of final impenitence, but He warned them, lest by similar utterances they should | |
| 5294 come to sin against the Holy Ghost: and it is in this sense that we are to understand | |
| 5295 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Mark.3.29" target="asv"> Mark 3:29,30, </a> where after Our Lord had said: "But he that shall blaspheme against the Holy Ghost," etc. the Evangelist adds, "because they | |
| 5296 said: He hath an unclean spirit." | |
| 5297 </p> | |
| 5298 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p8"> But others understand it differently, and say that the sin of blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, is a sin committed against | |
| 5299 that good which is appropriated to the Holy Ghost: because goodness is appropriated to the Holy Ghost, just a power is appropriated | |
| 5300 to the Father, and wisdom to the Son. Hence they say that when a man sins through weakness, it is a sin "against the Father"; | |
| 5301 that when he sins through ignorance, it is a sin "against the Son"; and that when he sins through | |
| 5302 certain malice, i.e. through the very choosing of evil, as explained above ( | |
| 5303 <a id="SS_Q14_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q78_A1.html">FS, Q[78], AA[1]</a> ,3), it is a sin "against the Holy Ghost." | |
| 5304 </p> | |
| 5305 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p9"> Now this may happen in two ways. First by reason of the very inclination of a vicious habit which we call malice, and, in | |
| 5306 this way, to sin through malice is not the same as to sin against the Holy Ghost. In another way it happens that by reason | |
| 5307 of contempt, that which might have prevented the choosing of evil, is rejected or removed; thus hope is removed by despair, | |
| 5308 and fear by presumption, and so on, as we shall explain further on (QQ[20],21). Now all these things which prevent | |
| 5309 the choosing of sin are effects of the Holy Ghost in us; so that, in this sense, to sin through malice is to sin against the | |
| 5310 Holy Ghost. | |
| 5311 </p> | |
| 5312 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p10"> | |
| 5313 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Just as the confession of faith consists in a protestation not only of words but also of deeds, so blasphemy against the | |
| 5314 Holy Ghost can be uttered in word, thought and deed. | |
| 5315 </p> | |
| 5316 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p11"> | |
| 5317 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> According to the third interpretation, blasphemy against the Holy Ghost is condivided with blasphemy against the Son of Man, | |
| 5318 forasmuch as He is also the Son of God, i.e. the "power of God and the wisdom of God" ( | |
| 5319 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A1-p11.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.24" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:24</a>). Wherefore, in this sense, the sin against the Son of Man will be that which is committed through ignorance, or through | |
| 5320 weakness. | |
| 5321 </p> | |
| 5322 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p12"> | |
| 5323 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Sin committed through certain malice, in so far as it results from the inclination of a habit, is not a special sin, but | |
| 5324 a general condition of sin: whereas, in so far as it results from a special contempt of an effect of the Holy Ghost in us, | |
| 5325 it has the character of a special sin. According to this interpretation the sin against the Holy Ghost is a special kind of | |
| 5326 sin, as also according to the first interpretation: whereas according to the second, it | |
| 5327 is not a species of sin, because final impenitence may be a circumstance of any kind of sin. | |
| 5328 </p> | |
| 5329 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 5330 <p id="SS_Q14_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 5331 <a href="summa.SS_Q14.html"></a> | |
| 5332 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5333 </div> | |
| 5334 <div id="SS_Q14_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 5335 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5336 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5337 <h4 id="SS_Q14_A2-p0.1">Whether it is fitting to distinguish six kinds of sin against the Holy Ghost?</h4> | |
| 5338 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 5339 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p2"> | |
| 5340 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem unfitting to distinguish six kinds of sin against the Holy Ghost, viz. despair, presumption, impenitence, obstinacy, | |
| 5341 resisting the known truth, envy of our brother's spiritual good, which are assigned by the Master (Sent. ii, D, 43). For to | |
| 5342 deny God's justice or mercy belongs to unbelief. Now, by despair, a man rejects God's mercy, and by presumption, His justice. | |
| 5343 Therefore each of these is a kind of unbelief rather than of the sin against the | |
| 5344 Holy Ghost. | |
| 5345 </p> | |
| 5346 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p3"> | |
| 5347 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, impenitence, seemingly, regards past sins, while obstinacy regards future sins. Now past and future time do not | |
| 5348 diversify the species of virtues or vices, since it is the same faith whereby we believe that Christ was born, and those of | |
| 5349 old believed that He would be born. Therefore obstinacy and impenitence should not be reckoned as two species of sin against | |
| 5350 the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5351 </p> | |
| 5352 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p4"> | |
| 5353 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "grace and truth came by Jesus Christ" ( | |
| 5354 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.1.17" target="asv">Jn. 1:17</a>). Therefore it seem that resistance of the known truth, and envy of a brother's spiritual good, belong to blasphemy against | |
| 5355 the Son rather than against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5356 </p> | |
| 5357 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p5"> | |
| 5358 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Bernard says (De Dispens. et Praecept. xi) that "to refuse to obey is to resist the Holy Ghost." Moreover a gloss | |
| 5359 on | |
| 5360 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.10.16" target="asv">Lev. 10:16</a>, says that "a feigned repentance is a blasphemy against the Holy Ghost." Again, schism is, seemingly, directly opposed to | |
| 5361 the Holy Ghost by Whom the Church is united together. Therefore it seems that the species of sins against the Holy Ghost are | |
| 5362 insufficiently enumerated. | |
| 5363 </p> | |
| 5364 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p6"> | |
| 5365 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine [*Fulgentius] (De Fide ad Petrum iii) says that "those who despair of pardon for their sins, or who without merits | |
| 5366 presume on God's mercy, sin against the Holy Ghost," and (Enchiridion lxxxiii) that "he who dies in a state of obstinacy is | |
| 5367 guilty of the sin against the Holy Ghost," and (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi) that "impenitence is a sin against the Holy Ghost," | |
| 5368 and (De Serm. Dom. in Monte xxii), that "to resist fraternal goodness with the | |
| 5369 brands of envy is to sin against the Holy Ghost," and in his book De unico Baptismo (De Bap. contra Donat. vi, 35) he says | |
| 5370 that "a man who spurns the truth, is either envious of his brethren to whom the truth is revealed, or ungrateful to God, by | |
| 5371 Whose inspiration the Church is taught," and therefore, seemingly, sins against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5372 </p> | |
| 5373 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p7"> | |
| 5374 <b>I answer that,</b> The above species are fittingly assigned to the sin against the Holy Ghost taken in the third sense, because they are distinguished | |
| 5375 in respect of the removal of contempt of those things whereby a man can be prevented from sinning through choice. These things | |
| 5376 are either on the part of God's judgment, or on the part of His gifts, or on the part of sin. For, by consideration of the | |
| 5377 Divine judgment, wherein justice is accompanied with mercy, man is hindered from | |
| 5378 sinning through choice, both by hope, arising from the consideration of the mercy that pardons sins and rewards good deeds, | |
| 5379 which hope is removed by "despair"; and by fear, arising from the consideration of the Divine justice that punishes sins, | |
| 5380 which fear is removed by "presumption," when, namely, a man presumes that he can obtain glory without merits, or pardon without | |
| 5381 repentance. | |
| 5382 </p> | |
| 5383 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p8"> God's gifts whereby we are withdrawn from sin, are two: one is the acknowledgment of the truth, against which there is the | |
| 5384 "resistance of the known truth," when, namely, a man resists the truth which he has acknowledged, in order to sin more freely: | |
| 5385 while the other is the assistance of inward grace, against which there is "envy of a brother's spiritual good," when, namely, | |
| 5386 a man is envious not only of his brother's person, but also of the increase of Divine grace in the | |
| 5387 world. | |
| 5388 </p> | |
| 5389 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p9"> On the part of sin, there are two things which may withdraw man therefrom: one is the inordinateness and shamefulness of | |
| 5390 the act, the consideration of which is wont to arouse man to repentance for the sin he has committed, and against this there | |
| 5391 is "impenitence," not as denoting permanence in sin until death, in which sense it was taken above (for thus it would not | |
| 5392 be a special sin, but a circumstance of sin), but as denoting the purpose of not repenting. The other thing is the | |
| 5393 smallness or brevity of the good which is sought in sin, according to | |
| 5394 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.6.21" target="asv"> Rom. 6:21</a>: "What fruit had you therefore then in those things, of which you are now ashamed?" The consideration of this is wont to | |
| 5395 prevent man's will from being hardened in sin, and this is removed by "obstinacy," whereby man hardens his purpose by clinging | |
| 5396 to sin. Of these two it is written ( | |
| 5397 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A2-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Jer.8.6" target="asv">Jer. 8:6</a>): "There is none that doth penance for his sin, saying: What have I done?" as regards the first; and, | |
| 5398 "They are all turned to their own course, as a horse rushing to the battle," as regards the second. | |
| 5399 </p> | |
| 5400 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p10"> | |
| 5401 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sins of despair and presumption consist, not in disbelieving in God's justice and mercy, but in contemning them. | |
| 5402 </p> | |
| 5403 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p11"> | |
| 5404 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Obstinacy and impenitence differ not only in respect of past and future time, but also in respect of certain formal aspects | |
| 5405 by reason of the diverse consideration of those things which may be considered in sin, as explained above. | |
| 5406 </p> | |
| 5407 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p12"> | |
| 5408 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Grace and truth were the work of Christ through the gifts of the Holy Ghost which He gave to men. | |
| 5409 </p> | |
| 5410 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p13"> | |
| 5411 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> To refuse to obey belongs to obstinacy, while a feigned repentance belongs to impenitence, and schism to the envy of a brother's | |
| 5412 spiritual good, whereby the members of the Church are united together. | |
| 5413 </p> | |
| 5414 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 5415 <p id="SS_Q14_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 5416 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5417 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5418 </div> | |
| 5419 <div id="SS_Q14_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 5420 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5421 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5422 <h4 id="SS_Q14_A3-p0.1">Whether the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven?</h4> | |
| 5423 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 5424 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p2"> | |
| 5425 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven. For Augustine says (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi): "We should | |
| 5426 despair of no man, so long as Our Lord's patience brings him back to repentance." But if any sin cannot be forgiven, it would | |
| 5427 be possible to despair of some sinners. Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven. | |
| 5428 </p> | |
| 5429 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p3"> | |
| 5430 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no sin is forgiven, except through the soul being healed by God. But "no disease is incurable to an all-powerful | |
| 5431 physician," as a gloss says on | |
| 5432 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.102.3" target="asv"> Ps. 102:3, </a> "Who healeth all thy diseases." Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven. | |
| 5433 </p> | |
| 5434 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p4"> | |
| 5435 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the free-will is indifferent to either good or evil. Now, so long as man is a wayfarer, he can fall away from any | |
| 5436 virtue, since even an angel fell from heaven, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 5437 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Job.4.18" target="asv">Job 4:18,19</a>): "In His angels He found wickedness: how much more shall they that dwell in houses of clay?" Therefore, in like manner, | |
| 5438 a man can return from any sin to the state of justice. Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven. | |
| 5439 </p> | |
| 5440 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p5"> | |
| 5441 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 5442 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.32" target="asv">Mat. 12:32</a>): "He that shall speak against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the world to come": | |
| 5443 and Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 22) that "so great is the downfall of this sin that it cannot submit to the | |
| 5444 humiliation of asking for pardon." | |
| 5445 </p> | |
| 5446 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p6"> | |
| 5447 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the various interpretations of the sin against the Holy Ghost, there are various ways in which it may be said | |
| 5448 that it cannot be forgiven. For if by the sin against the Holy Ghost we understand final impenitence, it is said to be unpardonable, | |
| 5449 since in no way is it pardoned: because the mortal sin wherein a man perseveres until death will not be forgiven in the life | |
| 5450 to come, since it was not remitted by repentance in this life. | |
| 5451 </p> | |
| 5452 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p7"> According to the other two interpretations, it is said to be unpardonable, not as though it is nowise forgiven, but because, | |
| 5453 considered in itself, it deserves not to be pardoned: and this in two ways. First, as regards the punishment, since he that | |
| 5454 sins through ignorance or weakness, deserves less punishment, whereas he that sins through certain malice, can offer no excuse | |
| 5455 in alleviation of his punishment. Likewise those who blasphemed against the Son of Man before His Godhead | |
| 5456 was revealed, could have some excuse, on account of the weakness of the flesh which they perceived in Him, and hence, they | |
| 5457 deserved less punishment; whereas those who blasphemed against His very Godhead, by ascribing to the devil the works of the | |
| 5458 Holy Ghost, had no excuse in diminution of their punishment. Wherefore, according to Chrysostom's commentary (Hom. xlii in | |
| 5459 Matth.), the Jews are said not to be forgiven this sin, neither in this world nor in the world to come, because they were | |
| 5460 punished for it, both in the present life, through the Romans, and in the life to come, in the pains of hell. Thus also Athanasius | |
| 5461 adduces the example of their forefathers who, first of all, wrangled with Moses on account of the shortage of water and bread; | |
| 5462 and this the Lord bore with patience, because they were to be excused on account of the weakness of the flesh: but afterwards | |
| 5463 they sinned more grievously when, by ascribing to an idol the favors bestowed by God Who had brought them out of | |
| 5464 Egypt, they blasphemed, so to speak, against the Holy Ghost, saying ( | |
| 5465 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.32.4" target="asv">Ex. 32:4</a>): "These are thy gods, O Israel, that have brought thee out of the land of Egypt." Therefore the Lord both inflicted temporal | |
| 5466 punishment on them, since "there were slain on that day about three and twenty thousand men" ( | |
| 5467 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.32.28" target="asv">Ex. 32:28</a>), and threatened them with punishment in the life to come, saying, ( | |
| 5468 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p7.3" href="./asv.html#Exod.32.34" target="asv">Ex. 32:34</a>): "I, in the day of revenge, will visit this sin . | |
| 5469 . . of theirs." | |
| 5470 </p> | |
| 5471 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p8"> Secondly, this may be understood to refer to the guilt: thus a disease is said to be incurable in respect of the nature of | |
| 5472 the disease, which removes whatever might be a means of cure, as when it takes away the power of nature, or causes loathing | |
| 5473 for food and medicine, although God is able to cure such a disease. So too, the sin against the Holy Ghost is said to be unpardonable, | |
| 5474 by reason of its nature, in so far as it removes those things which are a means towards the pardon of | |
| 5475 sins. This does not, however, close the way of forgiveness and healing to an all-powerful and merciful God, Who, sometimes, | |
| 5476 by a miracle, so to speak, restores spiritual health to such men. | |
| 5477 </p> | |
| 5478 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p9"> | |
| 5479 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We should despair of no man in this life, considering God's omnipotence and mercy. But if we consider the circumstances of | |
| 5480 sin, some are called ( | |
| 5481 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A3-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.2.2" target="asv">Eph. 2:2</a>) "children of despair" [*'Filios diffidentiae,' which the Douay version renders 'children of unbelief.']. | |
| 5482 </p> | |
| 5483 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p10"> | |
| 5484 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers the question on the part of God's omnipotence, not on that of the circumstances of sin. | |
| 5485 </p> | |
| 5486 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p11"> | |
| 5487 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In this life the free-will does indeed ever remain subject to change: yet sometimes it rejects that whereby, so far as it | |
| 5488 is concerned, it can be turned to good. Hence considered in itself this sin is unpardonable, although God can pardon it. | |
| 5489 </p> | |
| 5490 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 5491 <p id="SS_Q14_A3-p13"></p> | |
| 5492 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5493 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5494 </div> | |
| 5495 <div id="SS_Q14_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 5496 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5497 <a href="summa.SS_Q15.html"></a> | |
| 5498 <h4 id="SS_Q14_A4-p0.1">Whether a man can sin first of all against the Holy Ghost?</h4> | |
| 5499 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 5500 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p2"> | |
| 5501 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man cannot sin first of all against the Holy Ghost, without having previously committed other sins. | |
| 5502 For the natural order requires that one should be moved to perfection from imperfection. This is evident as regards good things, | |
| 5503 according to | |
| 5504 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.4.18" target="asv"> Prov. 4:18</a>: "The path of the just, as a shining light, goeth forwards and increases even to perfect day." Now, in evil things, the perfect | |
| 5505 is the greatest evil, as the Philosopher | |
| 5506 states (Metaph. v, text. 21). Since then the sin against the Holy Ghost is the most grievous sin, it seems that man comes | |
| 5507 to commit this sin through committing lesser sins. | |
| 5508 </p> | |
| 5509 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p3"> | |
| 5510 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to sin against the Holy Ghost is to sin through certain malice, or through choice. Now man cannot do this until | |
| 5511 he has sinned many times; for the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 6,9) that "although a man is able to do unjust deeds, yet he | |
| 5512 cannot all at once do them as an unjust man does," viz. from choice. Therefore it seems that the sin against the Holy Ghost | |
| 5513 cannot be committed except after other sins. | |
| 5514 </p> | |
| 5515 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p4"> | |
| 5516 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, repentance and impenitence are about the same object. But there is no repentance, except about past sins. Therefore | |
| 5517 the same applies to impenitence which is a species of the sin against the Holy Ghost. Therefore the sin against the Holy Ghost | |
| 5518 presupposes other sins. | |
| 5519 </p> | |
| 5520 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p5"> | |
| 5521 <b>On the contrary,</b> "It is easy in the eyes of God on a sudden to make a poor man rich" ( | |
| 5522 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.11.23" target="asv">Ecclus. 11:23</a>). Therefore, conversely, it is possible for a man, according to the malice of the devil who tempts him, to be led to commit | |
| 5523 the most grievous of sins which is that against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 5524 </p> | |
| 5525 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p6"> | |
| 5526 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 5527 <a id="SS_Q14_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, in one way, to sin against the Holy Ghost is to sin through certain malice. Now one may sin through certain malice in two | |
| 5528 ways, as stated in the same place: first, through the inclination of a habit; but this is not, properly speaking, to sin against | |
| 5529 the Holy Ghost, nor does a man come to commit this sin all at once, in as much as sinful acts must precede so as to cause | |
| 5530 the habit that induces to sin. Secondly, | |
| 5531 one may sin through certain malice, by contemptuously rejecting the things whereby a man is withdrawn from sin. This is, properly | |
| 5532 speaking, to sin against the Holy Ghost, as stated above | |
| 5533 <a id="SS_Q14_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html">(A[1])</a>; and this also, for the most part, presupposes other sins, for it is written ( | |
| 5534 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q14_A4-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Prov.18.3" target="asv">Prov. 18:3</a>) that "the wicked man, when he is come into the depth of sins, contemneth." | |
| 5535 </p> | |
| 5536 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p7"> Nevertheless it is possible for a man, in his first sinful act, to sin against the Holy Ghost by contempt, both on account | |
| 5537 of his free-will, and on account of the many previous dispositions, or again, through being vehemently moved to evil, while | |
| 5538 but feebly attached to good. Hence never or scarcely ever does it happen that the perfect sin all at once against the Holy | |
| 5539 Ghost: wherefore Origen says (Peri Archon. i, 3): "I do not think that anyone who stands on the highest step of | |
| 5540 perfection, can fail or fall suddenly; this can only happen by degrees and bit by bit." | |
| 5541 </p> | |
| 5542 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p8"> The same applies, if the sin against the Holy Ghost be taken literally for blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. For such blasphemy | |
| 5543 as Our Lord speaks of, always proceeds from contemptuous malice. | |
| 5544 </p> | |
| 5545 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p9"> If, however, with Augustine (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi) we understand the sin against the Holy Ghost to denote final impenitence, | |
| 5546 it does not regard the question in point, because this sin against the Holy Ghost requires persistence in sin until the end | |
| 5547 of life. | |
| 5548 </p> | |
| 5549 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p10"> | |
| 5550 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Movement both in good and in evil is made, for the most part, from imperfect to perfect, according as man progresses in good | |
| 5551 or evil: and yet in both cases, one man can begin from a greater (good or evil) than another man does. Consequently, that | |
| 5552 from which a man begins can be perfect in good or evil according to its genus, although it may be imperfect as regards the | |
| 5553 series of good or evil actions whereby a man progresses in good or evil. | |
| 5554 </p> | |
| 5555 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p11"> | |
| 5556 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers the sin which is committed through certain malice, when it proceeds from the inclination of a habit. | |
| 5557 </p> | |
| 5558 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p12"> | |
| 5559 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If by impenitence we understand with Augustine (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi) persistence in sin until the end, it is clear | |
| 5560 that it presupposes sin, just as repentance does. If, however, we take it for habitual impenitence, in which sense it is a | |
| 5561 sin against the Holy Ghost, it is evident that it can precede sin: for it is possible for a man who has never sinned to have | |
| 5562 the purpose either of repenting or of not repenting, if he should happen to sin. | |
| 5563 </p> | |
| 5564 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 5565 <p id="SS_Q14_A4-p14"></p> | |
| 5566 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5567 <a href="summa.SS_Q15.html"></a> | |
| 5568 </div> | |
| 5569 <a href="summa.SS_Q13_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5570 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5571 </div> | |
| 5572 <div id="SS_Q15" class="div3"> | |
| 5573 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5574 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5575 <h3 id="SS_Q15-p0.1">OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING (THREE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 5576 <p id="SS_Q15-p1"></p> | |
| 5577 <p id="SS_Q15-p2"> We must now consider the vices opposed to knowledge and understanding. Since, however, we have treated of ignorance which | |
| 5578 is opposed to knowledge, when we were discussing the causes of sins ( | |
| 5579 <a id="SS_Q15-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q76.html">FS, Q[76])</a>, we must now inquire about blindness of mind and dulness of sense, which are opposed to the gift of understanding; and under | |
| 5580 this head there are three points of inquiry: | |
| 5581 </p> | |
| 5582 <p id="SS_Q15-p3"> (1) Whether blindness of mind is a sin?</p> | |
| 5583 <p id="SS_Q15-p4"> (2) Whether dulness of sense is a sin distinct from blindness of mind?</p> | |
| 5584 <p id="SS_Q15-p5"> (3) Whether these vices arise from sins of the flesh?</p> | |
| 5585 <div id="SS_Q15_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 5586 <a href="summa.SS_Q15.html"></a> | |
| 5587 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5588 <h4 id="SS_Q15_A1-p0.1">Whether blindness of mind is a sin?</h4> | |
| 5589 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 5590 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p2"> | |
| 5591 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that blindness of mind is not a sin. Because, seemingly, that which excuses from sin is not itself a sin. Now | |
| 5592 blindness of mind excuses from sin; for it is written ( | |
| 5593 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#John.9.41" target="asv">Jn. 9:41</a>): "If you were blind, you should not have sin." Therefore blindness of mind is not a sin. | |
| 5594 </p> | |
| 5595 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p3"> | |
| 5596 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, punishment differs from guilt. But blindness of mind is a punishment as appears from | |
| 5597 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.6.10" target="asv"> Is. 6:10, </a> "Blind the heart of this people," for, since it is an evil, it could not be from God, were it not a punishment. Therefore | |
| 5598 blindness of mind is not a sin. | |
| 5599 </p> | |
| 5600 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p4"> | |
| 5601 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every sin is voluntary, according to Augustine (De Vera Relig. xiv). Now blindness of mind is not voluntary, since, | |
| 5602 as Augustine says (Confess. x), "all love to know the resplendent truth," and as we read in | |
| 5603 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.11.7" target="asv"> Eccles. 11:7, </a> "the light is sweet and it is delightful for the eyes to see the sun." Therefore blindness of mind is not a sin. | |
| 5604 </p> | |
| 5605 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p5"> | |
| 5606 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) reckons blindness of mind among the vices arising from lust. | |
| 5607 </p> | |
| 5608 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p6"> | |
| 5609 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as bodily blindness is the privation of the principle of bodily sight, so blindness of mind is the privation of the | |
| 5610 principle of mental or intellectual sight. Now this has a threefold principle. One is the light of natural reason, which light, | |
| 5611 since it pertains to the species of the rational soul, is never forfeit from the soul, and yet, at times, it is prevented | |
| 5612 from exercising its proper act, through being hindered by the lower powers which the human | |
| 5613 intellect needs in order to understand, for instance in the case of imbeciles and madmen, as stated in the | |
| 5614 <a id="SS_Q15_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A7.html">FP, Q[84], AA[7]</a>,8. | |
| 5615 </p> | |
| 5616 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p7"> Another principle of intellectual sight is a certain habitual light superadded to the natural light of reason, which light | |
| 5617 is sometimes forfeit from the soul. This privation is blindness, and is a punishment, in so far as the privation of the light | |
| 5618 of grace is a punishment. Hence it is written concerning some ( | |
| 5619 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.2.21" target="asv">Wis. 2:21</a>): "Their own malice blinded them." | |
| 5620 </p> | |
| 5621 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p8"> A third principle of intellectual sight is an intelligible principle, through which a man understands other things; to which | |
| 5622 principle a man may attend or not attend. That he does not attend thereto happens in two ways. Sometimes it is due to the | |
| 5623 fact that a man's will is deliberately turned away from the consideration of that principle, according to | |
| 5624 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.35.4" target="asv">Ps. 35:4</a>, "He would not understand, that he might do well": whereas sometimes it is due to the mind being more busy about things | |
| 5625 which it loves more, so as to be hindered thereby from considering this principle, according to | |
| 5626 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A1-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.57.9" target="asv"> Ps. 57:9, </a> "Fire," i.e. of concupiscence, "hath fallen on them and they shall not see the sun." In either of these ways blindness of | |
| 5627 mind is a sin. | |
| 5628 </p> | |
| 5629 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p9"> | |
| 5630 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The blindness that excuses from sin is that which arises from the natural defect of one who cannot see. | |
| 5631 </p> | |
| 5632 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p10"> | |
| 5633 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers the second kind of blindness which is a punishment. | |
| 5634 </p> | |
| 5635 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p11"> | |
| 5636 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To understand the truth is, in itself, beloved by all; and yet, accidentally it may be hateful to someone, in so far as a | |
| 5637 man is hindered thereby from having what he loves yet more. | |
| 5638 </p> | |
| 5639 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 5640 <p id="SS_Q15_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 5641 <a href="summa.SS_Q15.html"></a> | |
| 5642 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5643 </div> | |
| 5644 <div id="SS_Q15_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 5645 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5646 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5647 <h4 id="SS_Q15_A2-p0.1">Whether dulness of sense is a sin distinct from blindness of mind?</h4> | |
| 5648 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 5649 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p2"> | |
| 5650 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that dulness of sense is not a distinct sin from blindness of mind. Because one thing has one contrary. Now dulness | |
| 5651 is opposed to the gift of understanding, according to Gregory (Moral. ii, 49); and so is blindness of mind, since understanding | |
| 5652 denotes a principle of sight. Therefore dulness of sense is the same as blindness of mind. | |
| 5653 </p> | |
| 5654 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p3"> | |
| 5655 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) in speaking of dulness describes it as "dullness of sense in respect of understanding." | |
| 5656 Now dulness of sense in respect of understanding seems to be the same as a defect in understanding, which pertains to blindness | |
| 5657 of mind. Therefore dulness of sense is the same as blindness of mind. | |
| 5658 </p> | |
| 5659 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p4"> | |
| 5660 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if they differ at all, it seems to be chiefly in the fact that blindness of mind is voluntary, as stated above | |
| 5661 <a id="SS_Q15_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q15_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, while dulness of sense is a natural defect. But a natural defect is not a sin: so that, accordingly, dulness of sense would | |
| 5662 not be a sin, which is contrary to what Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45), where he reckons it among the sins arising from gluttony. | |
| 5663 </p> | |
| 5664 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p5"> | |
| 5665 <b>On the contrary,</b> Different causes produce different effects. Now Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45) that dulness of sense arises from gluttony, | |
| 5666 and that blindness of mind arises from lust. Now these others are different vices. Therefore those are different vices also. | |
| 5667 </p> | |
| 5668 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p6"> | |
| 5669 <b>I answer that,</b> Dull is opposed to sharp: and a thing is said to be sharp because it can pierce; so that a thing is called dull through being | |
| 5670 obtuse and unable to pierce. Now a bodily sense, by a kind of metaphor, is said to pierce the medium, in so far as it perceives | |
| 5671 its object from a distance or is able by penetration as it were to perceive the smallest details or the inmost parts of a | |
| 5672 thing. Hence in corporeal things the senses are said to be acute when they can | |
| 5673 perceive a sensible object from afar, by sight, hearing, or scent, while on the other hand they are said to be dull, through | |
| 5674 being unable to perceive, except sensible objects that are near at hand, or of great power. | |
| 5675 </p> | |
| 5676 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p7"> Now, by way of similitude to bodily sense, we speak of sense in connection with the intellect; and this latter sense is in | |
| 5677 respect of certain primals and extremes, as stated in Ethic. vi, even as the senses are cognizant of sensible objects as of | |
| 5678 certain principles of knowledge. Now this sense which is connected with understanding, does not perceive its object through | |
| 5679 a medium of corporeal distance, but through certain other media, as, for instance, when it perceives a thing's | |
| 5680 essence through a property thereof, and the cause through its effect. Consequently a man is said to have an acute sense in | |
| 5681 connection with his understanding, if, as soon as he apprehends a property or effect of a thing, he understands the nature | |
| 5682 or the thing itself, and if he can succeed in perceiving its slightest details: whereas a man is said to have a dull sense | |
| 5683 in connection with his understanding, if he cannot arrive at knowing the truth about a thing, without many explanations; in | |
| 5684 which | |
| 5685 case, moreover, he is unable to obtain a perfect perception of everything pertaining to the nature of that thing. | |
| 5686 </p> | |
| 5687 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p8"> Accordingly dulness of sense in connection with understanding denotes a certain weakness of the mind as to the consideration | |
| 5688 of spiritual goods; while blindness of mind implies the complete privation of the knowledge of such things. Both are opposed | |
| 5689 to the gift of understanding, whereby a man knows spiritual goods by apprehending them, and has a subtle penetration of their | |
| 5690 inmost nature. This dulness has the character of sin, just as blindness of mind has, that is, in so far as | |
| 5691 it is voluntary, as evidenced in one who, owing to his affection for carnal things, dislikes or neglects the careful consideration | |
| 5692 of spiritual things. | |
| 5693 </p> | |
| 5694 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 5695 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 5696 <p id="SS_Q15_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 5697 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5698 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5699 </div> | |
| 5700 <div id="SS_Q15_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 5701 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5702 <a href="summa.SS_Q16.html"></a> | |
| 5703 <h4 id="SS_Q15_A3-p0.1">Whether blindness of mind and dulness of sense arise from sins of the flesh?</h4> | |
| 5704 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 5705 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p2"> | |
| 5706 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that blindness of mind and dulness of sense do not arise from sins of the flesh. For Augustine (Retract. i, | |
| 5707 4) retracts what he had said in his Soliloquies i, 1, "God Who didst wish none but the clean to know the truth," and says | |
| 5708 that one might reply that "many, even those who are unclean, know many truths." Now men become unclean chiefly by sins of | |
| 5709 the flesh. Therefore blindness of mind and dulness of sense are not caused by sins of the | |
| 5710 flesh. | |
| 5711 </p> | |
| 5712 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p3"> | |
| 5713 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, blindness of mind and dulness of sense are defects in connection with the intellective part of the soul: whereas | |
| 5714 carnal sins pertain to the corruption of the flesh. But the flesh does not act on the soul, but rather the reverse. Therefore | |
| 5715 the sins of the flesh do not cause blindness of mind and dulness of sense. | |
| 5716 </p> | |
| 5717 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p4"> | |
| 5718 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, all things are more passive to what is near them than to what is remote. Now spiritual vices are nearer the mind | |
| 5719 than carnal vices are. Therefore blindness of mind and dulness of sense are caused by spiritual rather than by carnal vices. | |
| 5720 </p> | |
| 5721 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p5"> | |
| 5722 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45) that dulness of sense arises from gluttony and blindness of mind from lust. | |
| 5723 </p> | |
| 5724 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p6"> | |
| 5725 <b>I answer that,</b> The perfect intellectual operation in man consists in an abstraction from sensible phantasms, wherefore the more a man's | |
| 5726 intellect is freed from those phantasms, the more thoroughly will it be able to consider things intelligible, and to set in | |
| 5727 order all things sensible. Thus Anaxagoras stated that the intellect requires to be "detached" in order to command, and that | |
| 5728 the agent must have power over matter, in order to be able to move it. Now it is evident | |
| 5729 that pleasure fixes a man's attention on that which he takes pleasure in: wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. x, 4,5) that | |
| 5730 we all do best that which we take pleasure in doing, while as to other things, we do them either not at all, or in a faint-hearted | |
| 5731 fashion. | |
| 5732 </p> | |
| 5733 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p7"> Now carnal vices, namely gluttony and lust, are concerned with pleasures of touch in matters of food and sex; and these are | |
| 5734 the most impetuous of all pleasures of the body. For this reason these vices cause man's attention to be very firmly fixed | |
| 5735 on corporeal things, so that in consequence man's operation in regard to intelligible things is weakened, more, however, by | |
| 5736 lust than by gluttony, forasmuch as sexual pleasures are more vehement than those of the table. Wherefore lust | |
| 5737 gives rise to blindness of mind, which excludes almost entirely the knowledge of spiritual things, while dulness of sense | |
| 5738 arises from gluttony, which makes a man weak in regard to the same intelligible things. On the other hand, the contrary virtues, | |
| 5739 viz. abstinence and chastity, dispose man very much to the perfection of intellectual operation. Hence it is written ( | |
| 5740 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q15_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Dan.1.17" target="asv">Dan. 1:17</a>) that "to these children" on account of their abstinence and continency, "God gave knowledge and | |
| 5741 understanding in every book, and wisdom." | |
| 5742 </p> | |
| 5743 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p8"> | |
| 5744 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although some who are the slaves of carnal vices are at times capable of subtle considerations about intelligible things, | |
| 5745 on account of the perfection of their natural genius, or of some habit superadded thereto, nevertheless, on account of the | |
| 5746 pleasures of the body, it must needs happen that their attention is frequently withdrawn from this subtle contemplation: wherefore | |
| 5747 the unclean can know some truths, but their uncleanness is a clog on their | |
| 5748 knowledge. | |
| 5749 </p> | |
| 5750 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p9"> | |
| 5751 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The flesh acts on the intellective faculties, not by altering them, but by impeding their operation in the aforesaid manner. | |
| 5752 </p> | |
| 5753 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p10"> | |
| 5754 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is owing to the fact that the carnal vices are further removed from the mind, that they distract the mind's attention | |
| 5755 to more remote things, so that they hinder the mind's contemplation all the more. | |
| 5756 </p> | |
| 5757 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 5758 <p id="SS_Q15_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 5759 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5760 <a href="summa.SS_Q16.html"></a> | |
| 5761 </div> | |
| 5762 <a href="summa.SS_Q14_A4.html"></a> | |
| 5763 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5764 </div> | |
| 5765 <div id="SS_Q16" class="div3"> | |
| 5766 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5767 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5768 <h3 id="SS_Q16-p0.1">OF THE PRECEPTS OF FAITH, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 5769 <p id="SS_Q16-p1"></p> | |
| 5770 <p id="SS_Q16-p2"> We must now consider the precepts pertaining to the aforesaid, and under this head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 5771 <p id="SS_Q16-p3"> (1) The precepts concerning faith;</p> | |
| 5772 <p id="SS_Q16-p4"> (2) The precepts concerning the gifts of knowledge and understanding.</p> | |
| 5773 <div id="SS_Q16_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 5774 <a href="summa.SS_Q16.html"></a> | |
| 5775 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5776 <h4 id="SS_Q16_A1-p0.1">Whether in the Old Law there should have been given precepts of faith?</h4> | |
| 5777 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 5778 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p2"> | |
| 5779 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that, in the Old Law, there should have been given precepts of faith. Because a precept is about something | |
| 5780 due and necessary. Now it is most necessary for man that he should believe, according to | |
| 5781 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv"> Heb. 11:6, </a> "Without faith it is impossible to please God." Therefore there was very great need for precepts of faith to be given. | |
| 5782 </p> | |
| 5783 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p3"> | |
| 5784 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the New Testament is contained in the Old, as the reality in the figure, as stated above ( | |
| 5785 <a id="SS_Q16_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q107_A3.html">FS, Q[107], A[3]</a>). Now the New Testament contains explicit precepts of faith, for instance | |
| 5786 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#John.14.1" target="asv"> Jn. 14:1</a>: "You believe in God; believe also in Me." Therefore it seems that some precepts of faith ought to have been given in the | |
| 5787 Old Law also. | |
| 5788 </p> | |
| 5789 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p4"> | |
| 5790 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to prescribe the act of a virtue comes to the same as to forbid the opposite vices. Now the Old Law contained many | |
| 5791 precepts forbidding unbelief: thus ( | |
| 5792 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.3" target="asv">Ex. 20:3</a>): "Thou shalt not have strange gods before Me," and ( | |
| 5793 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Deut.13.1" target="asv">Dt. 13:1-3</a>) they were forbidden to hear the words of the prophet or dreamer who might wish to turn them away from their faith in God. | |
| 5794 Therefore precepts of faith should have been given in the Old Law | |
| 5795 also. | |
| 5796 </p> | |
| 5797 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p5"> | |
| 5798 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, confession is an act of faith, as stated above ( | |
| 5799 <a id="SS_Q16_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q3_A1.html">Q[3], A[1]</a>). Now the Old Law contained precepts about the confession and the promulgation of faith: for they were commanded ( | |
| 5800 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.12.27" target="asv">Ex. 12:27</a>) that, when their children should ask them, they should tell them the meaning of the paschal observance, and ( | |
| 5801 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p5.3" href="./asv.html#Deut.13.9" target="asv">Dt. 13:9</a>) they were commanded to slay anyone who disseminated doctrine contrary to faith. | |
| 5802 Therefore the Old Law should have contained precepts of faith. | |
| 5803 </p> | |
| 5804 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p6"> | |
| 5805 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, all the books of the Old Testament are contained in the Old Law; wherefore Our Lord said ( | |
| 5806 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.25" target="asv">Jn. 15:25</a>) that it was written in the Law: "They have hated Me without cause," although this is found written in | |
| 5807 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.34" target="asv">Ps. 34</a> and 68. Now it is written ( | |
| 5808 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Sir.2.8" target="asv">Ecclus. 2:8</a>): "Ye that fear the Lord, believe Him." Therefore the Old Law should have contained precepts of faith. | |
| 5809 </p> | |
| 5810 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p7"> | |
| 5811 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle ( | |
| 5812 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.3.27" target="asv">Rom. 3:27</a>) calls the Old Law the "law of works" which he contrasts with the "law of faith." Therefore the Old Law ought not to have | |
| 5813 contained precepts of faith. | |
| 5814 </p> | |
| 5815 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p8"> | |
| 5816 <b>I answer that,</b> A master does not impose laws on others than his subjects; wherefore the precepts of a law presuppose that everyone who receives | |
| 5817 the law is subject to the giver of the law. Now the primary subjection of man to God is by faith, according to | |
| 5818 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv"> Heb. 11:6</a>: "He that cometh to God, must believe that He is." Hence faith is presupposed to the precepts of the Law: for which reason | |
| 5819 ( | |
| 5820 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.2" target="asv">Ex. 20:2</a>) that which is of faith, is set down | |
| 5821 before the legal precepts, in the words, "I am the Lord thy God, Who brought thee out of the land of Egypt," and, likewise | |
| 5822 ( | |
| 5823 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.4" target="asv">Dt. 6:4</a>), the words, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord thy [Vulg.: 'our'] God is one," precede the recording of the precepts. | |
| 5824 </p> | |
| 5825 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p9"> Since, however, faith contains many things subordinate to the faith whereby we believe that God is, which is the first and | |
| 5826 chief of all articles of faith, as stated above ( | |
| 5827 <a id="SS_Q16_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], AA[1]</a>,7), it follows that, if we presuppose faith in God, whereby man's mind is subjected to Him, it is possible for precepts to | |
| 5828 be given about other articles of faith. Thus Augustine expounding the words: "This is My commandment" ( | |
| 5829 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A1-p9.2" href="./asv.html#John.15.12" target="asv">Jn. 15:12</a>) says (Tract. | |
| 5830 lxxxiii in Joan.) that we have received many precepts of faith. In the Old Law, however, the secret things of faith were not | |
| 5831 to be set before the people, wherefore, presupposing their faith in one God, no other precepts of faith were given in the | |
| 5832 Old Law. | |
| 5833 </p> | |
| 5834 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p10"> | |
| 5835 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Faith is necessary as being the principle of spiritual life, wherefore it is presupposed before the receiving of the Law. | |
| 5836 </p> | |
| 5837 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p11"> | |
| 5838 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even then Our Lord both presupposed something of faith, namely belief in one God, when He said: "You believe in God," and | |
| 5839 commanded something, namely, belief in the Incarnation whereby one Person is God and man. This explanation of faith belongs | |
| 5840 to the faith of the New Testament, wherefore He added: "Believe also in Me." | |
| 5841 </p> | |
| 5842 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p12"> | |
| 5843 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The prohibitive precepts regard sins, which corrupt virtue. Now virtue is corrupted by any particular defect, as stated above | |
| 5844 ( | |
| 5845 <a id="SS_Q16_A1-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html">FS, Q[18], A[4]</a>, ad 3; | |
| 5846 <a id="SS_Q16_A1-p12.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html">FS, Q[19], A[6]</a>, ad 1, A[7], ad 3). Therefore faith in one God being presupposed, prohibitive precepts had to be given in the Old Law, so | |
| 5847 that men might be warned off those particular defects whereby their faith might be corrupted. | |
| 5848 </p> | |
| 5849 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p13"> | |
| 5850 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Confession of faith and the teaching thereof also presuppose man's submission to God by faith: so that the Old Law could | |
| 5851 contain precepts relating to the confession and teaching of faith, rather than to faith itself. | |
| 5852 </p> | |
| 5853 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p14"> | |
| 5854 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> In this passage again that faith is presupposed whereby we believe that God is; hence it begins, "Ye that fear the Lord," | |
| 5855 which is not possible without faith. The words which follow---"believe Him"---must be referred to certain special articles | |
| 5856 of faith, chiefly to those things which God promises to them that obey Him, wherefore the passage concludes---"and your reward | |
| 5857 shall not be made void." | |
| 5858 </p> | |
| 5859 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p15"></p> | |
| 5860 <p id="SS_Q16_A1-p16"></p> | |
| 5861 <a href="summa.SS_Q16.html"></a> | |
| 5862 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5863 </div> | |
| 5864 <div id="SS_Q16_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 5865 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5866 <a href="summa.SS_Q17.html"></a> | |
| 5867 <h4 id="SS_Q16_A2-p0.1">Whether the precepts referring to knowledge and understanding were fittingly set down in the Old Law?</h4> | |
| 5868 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 5869 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p2"> | |
| 5870 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the precepts referring to knowledge and understanding were unfittingly set down in the Old Law. For knowledge | |
| 5871 and understanding pertain to cognition. Now cognition precedes and directs action. Therefore the precepts referring to knowledge | |
| 5872 and understanding should precede the precepts of the Law referring to action. Since, then, the first precepts of the Law are | |
| 5873 those of the decalogue, it seems that precepts of knowledge and understanding | |
| 5874 should have been given a place among the precepts of the decalogue. | |
| 5875 </p> | |
| 5876 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p3"> | |
| 5877 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, learning precedes teaching, for a man must learn from another before he teaches another. Now the Old Law contains | |
| 5878 precepts about teaching---both affirmative precepts as, for example, ( | |
| 5879 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.9" target="asv">Dt. 4:9</a>), "Thou shalt teach them to thy sons"---and prohibitive precepts, as, for instance, ( | |
| 5880 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.2" target="asv">Dt. 4:2</a>), "You shall not add to the word that I speak to you, neither shall you take away from it." Therefore it seems that man ought | |
| 5881 to | |
| 5882 have been given also some precepts directing him to learn. | |
| 5883 </p> | |
| 5884 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p4"> | |
| 5885 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, knowledge and understanding seem more necessary to a priest than to a king, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 5886 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Mal.2.7" target="asv">Malachi 2:7</a>): "The lips of the priest shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek the law at his mouth," and ( | |
| 5887 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Hos.4.6" target="asv">Osee 4:6</a>): "Because thou hast rejected knowledge, I will reject thee, that thou shalt not do the office of priesthood to Me." Now | |
| 5888 the king is commanded to learn knowledge of the Law ( | |
| 5889 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p4.3" href="./asv.html#Deut.17.18" target="asv">Dt. | |
| 5890 17:18,19 | |
| 5891 </a>). Much more therefore should the Law have commanded the priests to learn the Law. | |
| 5892 </p> | |
| 5893 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p5"> | |
| 5894 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it is not possible while asleep to meditate on things pertaining to knowledge and understanding: moreover it is | |
| 5895 hindered by extraneous occupations. Therefore it is unfittingly commanded ( | |
| 5896 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.7" target="asv">Dt. 6:7</a>): "Thou shalt meditate upon them sitting in thy house, and walking on thy journey, sleeping and rising." Therefore the precepts | |
| 5897 relating to knowledge and understanding are unfittingly set down in the Law. | |
| 5898 </p> | |
| 5899 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p6"> | |
| 5900 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 5901 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.6" target="asv">Dt. 4:6</a>): "That, hearing all these precepts, they may say, Behold a wise and understanding people." | |
| 5902 </p> | |
| 5903 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p7"> | |
| 5904 <b>I answer that,</b> Three things may be considered in relation to knowledge and understanding: first, the reception thereof; secondly, the use; | |
| 5905 and thirdly, their preservation. Now the reception of knowledge or understanding, is by means of teaching and learning, and | |
| 5906 both are prescribed in the Law. For it is written ( | |
| 5907 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.6" target="asv">Dt. 6:6</a>): "These words which I command thee . . . shall be in thy heart." This refers to learning, since it is the duty of a disciple | |
| 5908 to apply | |
| 5909 his mind to what is said, while the words that follow---"and thou shalt tell them to thy children"---refer to teaching. | |
| 5910 </p> | |
| 5911 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p8"> The use of knowledge and understanding is the meditation on those things which one knows or understands. In reference to | |
| 5912 this, the text goes on: "thou shalt meditate upon them sitting in thy house," etc. | |
| 5913 </p> | |
| 5914 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p9"> Their preservation is effected by the memory, and, as regards this, the text continues---"and thou shalt bind them as a sign | |
| 5915 on thy hand, and they shall be and shall move between thy eyes. And thou shalt write them in the entry, and on the doors of | |
| 5916 thy house." Thus the continual remembrance of God's commandments is signified, since it is impossible for us to forget those | |
| 5917 things which are continually attracting the notice of our senses, whether by touch, as those things we hold | |
| 5918 in our hands, or by sight, as those things which are ever before our eyes, or to which we are continually returning, for instance, | |
| 5919 to the house door. Moreover it is clearly stated ( | |
| 5920 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.9" target="asv">Dt. 4:9</a>): "Forget not the words that thy eyes have seen and let them not go out of thy heart all the days of thy life." | |
| 5921 </p> | |
| 5922 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p10"> We read of these things also being commanded more notably in the New Testament, both in the teaching of the Gospel and in | |
| 5923 that of the apostles. | |
| 5924 </p> | |
| 5925 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p11"> | |
| 5926 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to | |
| 5927 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q16_A2-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.4.6" target="asv"> Dt. 4:6, </a> "this is your wisdom and understanding in the sight of the nations." By this we are given to understand that the wisdom and | |
| 5928 understanding of those who believe in God consist in the precepts of the Law. Wherefore the precepts of the Law had to be | |
| 5929 given first, and afterwards men had to be led to know and understand them, and so it was not fitting that the aforesaid precepts | |
| 5930 should be placed among the precepts | |
| 5931 of the decalogue which take the first place. | |
| 5932 </p> | |
| 5933 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p12"> | |
| 5934 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> There are also in the Law precepts relating to learning, as stated above. Nevertheless teaching was commanded more expressly | |
| 5935 than learning, because it concerned the learned, who were not under any other authority, but were immediately under the law, | |
| 5936 and to them the precepts of the Law were given. On the other hand learning concerned the people of lower degree, and these | |
| 5937 the precepts of the Law have to reach through the learned. | |
| 5938 </p> | |
| 5939 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p13"> | |
| 5940 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Knowledge of the Law is so closely bound up with the priestly office that being charged with the office implies being charged | |
| 5941 to know the Law: hence there was no need for special precepts to be given about the training of the priests. On the other | |
| 5942 hand, the doctrine of God's law is not so bound up with the kingly office, because a king is placed over his people in temporal | |
| 5943 matters: hence it is especially commanded that the king should be instructed by | |
| 5944 the priests about things pertaining to the law of God. | |
| 5945 </p> | |
| 5946 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p14"> | |
| 5947 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> That precept of the Law does not mean that man should meditate on God's law of sleeping, but during sleep, i.e. that he should | |
| 5948 meditate on the law of God when he is preparing to sleep, because this leads to his having better phantasms while asleep, | |
| 5949 in so far as our movements pass from the state of vigil to the state of sleep, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. i, 13). | |
| 5950 In like manner we are commanded to meditate on the Law in every action of ours, not | |
| 5951 that we are bound to be always actually thinking about the Law, but that we should regulate all our actions according to it. | |
| 5952 </p> | |
| 5953 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 5954 <p id="SS_Q16_A2-p16"></p> | |
| 5955 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5956 <a href="summa.SS_Q17.html"></a> | |
| 5957 </div> | |
| 5958 <a href="summa.SS_Q15_A3.html"></a> | |
| 5959 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5960 </div> | |
| 5961 <div id="SS_Q17" class="div3"> | |
| 5962 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5963 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html"></a> | |
| 5964 <h3 id="SS_Q17-p0.1">OF HOPE, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 5965 <p id="SS_Q17-p1"></p> | |
| 5966 <p id="SS_Q17-p2"> After treating of faith, we must consider hope and (1) hope itself; (2) the gift of fear; (3) the contrary vices; (4) the | |
| 5967 corresponding precepts. The first of these points gives rise to a twofold consideration: (1) hope, considered in itself; (2) | |
| 5968 its subject. | |
| 5969 </p> | |
| 5970 <p id="SS_Q17-p3"> Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 5971 <p id="SS_Q17-p4"> (1) Whether hope is a virtue?</p> | |
| 5972 <p id="SS_Q17-p5"> (2) Whether its object is eternal happiness?</p> | |
| 5973 <p id="SS_Q17-p6"> (3) Whether, by the virtue of hope, one man may hope for another's happiness?</p> | |
| 5974 <p id="SS_Q17-p7"> (4) Whether a man may lawfully hope in man?</p> | |
| 5975 <p id="SS_Q17-p8"> (5) Whether hope is a theological virtue?</p> | |
| 5976 <p id="SS_Q17-p9"> (6) Of its distinction from the other theological virtues?</p> | |
| 5977 <p id="SS_Q17-p10"> (7) Of its relation to faith;</p> | |
| 5978 <p id="SS_Q17-p11"> (8) Of its relation to charity.</p> | |
| 5979 <div id="SS_Q17_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 5980 <a href="summa.SS_Q17.html"></a> | |
| 5981 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html"></a> | |
| 5982 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A1-p0.1">Whether hope is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 5983 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 5984 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p2"> | |
| 5985 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hope is not a virtue. For "no man makes ill use of a virtue," as Augustine states (De Lib. Arb. ii, 18). | |
| 5986 But one may make ill use of hope, since the passion of hope, like the other passions, is subject to a mean and extremes. Therefore | |
| 5987 hope is not a virtue. | |
| 5988 </p> | |
| 5989 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p3"> | |
| 5990 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no virtue results from merits, since "God works virtue in us without us," as Augustine states (De Grat. et Lib. | |
| 5991 Arb. xvii). But hope is caused by grace and merits, according to the Master (Sent. iii, D, 26). Therefore hope is not a virtue. | |
| 5992 </p> | |
| 5993 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p4"> | |
| 5994 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "virtue is the disposition of a perfect thing" (Phys. vii, text. 17,18). But hope is the disposition of an imperfect | |
| 5995 thing, of one, namely, that lacks what it hopes to have. Therefore hope is not a virtue. | |
| 5996 </p> | |
| 5997 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p5"> | |
| 5998 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. i, 33) that the three daughters of Job signify these three virtues, faith, hope and charity. Therefore | |
| 5999 hope is a virtue. | |
| 6000 </p> | |
| 6001 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p6"> | |
| 6002 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 6) "the virtue of a thing is that which makes its subject good, and its work good | |
| 6003 likewise." Consequently wherever we find a good human act, it must correspond to some human virtue. Now in all things measured | |
| 6004 and ruled, the good is that which attains its proper rule: thus we say that a coat is good if it neither exceeds nor falls | |
| 6005 short of its proper measurement. But, as we stated above (Q[8], A[3], ad 3) human acts | |
| 6006 have a twofold measure; one is proximate and homogeneous, viz. the reason, while the other is remote and excelling, viz. God: | |
| 6007 wherefore every human act is good, which attains reason or God Himself. Now the act of hope, whereof we speak now, attains | |
| 6008 God. For, as we have already stated ( | |
| 6009 <a id="SS_Q17_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A1.html">FS, Q[40], A[1]</a>), when we were treating of the passion of hope, the object of hope is a future good, difficult but possible to obtain. Now | |
| 6010 a thing is possible to us in two ways: first, by | |
| 6011 ourselves; secondly, by means of others, as stated in Ethic. iii. Wherefore, in so far as we hope for anything as being possible | |
| 6012 to us by means of the Divine assistance, our hope attains God Himself, on Whose help it leans. It is therefore evident that | |
| 6013 hope is a virtue, since it causes a human act to be good and to attain its due rule. | |
| 6014 </p> | |
| 6015 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p7"> | |
| 6016 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the passions, the mean of virtue depends on right reason being attained, wherein also consists the essence of virtue. | |
| 6017 Wherefore in hope too, the good of virtue depends on a man's attaining, by hoping, the due rule, viz. God. Consequently man | |
| 6018 cannot make ill use of hope which attains God, as neither can he make ill use of moral virtue which attains the reason, because | |
| 6019 to attain thus is to make good use of virtue. Nevertheless, the hope of which we | |
| 6020 speak now, is not a passion but a habit of the mind, as we shall show further on | |
| 6021 <a id="SS_Q17_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html">(A[5];</a> Q[18], A[1]). | |
| 6022 </p> | |
| 6023 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p8"> | |
| 6024 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hope is said to arise from merits, as regards the thing hoped for, in so far as we hope to obtain happiness by means of grace | |
| 6025 and merits; or as regards the act of living hope. The habit itself of hope, whereby we hope to obtain happiness, does not | |
| 6026 flow from our merits, but from grace alone. | |
| 6027 </p> | |
| 6028 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p9"> | |
| 6029 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> He who hopes is indeed imperfect in relation to that which he hopes to obtain, but has not as yet; yet he is perfect, in | |
| 6030 so far as he already attains his proper rule, viz. God, on Whose help he leans. | |
| 6031 </p> | |
| 6032 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 6033 <p id="SS_Q17_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 6034 <a href="summa.SS_Q17.html"></a> | |
| 6035 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6036 </div> | |
| 6037 <div id="SS_Q17_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 6038 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6039 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6040 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A2-p0.1">Whether eternal happiness is the proper object of hope?</h4> | |
| 6041 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 6042 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p2"> | |
| 6043 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that eternal happiness is not the proper object of hope. For a man does not hope for that which surpasses every | |
| 6044 movement of the soul, since hope itself is a movement of the soul. Now eternal happiness surpasses every movement of the human | |
| 6045 soul, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 6046 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.9" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:9</a>) that it hath not "entered into the heart of man." Therefore happiness is not the proper object of hope. | |
| 6047 </p> | |
| 6048 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p3"> | |
| 6049 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, prayer is an expression of hope, for it is written ( | |
| 6050 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.36.5" target="asv">Ps. 36:5</a>): "Commit thy way to the Lord, and trust in Him, and He will do it." Now it is lawful for man to pray God not only for eternal | |
| 6051 happiness, but also for the goods, both temporal and spiritual, of the present life, and, as evidenced by the Lord's Prayer, | |
| 6052 to be delivered from evils which will no longer be in eternal happiness. Therefore eternal happiness is not the proper object | |
| 6053 of hope. | |
| 6054 </p> | |
| 6055 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p4"> | |
| 6056 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the object of hope is something difficult. Now many things besides eternal happiness are difficult to man. Therefore | |
| 6057 eternal happiness is not the proper object of hope. | |
| 6058 </p> | |
| 6059 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p5"> | |
| 6060 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 6061 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.6.19" target="asv">Heb. 6:19</a>) that we have hope "which entereth in," i.e. maketh us to enter . . . "within the veil," i.e. into the happiness of heaven, | |
| 6062 according to the interpretation of a gloss on these words. Therefore the object of hope is eternal happiness. | |
| 6063 </p> | |
| 6064 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p6"> | |
| 6065 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 6066 <a id="SS_Q17_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, the hope of which we speak now, attains God by leaning on His help in order to obtain the hoped for good. Now an effect | |
| 6067 must be proportionate to its cause. Wherefore the good which we ought to hope for from God properly and chiefly is the infinite | |
| 6068 good, which is proportionate to the power of our divine helper, since it belongs to an infinite power to lead anyone to an | |
| 6069 infinite good. Such a good is eternal | |
| 6070 life, which consists in the enjoyment of God Himself. For we should hope from Him for nothing less than Himself, since His | |
| 6071 goodness, whereby He imparts good things to His creature, is no less than His Essence. Therefore the proper and principal | |
| 6072 object of hope is eternal happiness. | |
| 6073 </p> | |
| 6074 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p7"> | |
| 6075 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Eternal happiness does not enter into the heart of man perfectly, i.e. so that it be possible for a wayfarer to know its | |
| 6076 nature and quality; yet, under the general notion of the perfect good, it is possible for it to be apprehended by a man, and | |
| 6077 it is in this way that the movement of hope towards it arises. Hence the Apostle says pointedly ( | |
| 6078 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A2-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.6.19" target="asv">Heb. 6:19</a>) that hope "enters in, even within the veil," because that which we hope for is | |
| 6079 as yet veiled, so to speak. | |
| 6080 </p> | |
| 6081 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p8"> | |
| 6082 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> We ought not to pray God for any other goods, except in reference to eternal happiness. Hence hope regards eternal happiness | |
| 6083 chiefly, and other things, for which we pray God, it regards secondarily and as referred to eternal happiness: just as faith | |
| 6084 regards God principally, and, secondarily, those things which are referred to God, as stated above ( | |
| 6085 <a id="SS_Q17_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). | |
| 6086 </p> | |
| 6087 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p9"> | |
| 6088 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To him that longs for something great, all lesser things seem small; wherefore to him that hopes for eternal happiness, nothing | |
| 6089 else appears arduous, as compared with that hope; although, as compared with the capability of the man who hopes, other things | |
| 6090 besides may be arduous to him, so that he may have hope for such things in reference to its principal object. | |
| 6091 </p> | |
| 6092 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 6093 <p id="SS_Q17_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 6094 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6095 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6096 </div> | |
| 6097 <div id="SS_Q17_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 6098 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6099 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6100 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A3-p0.1">Whether one man may hope for another's eternal happiness?</h4> | |
| 6101 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 6102 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p2"> | |
| 6103 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one may hope for another's eternal happiness. For the Apostle says ( | |
| 6104 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.1.6" target="asv">Phil. 1:6</a>): "Being confident of this very thing, that He Who hath begun a good work in you, will perfect it unto the day of Jesus Christ." | |
| 6105 Now the perfection of that day will be eternal happiness. Therefore one man may hope for another's eternal happiness. | |
| 6106 </p> | |
| 6107 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p3"> | |
| 6108 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever we ask of God, we hope to obtain from Him. But we ask God to bring others to eternal happiness, according | |
| 6109 to | |
| 6110 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.5.16" target="asv"> James 5:16</a>: "Pray for one another that you may be saved." Therefore we can hope for another's eternal happiness. | |
| 6111 </p> | |
| 6112 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p4"> | |
| 6113 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hope and despair are about the same object. Now it is possible to despair of another's eternal happiness, else Augustine | |
| 6114 would have no reason for saying (De Verb. Dom., Serm. lxxi) that we should not despair of anyone so long as he lives. Therefore | |
| 6115 one can also hope for another's eternal salvation. | |
| 6116 </p> | |
| 6117 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p5"> | |
| 6118 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Enchiridion viii) that "hope is only of such things as belong to him who is supposed to hope for them." | |
| 6119 </p> | |
| 6120 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p6"> | |
| 6121 <b>I answer that,</b> We can hope for something in two ways: first, absolutely, and thus the object of hope is always something arduous and pertaining | |
| 6122 to the person who hopes. Secondly, we can hope for something, through something else being presupposed, and in this way its | |
| 6123 object can be something pertaining to someone else. In order to explain this we must observe that love and hope differ in | |
| 6124 this, that love denotes union between lover and beloved, while hope denotes a movement | |
| 6125 or a stretching forth of the appetite towards an arduous good. Now union is of things that are distinct, wherefore love can | |
| 6126 directly regard the other whom a man unites to himself by love, looking upon him as his other self: whereas movement is always | |
| 6127 towards its own term which is proportionate to the subject moved. Therefore hope regards directly one's own good, and not | |
| 6128 that which pertains to another. Yet if we presuppose the union of love with another, a man can hope for and desire something | |
| 6129 for another man, as for himself; and, accordingly, he can hope for another eternal's life, inasmuch as he is united to him | |
| 6130 by love, and just as it is the same virtue of charity whereby a man loves God, himself, and his neighbor, so too it is the | |
| 6131 same virtue of hope, whereby a man hopes for himself and for another. | |
| 6132 </p> | |
| 6133 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p7"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 6134 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p8"></p> | |
| 6135 <p id="SS_Q17_A3-p9"></p> | |
| 6136 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6137 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6138 </div> | |
| 6139 <div id="SS_Q17_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 6140 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6141 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6142 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A4-p0.1">Whether a man can lawfully hope in man?</h4> | |
| 6143 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 6144 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p2"> | |
| 6145 <b>Objection 1:</b> It wold seem that one may lawfully hope in man. For the object of hope is eternal happiness. Now we are helped to obtain | |
| 6146 eternal happiness by the patronage of the saints, for Gregory says (Dial. i, 8) that "predestination is furthered by the saints' | |
| 6147 prayers." Therefore one may hope in man. | |
| 6148 </p> | |
| 6149 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p3"> | |
| 6150 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if a man may not hope in another man, it ought not to be reckoned a sin in a man, that one should not be able to | |
| 6151 hope in him. Yet this is reckoned a vice in some, as appears from | |
| 6152 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.9.4" target="asv"> Jer. 9:4</a>: "Let every man take heed of his neighbor, and let him not trust in any brother of his." Therefore it is lawful to trust | |
| 6153 in a man. | |
| 6154 </p> | |
| 6155 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p4"> | |
| 6156 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, prayer is the expression of hope, as stated above (A[2], OBJ[2]). But it is lawful to pray to a man for something. | |
| 6157 Therefore it is lawful to trust in him. | |
| 6158 </p> | |
| 6159 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p5"> | |
| 6160 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 6161 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.17.5" target="asv">Jer. 17:5</a>): "Cursed be the man that trusteth in man." | |
| 6162 </p> | |
| 6163 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p6"> | |
| 6164 <b>I answer that,</b> Hope, as stated above | |
| 6165 <a id="SS_Q17_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1];</a> | |
| 6166 <a id="SS_Q17_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A7.html">FS, Q[40], A[7]</a>), regards two things, viz. the good which it intends to obtain, and the help by which that good is obtained. Now the good | |
| 6167 which a man hopes to obtain, has the aspect of a final cause, while the help by which one hopes to obtain that good, has the | |
| 6168 character of an efficient cause. Now in each of these kinds of cause we find a principal and a secondary cause. For the | |
| 6169 principal end is the last end, while the secondary end is that which is referred to an end. In like manner the principal efficient | |
| 6170 cause is the first agent, while the secondary efficient cause is the secondary and instrumental agent. Now hope regards eternal | |
| 6171 happiness as its last end, and the Divine assistance as the first cause leading to happiness. | |
| 6172 </p> | |
| 6173 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p7"> Accordingly, just as it is not lawful to hope for any good save happiness, as one's last end, but only as something referred | |
| 6174 to final happiness, so too, it is unlawful to hope in any man, or any creature, as though it were the first cause of movement | |
| 6175 towards happiness. It is, however, lawful to hope in a man or a creature as being the secondary and instrumental agent through | |
| 6176 whom one is helped to obtain any goods that are ordained to happiness. It is in this way that we turn to | |
| 6177 the saints, and that we ask men also for certain things; and for this reason some are blamed in that they cannot be trusted | |
| 6178 to give help. | |
| 6179 </p> | |
| 6180 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p8"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 6181 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p9"></p> | |
| 6182 <p id="SS_Q17_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 6183 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6184 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6185 </div> | |
| 6186 <div id="SS_Q17_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 6187 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6188 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A6.html"></a> | |
| 6189 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A5-p0.1">Whether hope is a theological virtue?</h4> | |
| 6190 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 6191 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p2"> | |
| 6192 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hope is not a theological virtue. For a theological virtue is one that has God for its object. Now hope | |
| 6193 has for its object not only God but also other goods which we hope to obtain from God. Therefore hope is not a theological | |
| 6194 virtue. | |
| 6195 </p> | |
| 6196 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p3"> | |
| 6197 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a theological virtue is not a mean between two vices, as stated above ( | |
| 6198 <a id="SS_Q17_A5-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q64_A4.html">FS, Q[64], A[4]</a>). But hope is a mean between presumption and despair. Therefore hope is not a theological virtue. | |
| 6199 </p> | |
| 6200 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p4"> | |
| 6201 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, expectation belongs to longanimity which is a species of fortitude. Since, then, hope is a kind of expectation, | |
| 6202 it seems that hope is not a theological, but a moral virtue. | |
| 6203 </p> | |
| 6204 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p5"> | |
| 6205 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the object of hope is something arduous. But it belongs to magnanimity, which is a moral virtue, to tend to the | |
| 6206 arduous. Therefore hope is a moral, and not a theological virtue. | |
| 6207 </p> | |
| 6208 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p6"> | |
| 6209 <b>On the contrary,</b> Hope is enumerated ( | |
| 6210 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A5-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13</a>) together with faith and charity, which are theological virtues. | |
| 6211 </p> | |
| 6212 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p7"> | |
| 6213 <b>I answer that,</b> Since specific differences, by their very nature, divide a genus, in order to decide under what division we must place hope, | |
| 6214 we must observe whence it derives its character of virtue. | |
| 6215 </p> | |
| 6216 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p8"> Now it has been stated above | |
| 6217 <a id="SS_Q17_A5-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a> that hope has the character of virtue from the fact that it attains the supreme rule of human actions: and this it attains | |
| 6218 both as its first efficient cause, in as much as it leans on its assistance, and as its last final cause, in as much as it | |
| 6219 expects happiness in the enjoyment thereof. Hence it is evident that God is the principal object of hope, considered as a | |
| 6220 virtue. Since, then, the very idea of a theological | |
| 6221 virtue is one that has God for its object, as stated above ( | |
| 6222 <a id="SS_Q17_A5-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q62_A1.html">FS, Q[62], A[1]</a>), it is evident that hope is a theological virtue. | |
| 6223 </p> | |
| 6224 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p9"> | |
| 6225 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Whatever else hope expects to obtain, it hopes for it in reference to God as the last end, or as the first efficient cause, | |
| 6226 as stated above | |
| 6227 <a id="SS_Q17_A5-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. | |
| 6228 </p> | |
| 6229 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p10"> | |
| 6230 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In things measured and ruled the mean consists in the measure or rule being attained; if we go beyond the rule, there is | |
| 6231 excess, if we fall short of the rule, there is deficiency. But in the rule or measure itself there is no such thing as a mean | |
| 6232 or extremes. Now a moral virtue is concerned with things ruled by reason, and these things are its proper object; wherefore | |
| 6233 it is proper to it to follow the mean as regards its proper object. On the other | |
| 6234 hand, a theological virtue is concerned with the First Rule not ruled by another rule, and that Rule is its proper object. | |
| 6235 Wherefore it is not proper for a theological virtue, with regard to its proper object, to follow the mean, although this may | |
| 6236 happen to it accidentally with regard to something that is referred to its principal object. Thus faith can have no mean or | |
| 6237 extremes in the point of trusting to the First Truth, in which it is impossible to trust too much; whereas on the part of | |
| 6238 the | |
| 6239 things believed, it may have a mean and extremes; for instance one truth is a mean between two falsehoods. So too, hope has | |
| 6240 no mean or extremes, as regards its principal object, since it is impossible to trust too much in the Divine assistance; yet | |
| 6241 it may have a mean and extremes, as regards those things a man trusts to obtain, in so far as he either presumes above his | |
| 6242 capability, or despairs of things of which he is capable. | |
| 6243 </p> | |
| 6244 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p11"> | |
| 6245 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The expectation which is mentioned in the definition of hope does not imply delay, as does the expectation which belongs | |
| 6246 to longanimity. It implies a reference to the Divine assistance, whether that which we hope for be delayed or not. | |
| 6247 </p> | |
| 6248 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p12"> | |
| 6249 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Magnanimity tends to something arduous in the hope of obtaining something that is within one's power, wherefore its proper | |
| 6250 object is the doing of great things. On the other hand hope, as a theological virtue, regards something arduous, to be obtained | |
| 6251 by another's help, as stated above | |
| 6252 <a id="SS_Q17_A5-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. | |
| 6253 </p> | |
| 6254 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p13"></p> | |
| 6255 <p id="SS_Q17_A5-p14"></p> | |
| 6256 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6257 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A6.html"></a> | |
| 6258 </div> | |
| 6259 <div id="SS_Q17_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 6260 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6261 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html"></a> | |
| 6262 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A6-p0.1">Whether hope is distinct from the other theological virtues?</h4> | |
| 6263 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 6264 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p2"> | |
| 6265 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hope is not distinct from the other theological virtues. For habits are distinguished by their objects, | |
| 6266 as stated above ( | |
| 6267 <a id="SS_Q17_A6-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>). Now the object of hope is the same as of the other theological virtues. Therefore hope is not distinct from the other theological | |
| 6268 virtues. | |
| 6269 </p> | |
| 6270 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p3"> | |
| 6271 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in the symbol of faith, whereby we make profession of faith, we say: "I expect the resurrection of the dead and | |
| 6272 the life of the world to come." Now expectation of future happiness belongs to hope, as stated above | |
| 6273 <a id="SS_Q17_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html">(A[5])</a>. Therefore hope is not distinct from faith. | |
| 6274 </p> | |
| 6275 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p4"> | |
| 6276 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by hope man tends to God. But this belongs properly to charity. Therefore hope is not distinct from charity. | |
| 6277 </p> | |
| 6278 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p5"> | |
| 6279 <b>On the contrary,</b> There cannot be number without distinction. Now hope is numbered with the other theological virtues: for Gregory says (Moral. | |
| 6280 i, 16) that the three virtues are faith, hope, and charity. Therefore hope is distinct from the theological virtues. | |
| 6281 </p> | |
| 6282 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p6"> | |
| 6283 <b>I answer that,</b> A virtue is said to be theological from having God for the object to which it adheres. Now one may adhere to a thing in two | |
| 6284 ways: first, for its own sake; secondly, because something else is attained thereby. Accordingly charity makes us adhere to | |
| 6285 God for His own sake, uniting our minds to God by the emotion of love. | |
| 6286 </p> | |
| 6287 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p7"> On the other hand, hope and faith make man adhere to God as to a principle wherefrom certain things accrue to us. Now we | |
| 6288 derive from God both knowledge of truth and the attainment of perfect goodness. Accordingly faith makes us adhere to God, | |
| 6289 as the source whence we derive the knowledge of truth, since we believe that what God tells us is true: while hope makes us | |
| 6290 adhere to God, as the source whence we derive perfect goodness, i.e. in so far as, by hope, we trust to the Divine | |
| 6291 assistance for obtaining happiness. | |
| 6292 </p> | |
| 6293 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p8"> | |
| 6294 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> God is the object of these virtues under different aspects, as stated above: and a different aspect of the object suffices | |
| 6295 for the distinction of habits, as stated above ( | |
| 6296 <a id="SS_Q17_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>). | |
| 6297 </p> | |
| 6298 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p9"> | |
| 6299 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Expectation is mentioned in the symbol of faith, not as though it were the proper act of faith, but because the act of hope | |
| 6300 presupposes the act of faith, as we shall state further on | |
| 6301 <a id="SS_Q17_A6-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. Hence an act of faith is expressed in the act of hope. | |
| 6302 </p> | |
| 6303 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p10"> | |
| 6304 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope makes us tend to God, as to a good to be obtained finally, and as to a helper strong to assist: whereas charity, properly | |
| 6305 speaking, makes us tend to God, by uniting our affections to Him, so that we live, not for ourselves, but for God. | |
| 6306 </p> | |
| 6307 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 6308 <p id="SS_Q17_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 6309 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6310 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html"></a> | |
| 6311 </div> | |
| 6312 <div id="SS_Q17_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 6313 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A6.html"></a> | |
| 6314 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html"></a> | |
| 6315 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A7-p0.1">Whether hope precedes faith?</h4> | |
| 6316 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 6317 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p2"> | |
| 6318 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hope precedes faith. Because a gloss on | |
| 6319 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.36.3" target="asv">Ps. 36:3</a>, "Trust in the Lord, and do good," says: "Hope is the entrance to faith and the beginning of salvation." But salvation is | |
| 6320 by faith whereby we are justified. Therefore hope precedes faith. | |
| 6321 </p> | |
| 6322 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p3"> | |
| 6323 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is included in a definition should precede the thing defined and be more known. But hope is included | |
| 6324 in the definition of faith ( | |
| 6325 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.1" target="asv">Heb. 11:1</a>): "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped for." Therefore hope precedes faith. | |
| 6326 </p> | |
| 6327 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p4"> | |
| 6328 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hope precedes a meritorious act, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 6329 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A7-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.9.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 9:10</a>): "He that plougheth should plough in hope . . . to receive fruit." But the act of faith is meritorious. Therefore hope precedes | |
| 6330 faith. | |
| 6331 </p> | |
| 6332 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p5"> | |
| 6333 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 6334 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.1.2" target="asv">Mat. 1:2</a>): "Abraham begot Isaac," i.e. "Faith begot hope," according to a gloss. | |
| 6335 </p> | |
| 6336 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p6"> | |
| 6337 <b>I answer that,</b> Absolutely speaking, faith precedes hope. For the object of hope is a future good, arduous but possible to obtain. In order, | |
| 6338 therefore, that we may hope, it is necessary for the object of hope to be proposed to us as possible. Now the object of hope | |
| 6339 is, in one way, eternal happiness, and in another way, the Divine assistance, as explained above | |
| 6340 <a id="SS_Q17_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html">(A[2];</a> A[6], ad 3): and both of these are proposed to us by faith, whereby we come to know | |
| 6341 that we are able to obtain eternal life, and that for this purpose the Divine assistance is ready for us, according to | |
| 6342 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A7-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Heb.11.6" target="asv"> Heb. 11:6</a>: "He that cometh to God, must believe that He is, and is a rewarder to them that seek Him." Therefore it is evident that | |
| 6343 faith precedes hope. | |
| 6344 </p> | |
| 6345 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p7"> | |
| 6346 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As the same gloss observes further on, "hope" is called "the entrance" to faith, i.e. of the thing believed, because by hope | |
| 6347 we enter in to see what we believe. Or we may reply that it is called the "entrance to faith," because thereby man begins | |
| 6348 to be established and perfected in faith. | |
| 6349 </p> | |
| 6350 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p8"> | |
| 6351 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The thing to be hoped for is included in the definition of faith, because the proper object of faith, is something not apparent | |
| 6352 in itself. Hence it was necessary to express it in a circumlocution by something resulting from faith. | |
| 6353 </p> | |
| 6354 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p9"> | |
| 6355 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope does not precede every meritorious act; but it suffices for it to accompany or follow it. | |
| 6356 </p> | |
| 6357 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p10"></p> | |
| 6358 <p id="SS_Q17_A7-p11"></p> | |
| 6359 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A6.html"></a> | |
| 6360 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html"></a> | |
| 6361 </div> | |
| 6362 <div id="SS_Q17_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 6363 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html"></a> | |
| 6364 <a href="summa.SS_Q18.html"></a> | |
| 6365 <h4 id="SS_Q17_A8-p0.1">Whether charity precedes hope?</h4> | |
| 6366 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 6367 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p2"> | |
| 6368 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity precedes hope. For Ambrose says on | |
| 6369 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.27.6" target="asv">Lk. 27:6</a>, "If you had faith like to a grain of mustard seed," etc.: "Charity flows from faith, and hope from charity." But faith precedes | |
| 6370 charity. Therefore charity precedes hope. | |
| 6371 </p> | |
| 6372 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p3"> | |
| 6373 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 9) that "good emotions and affections proceed from love and holy charity." Now | |
| 6374 to hope, considered as an act of hope, is a good emotion of the soul. Therefore it flows from charity. | |
| 6375 </p> | |
| 6376 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p4"> | |
| 6377 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Master says (Sent. iii, D, 26) that hope proceeds from merits, which precede not only the thing hoped for, but | |
| 6378 also hope itself, which, in the order of nature, is preceded by charity. Therefore charity precedes hope. | |
| 6379 </p> | |
| 6380 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p5"> | |
| 6381 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 6382 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q17_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.5" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:5</a>): "The end of the commandment is charity from a pure heart, and a good conscience," i.e. "from hope," according to a gloss. | |
| 6383 Therefore hope precedes charity. | |
| 6384 </p> | |
| 6385 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p6"> | |
| 6386 <b>I answer that,</b> Order is twofold. One is the order of generation and of matter, in respect of which the imperfect precedes the perfect: the | |
| 6387 other is the order of perfection and form, in respect of which the perfect naturally precedes the imperfect. In respect of | |
| 6388 the first order hope precedes charity: and this is clear from the fact that hope and all movements of the appetite flow from | |
| 6389 love, as stated above ( | |
| 6390 <a id="SS_Q17_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q27_A4.html">FS, Q[27], A[4]</a>; | |
| 6391 <a id="SS_Q17_A8-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q28_A6.html">FS, | |
| 6392 Q[28], A[6] | |
| 6393 </a>, ad 2; | |
| 6394 <a id="SS_Q17_A8-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A7.html">FS, Q[40], A[7]</a>) in the treatise on the passions. | |
| 6395 </p> | |
| 6396 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p7"> Now there is a perfect, and an imperfect love. Perfect love is that whereby a man is loved in himself, as when someone wishes | |
| 6397 a person some good for his own sake; thus a man loves his friend. Imperfect love is that whereby a man love something, not | |
| 6398 for its own sake, but that he may obtain that good for himself; thus a man loves what he desires. The first love of God pertains | |
| 6399 to charity, which adheres to God for His own sake; while hope pertains to the second love, since he that | |
| 6400 hopes, intends to obtain possession of something for himself. | |
| 6401 </p> | |
| 6402 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p8"> Hence in the order of generation, hope precedes charity. For just as a man is led to love God, through fear of being punished | |
| 6403 by Him for his sins, as Augustine states (In primam canon. Joan. Tract. ix), so too, hope leads to charity, in as much as | |
| 6404 a man through hoping to be rewarded by God, is encouraged to love God and obey His commandments. On the other hand, in the | |
| 6405 order of perfection charity naturally precedes hope, wherefore, with the advent of charity, hope is made more | |
| 6406 perfect, because we hope chiefly in our friends. It is in this sense that Ambrose states (OBJ[1]) that charity flows from | |
| 6407 hope: so that this suffices for the Reply to the First Objection. | |
| 6408 </p> | |
| 6409 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p9"> | |
| 6410 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hope and every movement of the appetite proceed from some kind of love, whereby the expected good is loved. But not every | |
| 6411 kind of hope proceeds from charity, but only the movement of living hope, viz. that whereby man hopes to obtain good from | |
| 6412 God, as from a friend. | |
| 6413 </p> | |
| 6414 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p10"> | |
| 6415 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The Master is speaking of living hope, which is naturally preceded by charity and the merits caused by charity. | |
| 6416 </p> | |
| 6417 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 6418 <p id="SS_Q17_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 6419 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html"></a> | |
| 6420 <a href="summa.SS_Q18.html"></a> | |
| 6421 </div> | |
| 6422 <a href="summa.SS_Q16_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6423 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6424 </div> | |
| 6425 <div id="SS_Q18" class="div3"> | |
| 6426 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html"></a> | |
| 6427 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6428 <h3 id="SS_Q18-p0.1">OF THE SUBJECT OF HOPE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 6429 <p id="SS_Q18-p1"></p> | |
| 6430 <p id="SS_Q18-p2"> We must now consider the subject of hope, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 6431 <p id="SS_Q18-p3"> (1) Whether the virtue of hope is in the will as its subject?</p> | |
| 6432 <p id="SS_Q18-p4"> (2) Whether it is in the blessed?</p> | |
| 6433 <p id="SS_Q18-p5"> (3) Whether it is in the damned?</p> | |
| 6434 <p id="SS_Q18-p6"> (4) Whether there is certainty in the hope of the wayfarer?</p> | |
| 6435 <div id="SS_Q18_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 6436 <a href="summa.SS_Q18.html"></a> | |
| 6437 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6438 <h4 id="SS_Q18_A1-p0.1">Whether hope is in the will as its subject?</h4> | |
| 6439 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 6440 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p2"> | |
| 6441 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hope is not in the will as its subject. For the object of hope is an arduous good, as stated above (Q[17], | |
| 6442 A[1]; | |
| 6443 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A1.html">FS, Q[40], A[1]</a>). Now the arduous is the object, not of the will, but of the irascible. Therefore hope is not in the will but in the irascible. | |
| 6444 </p> | |
| 6445 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p3"> | |
| 6446 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, where one suffices it is superfluous to add another. Now charity suffices for the perfecting of the will, which | |
| 6447 is the most perfect of the virtues. Therefore hope is not in the will. | |
| 6448 </p> | |
| 6449 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p4"> | |
| 6450 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the one same power cannot exercise two acts at the same time; thus the intellect cannot understand many things simultaneously. | |
| 6451 Now the act of hope can be at the same time as an act of charity. Since, then, the act of charity evidently belongs to the | |
| 6452 will, it follows that the act of hope does not belong to that power: so that, therefore, hope is not in the will. | |
| 6453 </p> | |
| 6454 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p5"> | |
| 6455 <b>On the contrary,</b> The soul is not apprehensive of God save as regards the mind in which is memory, intellect and will, as Augustine declares | |
| 6456 (De Trin. xiv, 3,6). Now hope is a theological virtue having God for its object. Since therefore it is neither in the memory, | |
| 6457 nor in the intellect, which belong to the cognitive faculty, it follows that it is in the will as its subject. | |
| 6458 </p> | |
| 6459 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p6"> | |
| 6460 <b>I answer that,</b> As shown above ( | |
| 6461 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html">FP, Q[87], A[2]</a>), habits are known by their acts. Now the act of hope is a movement of the appetitive faculty, since its object is a good. | |
| 6462 And, since there is a twofold appetite in man, namely, the sensitive which is divided into irascible and concupiscible, and | |
| 6463 the intellective appetite, called the will, as stated in the | |
| 6464 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A5.html">FP, Q[82], A[5]</a>, those movements which occur in the lower appetite, are | |
| 6465 with passion, while those in the higher appetite are without passion, as shown above ( | |
| 6466 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q87_A2.html">FP, Q[87], A[2]</a>, ad 1; | |
| 6467 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p6.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q22_A3.html">FS, Q[22], A[3]</a>, ad 3). Now the act of the virtue of hope cannot belong to the sensitive appetite, since the good which is the principal | |
| 6468 object of this virtue, is not a sensible but a Divine good. Therefore hope resides in the higher appetite called the will, | |
| 6469 and not in the lower appetite, of which the irascible is a part. | |
| 6470 </p> | |
| 6471 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p7"> | |
| 6472 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The object of the irascible is an arduous sensible: whereas the object of the virtue of hope is an arduous intelligible, | |
| 6473 or rather superintelligible. | |
| 6474 </p> | |
| 6475 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p8"> | |
| 6476 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity perfects the will sufficiently with regard to one act, which is the act of loving: but another virtue is required | |
| 6477 in order to perfect it with regard to its other act, which is that of hoping. | |
| 6478 </p> | |
| 6479 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p9"> | |
| 6480 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The movement of hope and the movement of charity are mutually related, as was shown above (Q[17], A[8]). Hence there is no | |
| 6481 reason why both movements should not belong at the same time to the same power: even as the intellect can understand many | |
| 6482 things at the same time if they be related to one another, as stated in the | |
| 6483 <a id="SS_Q18_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html">FP, Q[85], A[4]</a>. | |
| 6484 </p> | |
| 6485 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 6486 <p id="SS_Q18_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 6487 <a href="summa.SS_Q18.html"></a> | |
| 6488 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6489 </div> | |
| 6490 <div id="SS_Q18_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 6491 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6492 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6493 <h4 id="SS_Q18_A2-p0.1">Whether in the blessed there is hope?</h4> | |
| 6494 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 6495 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p2"> | |
| 6496 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in the blessed there is hope. For Christ was a perfect comprehensor from the first moment of His conception. | |
| 6497 Now He had hope, since, according to a gloss, the words of | |
| 6498 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.30.2" target="asv"> Ps. 30:2, </a> "In Thee, O Lord, have I hoped," are said in His person. Therefore in the blessed there can be hope. | |
| 6499 </p> | |
| 6500 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p3"> | |
| 6501 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, even as the obtaining of happiness is an arduous good, so is its continuation. Now, before they obtain happiness, | |
| 6502 men hope to obtain it. Therefore, after they have obtained it, they can hope to continue in its possession. | |
| 6503 </p> | |
| 6504 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p4"> | |
| 6505 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by the virtue of hope, a man can hope for happiness, not only for himself, but also for others, as stated above | |
| 6506 ( | |
| 6507 <a id="SS_Q18_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A3.html">Q[17], A[3]</a>). But the blessed who are in heaven hope for the happiness of others, else they would not pray for them. Therefore there | |
| 6508 can be hope in them. | |
| 6509 </p> | |
| 6510 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p5"> | |
| 6511 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the happiness of the saints implies not only glory of the soul but also glory of the body. Now the souls of the | |
| 6512 saints in heaven, look yet for the glory of their bodies ( | |
| 6513 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rev.6.10" target="asv">Apoc. 6:10</a>; Augustine, Gen. ad lit. xii, 35). Therefore in the blessed there can be hope. | |
| 6514 </p> | |
| 6515 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p6"> | |
| 6516 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 6517 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.24" target="asv">Rom. 8:24</a>): "What a man seeth, why doth he hope for?" Now the blessed enjoy the sight of God. Therefore hope has no place in them. | |
| 6518 </p> | |
| 6519 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p7"> | |
| 6520 <b>I answer that,</b> If what gives a thing its species be removed, the species is destroyed, and that thing cannot remain the same; just as when | |
| 6521 a natural body loses its form, it does not remain the same specifically. Now hope takes its species from its principal object, | |
| 6522 even as the other virtues do, as was shown above (Q[17], AA[5],6; | |
| 6523 <a id="SS_Q18_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>): and its principal object is eternal happiness as being possible to obtain by the assistance of God, as | |
| 6524 stated above (Q[17], A[2]). | |
| 6525 </p> | |
| 6526 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p8"> Since then the arduous possible good cannot be an object of hope except in so far as it is something future, it follows that | |
| 6527 when happiness is no longer future, but present, it is incompatible with the virtue of hope. Consequently hope, like faith, | |
| 6528 is voided in heaven, and neither of them can be in the blessed. | |
| 6529 </p> | |
| 6530 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p9"> | |
| 6531 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although Christ was a comprehensor and therefore blessed as to the enjoyment of God, nevertheless He was, at the same time, | |
| 6532 a wayfarer, as regards the passibility of nature, to which He was still subject. Hence it was possible for Him to hope for | |
| 6533 the glory of impassibility and immortality, yet not so as to the virtue of hope, the principal object of which is not the | |
| 6534 glory of the body but the enjoyment of God. | |
| 6535 </p> | |
| 6536 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p10"> | |
| 6537 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The happiness of the saints is called eternal life, because through enjoying God they become partakers, as it were, of God's | |
| 6538 eternity which surpasses all time: so that the continuation of happiness does not differ in respect of present, past and future. | |
| 6539 Hence the blessed do not hope for the continuation of their happiness (for as regards this there is no future), but are in | |
| 6540 actual possession thereof. | |
| 6541 </p> | |
| 6542 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p11"> | |
| 6543 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> So long as the virtue of hope lasts, it is by the same hope that one hopes for one's own happiness, and for that of others. | |
| 6544 But when hope is voided in the blessed, whereby they hoped for their own happiness, they hope for the happiness of others | |
| 6545 indeed, yet not by the virtue of hope, but rather by the love of charity. Even so, he that has Divine charity, by that same | |
| 6546 charity loves his neighbor, without having the virtue of charity, but by some other | |
| 6547 love. | |
| 6548 </p> | |
| 6549 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p12"> | |
| 6550 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Since hope is a theological virtue having God for its object, its principal object is the glory of the soul, which consists | |
| 6551 in the enjoyment of God, and not the glory of the body. Moreover, although the glory of the body is something arduous in comparison | |
| 6552 with human nature, yet it is not so for one who has the glory of the soul; both because the glory of the body is a very small | |
| 6553 thing as compared with the glory of the soul, and because one who has the | |
| 6554 glory of the soul has already the sufficient cause of the glory of the body. | |
| 6555 </p> | |
| 6556 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 6557 <p id="SS_Q18_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 6558 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6559 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6560 </div> | |
| 6561 <div id="SS_Q18_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 6562 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6563 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6564 <h4 id="SS_Q18_A3-p0.1">Whether hope is in the damned?</h4> | |
| 6565 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 6566 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p2"> | |
| 6567 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is hope in the damned. For the devil is damned and prince of the damned, according to | |
| 6568 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.25.41" target="asv"> Mat. 25:41</a>: "Depart . . . you cursed, into everlasting fire, which was prepared for the devil and his angels." But the devil has hope, | |
| 6569 according to | |
| 6570 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Job.40.28" target="asv"> Job 40:28, </a> "Behold his hope shall fail him." Therefore it seems that the damned have hope. | |
| 6571 </p> | |
| 6572 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p3"> | |
| 6573 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as faith is either living or dead, so is hope. But lifeless faith can be in the devils and the damned, according | |
| 6574 to | |
| 6575 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.19" target="asv">James 2:19</a>: "The devils . . . believe and tremble." Therefore it seems that lifeless hope also can be in the damned. | |
| 6576 </p> | |
| 6577 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p4"> | |
| 6578 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, after death there accrues to man no merit or demerit that he had not before, according to | |
| 6579 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.11.3" target="asv"> Eccles. 11:3, </a> "If the tree fall to the south, or to the north, in what place soever it shall fall, there shall it be." Now many who are | |
| 6580 damned, in this life hoped and never despaired. Therefore they will hope in the future life also. | |
| 6581 </p> | |
| 6582 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p5"> | |
| 6583 <b>On the contrary,</b> Hope causes joy, according to | |
| 6584 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.12" target="asv"> Rom. 12:12, </a> "Rejoicing in hope." Now the damned have no joy, but sorrow and grief, according to | |
| 6585 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Isa.65.14" target="asv">Is. 65:14</a>, "My servants shall praise for joyfulness of heart, and you shall cry for sorrow of heart, and shall howl for grief of spirit." | |
| 6586 Therefore no hope is in the damned. | |
| 6587 </p> | |
| 6588 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p6"> | |
| 6589 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as it is a condition of happiness that the will should find rest therein, so is it a condition of punishment, that what | |
| 6590 is inflicted in punishment, should go against the will. Now that which is not known can neither be restful nor repugnant to | |
| 6591 the will: wherefore Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xi, 17) that the angels could not be perfectly happy in their first state | |
| 6592 before their confirmation, or unhappy before their fall, since they had no foreknowledge | |
| 6593 of what would happen to them. For perfect and true happiness requires that one should be certain of being happy for ever, | |
| 6594 else the will would not rest. | |
| 6595 </p> | |
| 6596 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p7"> In like manner, since the everlastingness of damnation is a necessary condition of the punishment of the damned, it would | |
| 6597 not be truly penal unless it went against the will; and this would be impossible if they were ignorant of the everlastingness | |
| 6598 of their damnation. Hence it belongs to the unhappy state of the damned, that they should know that they cannot by any means | |
| 6599 escape from damnation and obtain happiness. Wherefore it is written ( | |
| 6600 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Job.15.22" target="asv">Job 15:22</a>): "He | |
| 6601 believeth not that he may return from darkness to light." It is, therefore, evident that they cannot apprehend happiness as | |
| 6602 a possible good, as neither can the blessed apprehend it as a future good. Consequently there is no hope either in the blessed | |
| 6603 or in the damned. On the other hand, hope can be in wayfarers, whether of this life or in purgatory, because in either case | |
| 6604 they apprehend happiness as a future possible thing. | |
| 6605 </p> | |
| 6606 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p8"> | |
| 6607 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Gregory says (Moral. xxxiii, 20) this is said of the devil as regards his members, whose hope will fail utterly: or, if | |
| 6608 it be understood of the devil himself, it may refer to the hope whereby he expects to vanquish the saints, in which sense | |
| 6609 we read just before ( | |
| 6610 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Job.40.18" target="asv">Job 40:18</a>): "He trusteth that the Jordan may run into his mouth": this is not, however, the hope of which we are speaking. | |
| 6611 </p> | |
| 6612 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p9"> | |
| 6613 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine says (Enchiridion viii), "faith is about things, bad or good, past, present, or future, one's own or another's; | |
| 6614 whereas hope is only about good things, future and concerning oneself." Hence it is possible for lifeless faith to be in the | |
| 6615 damned, but not hope, since the Divine goods are not for them future possible things, but far removed from them. | |
| 6616 </p> | |
| 6617 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p10"> | |
| 6618 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Lack of hope in the damned does not change their demerit, as neither does the voiding of hope in the blessed increase their | |
| 6619 merit: but both these things are due to the change in their respective states. | |
| 6620 </p> | |
| 6621 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 6622 <p id="SS_Q18_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 6623 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6624 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6625 </div> | |
| 6626 <div id="SS_Q18_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 6627 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6628 <a href="summa.SS_Q19.html"></a> | |
| 6629 <h4 id="SS_Q18_A4-p0.1">Whether there is certainty in the hope of a wayfarer?</h4> | |
| 6630 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 6631 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p2"> | |
| 6632 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is no certainty in the hope of a wayfarer. For hope resides in the will. But certainty pertains | |
| 6633 not to the will but to the intellect. Therefore there is no certainty in hope. | |
| 6634 </p> | |
| 6635 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p3"> | |
| 6636 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, hope is based on grace and merits, as stated above (Q[17], A[1]). Now it is impossible in this life to know for | |
| 6637 certain that we are in a state of grace, as stated above ( | |
| 6638 <a id="SS_Q18_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q112_A5.html">FS, Q[112], A[5]</a>). Therefore there is no certainty in the hope of a wayfarer. | |
| 6639 </p> | |
| 6640 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p4"> | |
| 6641 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, there can be no certainty about that which may fail. Now many a hopeful wayfarer fails to obtain happiness. Therefore | |
| 6642 wayfarer's hope has no certainty. | |
| 6643 </p> | |
| 6644 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p5"> | |
| 6645 <b>On the contrary,</b> "Hope is the certain expectation of future happiness," as the Master states (Sent. iii, D, 26): and this may be gathered | |
| 6646 from | |
| 6647 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q18_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.1.12" target="asv">2 Tim. 1:12, </a> "I know Whom I have believed, and I am certain that He is able to keep that which I have committed to Him." | |
| 6648 </p> | |
| 6649 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p6"> | |
| 6650 <b>I answer that,</b> Certainty is found in a thing in two ways, essentially and by participation. It is found essentially in the cognitive power; | |
| 6651 by participation in whatever is moved infallibly to its end by the cognitive power. In this way we say that nature works with | |
| 6652 certainty, since it is moved by the Divine intellect which moves everything with certainty to its end. In this way too, the | |
| 6653 moral virtues are said to work with greater certainty than art, in as much as, like a | |
| 6654 second nature, they are moved to their acts by the reason: and thus too, hope tends to its end with certainty, as though sharing | |
| 6655 in the certainty of faith which is in the cognitive faculty. | |
| 6656 </p> | |
| 6657 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p7"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 6658 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p8"> | |
| 6659 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hope does not trust chiefly in grace already received, but on God's omnipotence and mercy, whereby even he that has not grace, | |
| 6660 can obtain it, so as to come to eternal life. Now whoever has faith is certain of God's omnipotence and mercy. | |
| 6661 </p> | |
| 6662 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p9"> | |
| 6663 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That some who have hope fail to obtain happiness, is due to a fault of the free will in placing the obstacle of sin, but | |
| 6664 not to any deficiency in God's power or mercy, in which hope places its trust. Hence this does not prejudice the certainty | |
| 6665 of hope. | |
| 6666 </p> | |
| 6667 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 6668 <p id="SS_Q18_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 6669 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6670 <a href="summa.SS_Q19.html"></a> | |
| 6671 </div> | |
| 6672 <a href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html"></a> | |
| 6673 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6674 </div> | |
| 6675 <div id="SS_Q19" class="div3"> | |
| 6676 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6677 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6678 <h3 id="SS_Q19-p0.1">OF THE GIFT OF FEAR (TWELVE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 6679 <p id="SS_Q19-p1"></p> | |
| 6680 <p id="SS_Q19-p2"> We must now consider the gift of fear, about which there are twelve points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 6681 <p id="SS_Q19-p3"> (1) Whether God is to be feared?</p> | |
| 6682 <p id="SS_Q19-p4"> (2) Of the division of fear into filial, initial, servile and worldly;</p> | |
| 6683 <p id="SS_Q19-p5"> (3) Whether worldly fear is always evil?</p> | |
| 6684 <p id="SS_Q19-p6"> (4) Whether servile fear is good?</p> | |
| 6685 <p id="SS_Q19-p7"> (5) Whether it is substantially the same as filial fear?</p> | |
| 6686 <p id="SS_Q19-p8"> (6) Whether servile fear departs when charity comes?</p> | |
| 6687 <p id="SS_Q19-p9"> (7) Whether fear is the beginning of wisdom?</p> | |
| 6688 <p id="SS_Q19-p10"> (8) Whether initial fear is substantially the same as filial fear?</p> | |
| 6689 <p id="SS_Q19-p11"> (9) Whether fear is a gift of the Holy Ghost?</p> | |
| 6690 <p id="SS_Q19-p12"> (10) Whether it grows when charity grows?</p> | |
| 6691 <p id="SS_Q19-p13"> (11) Whether it remains in heaven?</p> | |
| 6692 <p id="SS_Q19-p14"> (12) Which of the beatitudes and fruits correspond to it?</p> | |
| 6693 <div id="SS_Q19_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 6694 <a href="summa.SS_Q19.html"></a> | |
| 6695 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6696 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A1-p0.1">Whether God can be feared?</h4> | |
| 6697 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 6698 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p2"> | |
| 6699 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God cannot be feared. For the object of fear is a future evil, as stated above ( | |
| 6700 <a id="SS_Q19_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q41_A2.html">FS, Q[41], AA[2]</a>,3). But God is free of all evil, since He is goodness itself. Therefore God cannot be feared. | |
| 6701 </p> | |
| 6702 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p3"> | |
| 6703 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, fear is opposed to hope. Now we hope in God. Therefore we cannot fear Him at the same time. | |
| 6704 </p> | |
| 6705 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p4"> | |
| 6706 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, 5), "we fear those things whence evil comes to us." But evil comes to us, not | |
| 6707 from God, but from ourselves, according to | |
| 6708 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Hos.13.9" target="asv"> Osee 13:9</a>: "Destruction is thy own, O Israel: thy help is . . . in Me." Therefore God is not to be feared. | |
| 6709 </p> | |
| 6710 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p5"> | |
| 6711 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 6712 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.10.7" target="asv">Jer. 10:7</a>): "Who shall not fear Thee, O King of nations?" and ( | |
| 6713 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Mal.1.6" target="asv">Malachi 1:6</a>): "If I be a master, where is My fear?" | |
| 6714 </p> | |
| 6715 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p6"> | |
| 6716 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as hope has two objects, one of which is the future good itself, that one expects to obtain, while the other is someone's | |
| 6717 help, through whom one expects to obtain what one hopes for, so, too, fear may have two objects, one of which is the very | |
| 6718 evil which a man shrinks from, while the other is that from which the evil may come. Accordingly, in the first way God, Who | |
| 6719 is goodness itself, cannot be an object of fear; but He can be an object of fear in the | |
| 6720 second way, in so far as there may come to us some evil either from Him or in relation to Him. | |
| 6721 </p> | |
| 6722 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p7"> From Him there comes the evil of punishment, but this is evil not absolutely but relatively, and, absolutely speaking, is | |
| 6723 a good. Because, since a thing is said to be good through being ordered to an end, while evil implies lack of this order, | |
| 6724 that which excludes the order to the last end is altogether evil, and such is the evil of fault. On the other hand the evil | |
| 6725 of punishment is indeed an evil, in so far as it is the privation of some particular good, yet absolutely speaking, | |
| 6726 it is a good, in so far as it is ordained to the last end. | |
| 6727 </p> | |
| 6728 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p8"> In relation to God the evil of fault can come to us, if we be separated from Him: and in this way God can and ought to be | |
| 6729 feared. | |
| 6730 </p> | |
| 6731 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p9"> | |
| 6732 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This objection considers the object of fear as being the evil which a man shuns. | |
| 6733 </p> | |
| 6734 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p10"> | |
| 6735 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In God, we may consider both His justice, in respect of which He punishes those who sin, and His mercy, in respect of which | |
| 6736 He sets us free: in us the consideration of His justice gives rise to fear, but the consideration of His mercy gives rise | |
| 6737 to hope, so that, accordingly, God is the object of both hope and fear, but under different aspects. | |
| 6738 </p> | |
| 6739 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p11"> | |
| 6740 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The evil of fault is not from God as its author but from us, in for far as we forsake God: while the evil of punishment is | |
| 6741 from God as its author, in so far as it has character of a good, since it is something just, through being inflicted on us | |
| 6742 justly; although originally this is due to the demerit of sin: thus it is written ( | |
| 6743 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A1-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.1.13" target="asv">Wis. 1:13</a>, | |
| 6744 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A1-p11.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.1.16" target="asv">16</a>): "God made not death . . . but the wicked with works and words have called it to them." | |
| 6745 </p> | |
| 6746 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 6747 <p id="SS_Q19_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 6748 <a href="summa.SS_Q19.html"></a> | |
| 6749 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6750 </div> | |
| 6751 <div id="SS_Q19_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 6752 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6753 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6754 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A2-p0.1">Whether fear is fittingly divided into filial, initial, servile and worldly fear?</h4> | |
| 6755 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 6756 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p2"> | |
| 6757 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear is unfittingly divided into filial, initial, servile and worldly fear. For Damascene says (De Fide | |
| 6758 Orth. ii, 15) that there are six kinds of fear, viz. "laziness, shamefacedness," etc. of which we have treated above ( | |
| 6759 <a id="SS_Q19_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q41_A4.html">FS, Q[41], A[4]</a>), and which are not mentioned in the division in question. Therefore this division of fear seems unfitting. | |
| 6760 </p> | |
| 6761 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p3"> | |
| 6762 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, each of these fears is either good or evil. But there is a fear, viz. natural fear, which is neither morally good, | |
| 6763 since it is in the demons, according to | |
| 6764 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.2.19" target="asv"> James 2:19, </a> "The devils . . . believe and tremble," nor evil, since it is in Christ, according to | |
| 6765 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A2-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Mark.14.33" target="asv"> Mk. 14:33, </a> Jesus "began to fear and be heavy." Therefore the aforesaid division of fear is insufficient. | |
| 6766 </p> | |
| 6767 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p4"> | |
| 6768 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the relation of son to father differs from that of wife to husband, and this again from that of servant to master. | |
| 6769 Now filial fear, which is that of the son in comparison with his father, is distinct from servile fear, which is that of the | |
| 6770 servant in comparison with his master. Therefore chaste fear, which seems to be that of the wife in comparison with her husband, | |
| 6771 ought to be distinguished from all these other fears. | |
| 6772 </p> | |
| 6773 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p5"> | |
| 6774 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, even as servile fear fears punishment, so do initial and worldly fear. Therefore no distinction should be made between | |
| 6775 them. | |
| 6776 </p> | |
| 6777 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p6"> | |
| 6778 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, even as concupiscence is about some good, so is fear about some evil. Now "concupiscence of the eyes," which is | |
| 6779 the desire for things of this world, is distinct from "concupiscence of the flesh," which is the desire for one's own pleasure. | |
| 6780 Therefore "worldly fear," whereby one fears to lose external goods, is distinct from "human fear," whereby one fears harm | |
| 6781 to one's own person. | |
| 6782 </p> | |
| 6783 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p7"> On the contrary stands the authority of the Master (Sent. iii, D, 34).</p> | |
| 6784 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p8"> | |
| 6785 <b>I answer that,</b> We are speaking of fear now, in so far as it makes us turn, so to speak, to God or away from Him. For, since the object of | |
| 6786 fear is an evil, sometimes, on account of the evils he fears, man withdraws from God, and this is called human fear; while | |
| 6787 sometimes, on account of the evils he fears, he turns to God and adheres to Him. This latter evil is twofold, viz. evil of | |
| 6788 punishment, and evil of fault. | |
| 6789 </p> | |
| 6790 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p9"> Accordingly if a man turn to God and adhere to Him, through fear of punishment, it will be servile fear; but if it be on | |
| 6791 account of fear of committing a fault, it will be filial fear, for it becomes a child to fear offending its father. If, however, | |
| 6792 it be on account of both, it will be initial fear, which is between both these fears. As to whether it is possible to fear | |
| 6793 the evil of fault, the question has been treated above ( | |
| 6794 <a id="SS_Q19_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q42_A3.html">FS, Q[42], A[3]</a>) when we were | |
| 6795 considering the passion of fear. | |
| 6796 </p> | |
| 6797 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p10"> | |
| 6798 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Damascene divides fear as a passion of the soul: whereas this division of fear is taken from its relation to God, as explained | |
| 6799 above. | |
| 6800 </p> | |
| 6801 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p11"> | |
| 6802 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Moral good consists chiefly in turning to God, while moral evil consists chiefly in turning away from Him: wherefore all | |
| 6803 the fears mentioned above imply either moral evil or moral good. Now natural fear is presupposed to moral good and evil, and | |
| 6804 so it is not numbered among these kinds of fear. | |
| 6805 </p> | |
| 6806 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p12"> | |
| 6807 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The relation of servant to master is based on the power which the master exercises over the servant; whereas, on the contrary, | |
| 6808 the relation of a son to his father or of a wife to her husband is based on the son's affection towards his father to whom | |
| 6809 he submits himself, or on the wife's affection towards her husband to whom she binds herself in the union of love. Hence filial | |
| 6810 and chaste fear amount to the same, because by the love of charity God | |
| 6811 becomes our Father, according to | |
| 6812 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A2-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.15" target="asv">Rom. 8:15</a>, "You have received the spirit of adoption of sons, whereby we cry: Abba [Father]"; and by this same charity He is called | |
| 6813 our spouse, according to | |
| 6814 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A2-p12.2" href="./asv.html#iiCor.11.2" target="asv">2 Cor. 11:2, </a> "I have espoused you to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ": whereas servile fear has no connection | |
| 6815 with these, since it does not include charity in its definition. | |
| 6816 </p> | |
| 6817 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p13"> | |
| 6818 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> These three fears regard punishment but in different ways. For worldly or human fear regards a punishment which turns man | |
| 6819 away from God, and which God's enemies sometimes inflict or threaten: whereas servile and initial fear regard a punishment | |
| 6820 whereby men are drawn to God, and which is inflicted or threatened by God. Servile fear regards this punishment chiefly, while | |
| 6821 initial fear regards it secondarily. | |
| 6822 </p> | |
| 6823 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p14"> | |
| 6824 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> It amounts to the same whether man turns away from God through fear of losing his worldly goods, or through fear of forfeiting | |
| 6825 the well-being of his body, since external goods belong to the body. Hence both these fears are reckoned as one here, although | |
| 6826 they fear different evils, even as they correspond to the desire of different goods. This diversity causes a specific diversity | |
| 6827 of sins, all of which alike however lead man away from God. | |
| 6828 </p> | |
| 6829 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 6830 <p id="SS_Q19_A2-p16"></p> | |
| 6831 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A1.html"></a> | |
| 6832 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6833 </div> | |
| 6834 <div id="SS_Q19_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 6835 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6836 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6837 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A3-p0.1">Whether worldly fear is always evil?</h4> | |
| 6838 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 6839 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p2"> | |
| 6840 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that worldly fear is not always evil. Because regard for men seems to be a kind of human fear. Now some are | |
| 6841 blamed for having no regard for man, for instance, the unjust judge of whom we read ( | |
| 6842 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.18.2" target="asv">Lk. 18:2</a>) that he "feared not God, nor regarded man." Therefore it seems that worldly fear is not always evil. | |
| 6843 </p> | |
| 6844 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p3"> | |
| 6845 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, worldly fear seems to have reference to the punishments inflicted by the secular power. Now such like punishments | |
| 6846 incite us to good actions, according to | |
| 6847 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.13.3" target="asv"> Rom. 13:3, </a> "Wilt thou not be afraid of the power? Do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise from the same." Therefore worldly | |
| 6848 fear is not always evil. | |
| 6849 </p> | |
| 6850 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p4"> | |
| 6851 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it seems that what is in us naturally, is not evil, since our natural gifts are from God. Now it is natural to man | |
| 6852 to fear detriment to his body, and loss of his worldly goods, whereby the present life is supported. Therefore it seems that | |
| 6853 worldly fear is not always evil. | |
| 6854 </p> | |
| 6855 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p5"> | |
| 6856 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 6857 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.28" target="asv">Mat. 10:28</a>): "Fear ye not them that kill the body," thus forbidding worldly fear. Now nothing but what is evil is forbidden by God. | |
| 6858 Therefore worldly fear is evil. | |
| 6859 </p> | |
| 6860 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p6"> | |
| 6861 <b>I answer that,</b> As shown above ( | |
| 6862 <a id="SS_Q19_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html">FS, Q[1], A[3]</a>; | |
| 6863 <a id="SS_Q19_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html">FS, Q[18], A[1]</a>; | |
| 6864 <a id="SS_Q19_A3-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>) moral acts and habits take their name and species from their objects. Now the proper object of the appetite's movement is | |
| 6865 the final good: so that, in consequence, every appetitive movement is both specified and named from its proper end. For if | |
| 6866 anyone were to describe covetousness as love of work because men work on | |
| 6867 account of covetousness, this description would be incorrect, since the covetous man seeks work not as end but as a means: | |
| 6868 the end that he seeks is wealth, wherefore covetousness is rightly described as the desire or the love of wealth, and this | |
| 6869 is evil. Accordingly worldly love is, properly speaking, the love whereby a man trusts in the world as his end, so that worldly | |
| 6870 love is always evil. Now fear is born of love, since man fears the loss of what he loves, as Augustine states (Qq. lxxxiii, | |
| 6871 qu. 33). Now worldly fear is that which arises from worldly love as from an evil root, for which reason worldly fear is always | |
| 6872 evil. | |
| 6873 </p> | |
| 6874 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p7"> | |
| 6875 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> One may have regard for men in two ways. First in so far as there is in them something divine, for instance, the good of | |
| 6876 grace or of virtue, or at least of the natural image of God: and in this way those are blamed who have no regard for man. | |
| 6877 Secondly, one may have regard for men as being in opposition to God, and thus it is praiseworthy to have no regard for men, | |
| 6878 according as we read of Elias or Eliseus ( | |
| 6879 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.48.13" target="asv">Ecclus. 48:13</a>): "In his | |
| 6880 days he feared not the prince." | |
| 6881 </p> | |
| 6882 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p8"> | |
| 6883 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> When the secular power inflicts punishment in order to withdraw men from sin, it is acting as God's minister, according to | |
| 6884 | |
| 6885 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.13.4" target="asv">Rom. 13:4</a>, "For he is God's minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doth evil." To fear the secular power in this way is | |
| 6886 part, not of worldly fear, but of servile or initial fear. | |
| 6887 </p> | |
| 6888 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p9"> | |
| 6889 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is natural for man to shrink from detriment to his own body and loss of worldly goods, but to forsake justice on that | |
| 6890 account is contrary to natural reason. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 1) that there are certain things, viz. sinful | |
| 6891 deeds, which no fear should drive us to do, since to do such things is worse than to suffer any punishment whatever. | |
| 6892 </p> | |
| 6893 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 6894 <p id="SS_Q19_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 6895 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html"></a> | |
| 6896 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6897 </div> | |
| 6898 <div id="SS_Q19_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 6899 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6900 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6901 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A4-p0.1">Whether servile fear is good?</h4> | |
| 6902 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 6903 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p2"> | |
| 6904 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that servile fear is not good. For if the use of a thing is evil, the thing itself is evil. Now the use of | |
| 6905 servile fear is evil, for according to a gloss on | |
| 6906 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.15" target="asv"> Rom. 8:15, </a> "if a man do anything through fear, although the deed be good, it is not well done." Therefore servile fear is not good. | |
| 6907 </p> | |
| 6908 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p3"> | |
| 6909 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no good grows from a sinful root. Now servile fear grows from a sinful root, because when commenting on | |
| 6910 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Job.3.11" target="asv"> Job 3:11, </a> "Why did I not die in the womb?" Gregory says (Moral. iv, 25): "When a man dreads the punishment which confronts him for | |
| 6911 his sin and no longer loves the friendship of God which he has lost, his fear is born of pride, not of humility." Therefore | |
| 6912 servile fear is evil. | |
| 6913 </p> | |
| 6914 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p4"> | |
| 6915 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as mercenary love is opposed to the love of charity, so is servile fear, apparently, opposed to chaste fear. | |
| 6916 But mercenary love is always evil. Therefore servile fear is also. | |
| 6917 </p> | |
| 6918 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p5"> | |
| 6919 <b>On the contrary,</b> Nothing evil is from the Holy Ghost. But servile fear is from the Holy Ghost, since a gloss on | |
| 6920 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.15" target="asv"> Rom. 8:15, </a> "You have not received the spirit of bondage," etc. says: "It is the one same spirit that bestows two fears, viz. servile | |
| 6921 and chaste fear." Therefore servile fear is not evil. | |
| 6922 </p> | |
| 6923 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p6"> | |
| 6924 <b>I answer that,</b> It is owing to its servility that servile fear may be evil. For servitude is opposed to freedom. Since, then, "what is free | |
| 6925 is cause of itself" (Metaph. i, 2), a slave is one who does not act as cause of his own action, but as though moved from without. | |
| 6926 Now whoever does a thing through love, does it of himself so to speak, because it is by his own inclination that he is moved | |
| 6927 to act: so that it is contrary to the very notion of servility that one should act | |
| 6928 from love. Consequently servile fear as such is contrary to charity: so that if servility were essential to fear, servile | |
| 6929 fear would be evil simply, even as adultery is evil simply, because that which makes it contrary to charity belongs to its | |
| 6930 very species. | |
| 6931 </p> | |
| 6932 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p7"> This servility, however, does not belong to the species of servile fear, even as neither does lifelessness to the species | |
| 6933 of lifeless faith. For the species of a moral habit or act is taken from the object. Now the object of servile fear is punishment, | |
| 6934 and it is by accident that, either the good to which the punishment is contrary, is loved as the last end, and that consequently | |
| 6935 the punishment is feared as the greatest evil, which is the case with one who is devoid of charity, | |
| 6936 or that the punishment is directed to God as its end, and that, consequently, it is not feared as the greatest evil, which | |
| 6937 is the case with one who has charity. For the species of a habit is not destroyed through its object or end being directed | |
| 6938 to a further end. Consequently servile fear is substantially good, but is servility is evil. | |
| 6939 </p> | |
| 6940 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p8"> | |
| 6941 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This saying of Augustine is to be applied to a man who does something through servile fear as such, so that he loves not | |
| 6942 justice, and fears nothing but the punishment. | |
| 6943 </p> | |
| 6944 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p9"> | |
| 6945 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Servile fear as to its substance is not born of pride, but its servility is, inasmuch as man is unwilling, by love, to subject | |
| 6946 his affections to the yoke of justice. | |
| 6947 </p> | |
| 6948 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p10"> | |
| 6949 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Mercenary love is that whereby God is loved for the sake of worldly goods, and this is, of itself, contrary to charity, so | |
| 6950 that mercenary love is always evil. But servile fear, as to its substance, implies merely fear of punishment, whether or not | |
| 6951 this be feared as the principal evil. | |
| 6952 </p> | |
| 6953 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 6954 <p id="SS_Q19_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 6955 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A3.html"></a> | |
| 6956 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A5.html"></a> | |
| 6957 </div> | |
| 6958 <div id="SS_Q19_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 6959 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html"></a> | |
| 6960 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A6.html"></a> | |
| 6961 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A5-p0.1">Whether servile fear is substantially the same as filial fear?</h4> | |
| 6962 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 6963 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p2"> | |
| 6964 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that servile fear is substantially the same as filial fear. For filial fear is to servile fear the same apparently | |
| 6965 as living faith is to lifeless faith, since the one is accompanied by mortal sin and the other not. Now living faith and lifeless | |
| 6966 faith are substantially the same. Therefore servile and filial fear are substantially the same. | |
| 6967 </p> | |
| 6968 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p3"> | |
| 6969 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, habits are diversified by their objects. Now the same thing is the object of servile and of filial fear, since they | |
| 6970 both fear God. Therefore servile and filial fear are substantially the same. | |
| 6971 </p> | |
| 6972 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p4"> | |
| 6973 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as man hopes to enjoy God and to obtain favors from Him, so does he fear to be separated from God and to be | |
| 6974 punished by Him. Now it is the same hope whereby we hope to enjoy God, and to receive other favors from Him, as stated above | |
| 6975 ( | |
| 6976 <a id="SS_Q19_A5-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A2.html">Q[17], A[2]</a>, ad 2). Therefore filial fear, whereby we fear separation from God, is the same as servile fear whereby we fear His punishments. | |
| 6977 </p> | |
| 6978 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p5"> | |
| 6979 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. ix) says that there are two fears, one servile, another filial or chaste fear. | |
| 6980 </p> | |
| 6981 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p6"> | |
| 6982 <b>I answer that,</b> The proper object of fear is evil. And since acts and habits are diversified by their objects, as shown above ( | |
| 6983 <a id="SS_Q19_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a> ), it follows of necessity that different kinds of fear correspond to different kinds of evil. | |
| 6984 </p> | |
| 6985 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p7"> Now the evil of punishment, from which servile fear shrinks, differs specifically from evil of fault, which filial fear shuns, | |
| 6986 as shown above | |
| 6987 <a id="SS_Q19_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Hence it is evident that servile and filial fear are not the same substantially but differ specifically. | |
| 6988 </p> | |
| 6989 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p8"> | |
| 6990 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Living and lifeless faith differ, not as regards the object, since each of them believes God and believes in a God, but in | |
| 6991 respect of something extrinsic, viz. the presence or absence of charity, and so they do not differ substantially. On the other | |
| 6992 hand, servile and filial fear differ as to their objects: and hence the comparison fails. | |
| 6993 </p> | |
| 6994 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p9"> | |
| 6995 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Servile fear and filial fear do not regard God in the same light. For servile fear looks upon God as the cause of the infliction | |
| 6996 of punishment, whereas filial fear looks upon Him, not as the active cause of guilt, but rather as the term wherefrom it shrinks | |
| 6997 to be separated by guilt. Consequently the identity of object, viz. God, does not prove a specific identity of fear, since | |
| 6998 also natural movements differ specifically according to their different | |
| 6999 relationships to some one term, for movement from whiteness is not specifically the same as movement towards whiteness. | |
| 7000 </p> | |
| 7001 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p10"> | |
| 7002 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope looks upon God as the principle not only of the enjoyment of God, but also of any other favor whatever. This cannot | |
| 7003 be said of fear; and so there is no comparison. | |
| 7004 </p> | |
| 7005 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 7006 <p id="SS_Q19_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 7007 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7008 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A6.html"></a> | |
| 7009 </div> | |
| 7010 <div id="SS_Q19_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 7011 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A5.html"></a> | |
| 7012 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html"></a> | |
| 7013 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A6-p0.1">Whether servile fear remains with charity?</h4> | |
| 7014 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 7015 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p2"> | |
| 7016 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that servile fear does not remain with charity. For Augustine says (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. ix) that "when | |
| 7017 charity takes up its abode, it drives away fear which had prepared a place for it." | |
| 7018 </p> | |
| 7019 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p3"> | |
| 7020 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts, by the Holy Ghost, Who is given to us" ( | |
| 7021 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.5" target="asv">Rom. 5:5</a>). Now "where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty" ( | |
| 7022 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A6-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iiCor.3.17" target="asv">2 Cor. 3:17</a>). Since then freedom excludes servitude, it seems that servile fear is driven away when charity comes. | |
| 7023 </p> | |
| 7024 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p4"> | |
| 7025 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, servile fear is caused by self-love, in so far as punishment diminishes one's own good. Now love of God drives away | |
| 7026 self-love, for it makes us despise ourselves: thus Augustine testifies (De Civ. Dei xiv, 28) that "the love of God unto the | |
| 7027 contempt of self builds up the city of God." Therefore it seems that servile fear is driven out when charity comes. | |
| 7028 </p> | |
| 7029 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p5"> | |
| 7030 <b>On the contrary,</b> Servile fear is a gift of the Holy Ghost, as stated above | |
| 7031 <a id="SS_Q19_A6-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Now the gifts of the Holy Ghost are not forfeited through the advent of charity, whereby the Holy Ghost dwells in us. Therefore | |
| 7032 servile fear is not driven out when charity comes. | |
| 7033 </p> | |
| 7034 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p6"> | |
| 7035 <b>I answer that,</b> Servile fear proceeds from self-love, because it is fear of punishment which is detrimental to one's own good. Hence the | |
| 7036 fear of punishment is consistent with charity, in the same way as self-love is: because it comes to the same that a man love | |
| 7037 his own good and that he fear to be deprived of it. | |
| 7038 </p> | |
| 7039 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p7"> Now self-love may stand in a threefold relationship to charity. In one way it is contrary to charity, when a man places his | |
| 7040 end in the love of his own good. In another way it is included in charity, when a man loves himself for the sake of God and | |
| 7041 in God. In a third way, it is indeed distinct from charity, but is not contrary thereto, as when a man loves himself from | |
| 7042 the point of view of his own good, yet not so as to place his end in this his own good: even as one may have | |
| 7043 another special love for one's neighbor, besides the love of charity which is founded on God, when we love him by reason of | |
| 7044 usefulness, consanguinity, or some other human consideration, which, however, is referable to charity. | |
| 7045 </p> | |
| 7046 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p8"> Accordingly fear of punishment is, in one way, included in charity, because separation from God is a punishment, which charity | |
| 7047 shuns exceedingly; so that this belongs to chaste fear. In another way, it is contrary to charity, when a man shrinks from | |
| 7048 the punishment that is opposed to his natural good, as being the principal evil in opposition to the good which he loves as | |
| 7049 an end; and in this way fear of punishment is not consistent with charity. In another way fear of punishment | |
| 7050 is indeed substantially distinct from chaste fear, when, to wit, a man fears a penal evil, not because it separates him from | |
| 7051 God, but because it is hurtful to his own good, and yet he does not place his end in this good, so that neither does he dread | |
| 7052 this evil as being the principal evil. Such fear of punishment is consistent with charity; but it is not called servile, except | |
| 7053 when punishment is dreaded as a principal evil, as explained above ( | |
| 7054 <a id="SS_Q19_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,4). Hence fear | |
| 7055 considered as servile, does not remain with charity, but the substance of servile fear can remain with charity, even as self-love | |
| 7056 can remain with charity. | |
| 7057 </p> | |
| 7058 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p9"> | |
| 7059 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of fear considered as servile: and such is the sense of the two other objections. | |
| 7060 </p> | |
| 7061 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 7062 <p id="SS_Q19_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 7063 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A5.html"></a> | |
| 7064 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html"></a> | |
| 7065 </div> | |
| 7066 <div id="SS_Q19_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 7067 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A6.html"></a> | |
| 7068 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A8.html"></a> | |
| 7069 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A7-p0.1">Whether fear is the beginning of wisdom?</h4> | |
| 7070 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 7071 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p2"> | |
| 7072 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear is not the beginning of wisdom. For the beginning of a thing is a part thereof. But fear is not a | |
| 7073 part of wisdom, since fear is seated in the appetitive faculty, while wisdom is in the intellect. Therefore it seems that | |
| 7074 fear is not the beginning of wisdom. | |
| 7075 </p> | |
| 7076 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p3"> | |
| 7077 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing is the beginning of itself. "Now fear of the Lord, that is wisdom," according to | |
| 7078 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Job.28.28" target="asv"> Job 28:28.</a> Therefore it seems that fear of God is not the beginning of wisdom. | |
| 7079 </p> | |
| 7080 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p4"> | |
| 7081 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing is prior to the beginning. But something is prior to fear, since faith precedes fear. Therefore it seems | |
| 7082 that fear is not the beginning of wisdom. | |
| 7083 </p> | |
| 7084 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p5"> | |
| 7085 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written in the | |
| 7086 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.110.10" target="asv"> Ps. 110:10</a>: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." | |
| 7087 </p> | |
| 7088 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p6"> | |
| 7089 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing may be called the beginning of wisdom in two ways: in one way because it is the beginning of wisdom itself as to | |
| 7090 its essence; in another way, as to its effect. Thus the beginning of an art as to its essence consists in the principles from | |
| 7091 which that art proceeds, while the beginning of an art as to its effect is that wherefrom it begins to operate: for instance | |
| 7092 we might say that the beginning of the art of building is the foundation because that is | |
| 7093 where the builder begins his work. | |
| 7094 </p> | |
| 7095 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p7"> Now, since wisdom is the knowledge of Divine things, as we shall state further on ( | |
| 7096 <a id="SS_Q19_A7-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html">Q[45], A[1]</a>), it is considered by us in one way, and in another way by philosophers. For, seeing that our life is ordained to the enjoyment | |
| 7097 of God, and is directed thereto according to a participation of the Divine Nature, conferred on us through grace, wisdom, | |
| 7098 as we look at it, is considered not only as being cognizant of God, as it is with the philosophers, but also as | |
| 7099 directing human conduct; since this is directed not only by the human law, but also by the Divine law, as Augustine shows | |
| 7100 (De Trin. xii, 14). Accordingly the beginning of wisdom as to its essence consists in the first principles of wisdom, i.e. | |
| 7101 the articles of faith, and in this sense faith is said to be the beginning of wisdom. But as regards the effect, the beginning | |
| 7102 of wisdom is the point where wisdom begins to work, and in this way fear is the beginning of wisdom, yet servile fear in one | |
| 7103 way, and filial fear, in another. For servile fear is like a principle disposing a man to wisdom from without, in so far as | |
| 7104 he refrains from sin through fear of punishment, and is thus fashioned for the effect of wisdom, according to | |
| 7105 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A7-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Sir.1.27" target="asv"> Ecclus. 1:27, </a> "The fear of the Lord driveth out sin." On the other hand, chaste or filial fear is the beginning of wisdom, as being the | |
| 7106 first effect of wisdom. For since the regulation of human conduct by the Divine law belongs to wisdom, in | |
| 7107 order to make a beginning, man must first of all fear God and submit himself to Him: for the result will be that in all things | |
| 7108 he will be ruled by God. | |
| 7109 </p> | |
| 7110 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p8"> | |
| 7111 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument proves that fear is not the beginning of wisdom as to the essence of wisdom. | |
| 7112 </p> | |
| 7113 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p9"> | |
| 7114 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The fear of God is compared to a man's whole life that is ruled by God's wisdom, as the root to the tree: hence it is written | |
| 7115 ( | |
| 7116 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.1.25" target="asv">Ecclus. 1:25</a>): "The root of wisdom is to fear the Lord, for [Vulg.: 'and'] the branches thereof are longlived." Consequently, as the root | |
| 7117 is said to be virtually the tree, so the fear of God is said to be wisdom. | |
| 7118 </p> | |
| 7119 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p10"> | |
| 7120 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above, faith is the beginning of wisdom in one way, and fear, in another. Hence it is written ( | |
| 7121 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A7-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.25.16" target="asv">Ecclus. 25:16</a>): "The fear of God is the beginning of love: and the beginning of faith is to be fast joined to it." | |
| 7122 </p> | |
| 7123 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p11"></p> | |
| 7124 <p id="SS_Q19_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 7125 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A6.html"></a> | |
| 7126 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A8.html"></a> | |
| 7127 </div> | |
| 7128 <div id="SS_Q19_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 7129 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html"></a> | |
| 7130 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A9.html"></a> | |
| 7131 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A8-p0.1">Whether initial fear differs substantially from filial fear?</h4> | |
| 7132 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 7133 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p2"> | |
| 7134 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that initial fear differs substantially from filial fear. For filial fear is caused by love. Now initial fear | |
| 7135 is the beginning of love, according to | |
| 7136 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.25.16" target="asv"> Ecclus. 25:16, </a> "The fear of God is the beginning of love." Therefore initial fear is distinct from filial fear. | |
| 7137 </p> | |
| 7138 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p3"> | |
| 7139 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, initial fear dreads punishment, which is the object of servile fear, so that initial and servile fear would seem | |
| 7140 to be the same. But servile fear is distinct from filial fear. Therefore initial fear also is substantially distinct from | |
| 7141 initial fear. | |
| 7142 </p> | |
| 7143 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p4"> | |
| 7144 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a mean differs in the same ratio from both the extremes. Now initial fear is the mean between servile and filial | |
| 7145 fear. Therefore it differs from both filial and servile fear. | |
| 7146 </p> | |
| 7147 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p5"> | |
| 7148 <b>On the contrary,</b> Perfect and imperfect do not diversify the substance of a thing. Now initial and filial fear differ in respect of perfection | |
| 7149 and imperfection of charity, as Augustine states (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. ix). Therefore initial fear does not differ | |
| 7150 substantially from filial fear. | |
| 7151 </p> | |
| 7152 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p6"> | |
| 7153 <b>I answer that,</b> Initial fear is so called because it is a beginning [initium]. Since, however, both servile and filial fear are, in some | |
| 7154 way, the beginning of wisdom, each may be called in some way, initial. | |
| 7155 </p> | |
| 7156 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p7"> It is not in this sense, however, that we are to understand initial fear in so far as it is distinct from servile and filial | |
| 7157 fear, but in the sense according to which it belongs to the state of beginners, in whom there is a beginning of filial fear | |
| 7158 resulting from a beginning of charity, although they do not possess the perfection of filial fear, because they have not yet | |
| 7159 attained to the perfection of charity. Consequently initial fear stands in the same relation to filial fear | |
| 7160 as imperfect to perfect charity. Now perfect and imperfect charity differ, not as to essence but as to state. Therefore we | |
| 7161 must conclude that initial fear, as we understand it here, does not differ essentially from filial fear. | |
| 7162 </p> | |
| 7163 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p8"> | |
| 7164 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The fear which is a beginning of love is servile fear, which is the herald of charity, just as the bristle introduces the | |
| 7165 thread, as Augustine states (Tract. ix in Ep. i Joan.). Or else, if it be referred to initial fear, this is said to be the | |
| 7166 beginning of love, not absolutely, but relatively to the state of perfect charity. | |
| 7167 </p> | |
| 7168 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p9"> | |
| 7169 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Initial fear does not dread punishment as its proper object, but as having something of servile fear connected with it: for | |
| 7170 this servile fear, as to its substance, remains indeed, with charity, its servility being cast aside; whereas its act remains | |
| 7171 with imperfect charity in the man who is moved to perform good actions not only through love of justice, but also through | |
| 7172 fear of punishment, though this same act ceases in the man who has perfect charity, | |
| 7173 which "casteth out fear," according to | |
| 7174 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A8-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.18" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:18.</a> | |
| 7175 </p> | |
| 7176 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p10"> | |
| 7177 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Initial fear is a mean between servile and filial fear, not as between two things of the same genus, but as the imperfect | |
| 7178 is a mean between a perfect being and a non-being, as stated in Metaph. ii, for it is the same substantially as the perfect | |
| 7179 being, while it differs altogether from non-being. | |
| 7180 </p> | |
| 7181 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 7182 <p id="SS_Q19_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 7183 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html"></a> | |
| 7184 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A9.html"></a> | |
| 7185 </div> | |
| 7186 <div id="SS_Q19_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 7187 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A8.html"></a> | |
| 7188 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A10.html"></a> | |
| 7189 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A9-p0.1">Whether fear is a gift of the Holy Ghost?</h4> | |
| 7190 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 7191 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p2"> | |
| 7192 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear is not a gift of the Holy Ghost. For no gift of the Holy Ghost is opposed to a virtue, which is also | |
| 7193 from the Holy Ghost; else the Holy Ghost would be in opposition to Himself. Now fear is opposed to hope, which is a virtue. | |
| 7194 Therefore fear is not a gift of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 7195 </p> | |
| 7196 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p3"> | |
| 7197 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is proper to a theological virtue to have God for its object. But fear has God for its object, in so far as God | |
| 7198 is feared. Therefore fear is not a gift, but a theological virtue. | |
| 7199 </p> | |
| 7200 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p4"> | |
| 7201 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, fear arises from love. But love is reckoned a theological virtue. Therefore fear also is a theological virtue, being | |
| 7202 connected with the same matter, as it were. | |
| 7203 </p> | |
| 7204 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p5"> | |
| 7205 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Gregory says (Moral. ii, 49) that "fear is bestowed as a remedy against pride." But the virtue of humility is opposed | |
| 7206 to pride. Therefore again, fear is a kind of virtue. | |
| 7207 </p> | |
| 7208 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p6"> | |
| 7209 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the gifts are more perfect than the virtues, since they are bestowed in support of the virtues as Gregory says (Moral. | |
| 7210 ii, 49). Now hope is more perfect than fear, since hope regards good, while fear regards evil. Since, then, hope is a virtue, | |
| 7211 it should not be said that fear is a gift. | |
| 7212 </p> | |
| 7213 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p7"> | |
| 7214 <b>On the contrary,</b> The fear of the Lord is numbered among the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost ( | |
| 7215 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A9-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.3" target="asv">Is. 11:3</a>). | |
| 7216 </p> | |
| 7217 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p8"> | |
| 7218 <b>I answer that,</b> Fear is of several kinds, as stated above | |
| 7219 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Now it is not "human fear," according to Augustine (De Gratia et Lib. Arb. xviii), "that is a gift of God"---for it was | |
| 7220 by this fear that Peter denied Christ---but that fear of which it was said ( | |
| 7221 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A9-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.28" target="asv">Mat. 10:28</a>): "Fear Him that can destroy both soul and body into hell." | |
| 7222 </p> | |
| 7223 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p9"> Again servile fear is not to be reckoned among the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost, though it is from Him, because according | |
| 7224 to Augustine (De Nat. et Grat. lvii) it is compatible with the will to sin: whereas the gifts of the Holy Ghost are incompatible | |
| 7225 with the will to sin, as they are inseparable from charity, as stated above ( | |
| 7226 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A5.html">FS, Q[68], A[5]</a>). | |
| 7227 </p> | |
| 7228 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p10"> It follows, therefore, that the fear of God, which is numbered among the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost, is filial or chaste | |
| 7229 fear. For it was stated above ( | |
| 7230 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A1.html">FS, Q[68], AA[1]</a>,3) that the gifts of the Holy Ghost are certain habitual perfections of the soul's powers, whereby these are rendered amenable | |
| 7231 to the motion of the Holy Ghost, just as, by the moral virtues, the appetitive powers are rendered amenable to the motion | |
| 7232 of reason. Now for a thing to be | |
| 7233 amenable to the motion of a certain mover, the first condition required is that it be a non-resistant subject of that mover, | |
| 7234 because resistance of the movable subject to the mover hinders the movement. This is what filial or chaste fear does, since | |
| 7235 thereby we revere God and avoid separating ourselves from Him. Hence, according to Augustine (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 4) | |
| 7236 filial fear holds the first place, as it were, among the gifts of the Holy Ghost, in the ascending order, and the last place, | |
| 7237 in the descending order. | |
| 7238 </p> | |
| 7239 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p11"> | |
| 7240 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Filial fear is not opposed to the virtue of hope: since thereby we fear, not that we may fail of what we hope to obtain by | |
| 7241 God's help, but lest we withdraw ourselves from this help. Wherefore filial fear and hope cling together, and perfect one | |
| 7242 another. | |
| 7243 </p> | |
| 7244 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p12"> | |
| 7245 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The proper and principal object of fear is the evil shunned, and in this way, as stated above | |
| 7246 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, God cannot be an object of fear. Yet He is, in this way, the object of hope and the other theological virtues, since, by | |
| 7247 the virtue of hope, we trust in God's help, not only to obtain any other goods, but, chiefly, to obtain God Himself, as the | |
| 7248 principal good. The same evidently applies to the other theological virtues. | |
| 7249 </p> | |
| 7250 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p13"> | |
| 7251 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> From the fact that love is the origin of fear, it does not follow that the fear of God is not a distinct habit from charity | |
| 7252 which is the love of God, since love is the origin of all the emotions, and yet we are perfected by different habits in respect | |
| 7253 of different emotions. Yet love is more of a virtue than fear is, because love regards good, to which virtue is principally | |
| 7254 directed by reason of its own nature, as was shown above ( | |
| 7255 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p13.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q55_A3.html">FS, Q[55], AA[3]</a>,4); for which reason hope is also reckoned as a virtue; whereas fear principally regards evil, the avoidance of which it | |
| 7256 denotes, wherefore it is something less than a theological virtue. | |
| 7257 </p> | |
| 7258 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p14"> | |
| 7259 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> According to | |
| 7260 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A9-p14.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.10.14" target="asv"> Ecclus. 10:14, </a> "the beginning of the pride of man is to fall off from God," that is to refuse submission to God, and this is opposed to | |
| 7261 filial fear, which reveres God. Thus fear cuts off the source of pride for which reason it is bestowed as a remedy against | |
| 7262 pride. Yet it does not follow that it is the same as the virtue of humility, but that it is its origin. For the gifts of the | |
| 7263 Holy Ghost are the origin of the | |
| 7264 intellectual and moral virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 7265 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p14.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A4.html">FS, Q[68], A[4]</a>), while the theological virtues are the origin of the gifts, as stated above ( | |
| 7266 <a id="SS_Q19_A9-p14.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q69_A4.html">FS, Q[69], A[4]</a>, ad 3). | |
| 7267 </p> | |
| 7268 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p15"> This suffices for the Reply to the Fifth Objection.</p> | |
| 7269 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p16"></p> | |
| 7270 <p id="SS_Q19_A9-p17"></p> | |
| 7271 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A8.html"></a> | |
| 7272 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A10.html"></a> | |
| 7273 </div> | |
| 7274 <div id="SS_Q19_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 7275 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A9.html"></a> | |
| 7276 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A11.html"></a> | |
| 7277 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A10-p0.1">Whether fear decreases when charity increases?</h4> | |
| 7278 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 7279 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p2"> | |
| 7280 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that fear decreases when charity increases. For Augustine says (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. ix): "The more charity | |
| 7281 increases, the more fear decreases." | |
| 7282 </p> | |
| 7283 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p3"> | |
| 7284 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, fear decreases when hope increases. But charity increases when hope increases, as stated above ( | |
| 7285 <a id="SS_Q19_A10-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html">Q[17], A[8]</a>). Therefore fear decreases when charity increases. | |
| 7286 </p> | |
| 7287 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p4"> | |
| 7288 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, love implies union, whereas fear implies separation. Now separation decreases when union increases. Therefore fear | |
| 7289 decreases when the love of charity increases. | |
| 7290 </p> | |
| 7291 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p5"> | |
| 7292 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Qq. lxxxiii, qu. 36) that "the fear of God not only begins but also perfects wisdom, whereby we love God | |
| 7293 above all things, and our neighbor as ourselves." | |
| 7294 </p> | |
| 7295 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p6"> | |
| 7296 <b>I answer that,</b> Fear is twofold, as stated above ( | |
| 7297 <a id="SS_Q19_A10-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,4); one is filial fear, whereby a son fears to offend his father or to be separated from him; the other is servile fear, | |
| 7298 whereby one fears punishment. | |
| 7299 </p> | |
| 7300 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p7"> Now filial fear must needs increase when charity increases, even as an effect increases with the increase of its cause. For | |
| 7301 the more one loves a man, the more one fears to offend him and to be separated from him. | |
| 7302 </p> | |
| 7303 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p8"> On the other hand servile fear, as regards its servility, is entirely cast out when charity comes, although the fear of punishment | |
| 7304 remains as to its substance, as stated above | |
| 7305 <a id="SS_Q19_A10-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A6.html">(A[6])</a>. This fear decreases as charity increases, chiefly as regards its act, since the more a man loves God, the less he fears | |
| 7306 punishment; first, because he thinks less of his own good, to which punishment is opposed; secondly, because, the faster he | |
| 7307 clings, the more confident he | |
| 7308 is of the reward, and, consequently the less fearful of punishment. | |
| 7309 </p> | |
| 7310 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p9"> | |
| 7311 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine speaks there of the fear of punishment. | |
| 7312 </p> | |
| 7313 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p10"> | |
| 7314 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is fear of punishment that decreases when hope increases; but with the increase of the latter filial fear increases, because | |
| 7315 the more certainly a man expects to obtain a good by another's help, the more he fears to offend him or to be separated from | |
| 7316 him. | |
| 7317 </p> | |
| 7318 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p11"> | |
| 7319 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Filial fear does not imply separation from God, but submission to Him, and shuns separation from that submission. Yet, in | |
| 7320 a way, it implies separation, in the point of not presuming to equal oneself to Him, and of submitting to Him, which separation | |
| 7321 is to be observed even in charity, in so far as a man loves God more than himself and more than aught else. Hence the increase | |
| 7322 of the love of charity implies not a decrease but an increase in the reverence | |
| 7323 of fear. | |
| 7324 </p> | |
| 7325 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p12"></p> | |
| 7326 <p id="SS_Q19_A10-p13"></p> | |
| 7327 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A9.html"></a> | |
| 7328 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A11.html"></a> | |
| 7329 </div> | |
| 7330 <div id="SS_Q19_A11" class="div4"> | |
| 7331 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A10.html"></a> | |
| 7332 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A12.html"></a> | |
| 7333 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A11-p0.1">Whether fear remains in heaven?</h4> | |
| 7334 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p1"></p> | |
| 7335 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p2"> | |
| 7336 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear does not remain in heaven. For it is written ( | |
| 7337 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A11-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.1.33" target="asv">Prov. 1:33</a>): "He . . . shall enjoy abundance, without fear of evils," which is to be understood as referring to those who already enjoy | |
| 7338 wisdom in everlasting happiness. Now every fear is about some evil, since evil is the object of fear, as stated above ( | |
| 7339 <a id="SS_Q19_A11-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,5; | |
| 7340 <a id="SS_Q19_A11-p2.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q42_A1.html">FS, Q[42], A[1]</a>). Therefore there will be no fear in | |
| 7341 heaven. | |
| 7342 </p> | |
| 7343 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p3"> | |
| 7344 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in heaven men will be conformed to God, according to | |
| 7345 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A11-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.2" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:2, </a> "When He shall appear, we shall be like to Him." But God fears nothing. Therefore, in heaven, men will have no fear. | |
| 7346 </p> | |
| 7347 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p4"> | |
| 7348 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hope is more perfect than fear, since hope regards good, and fear, evil. Now hope will not be in heaven. Therefore | |
| 7349 neither will there be fear in heaven. | |
| 7350 </p> | |
| 7351 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p5"> | |
| 7352 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 7353 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A11-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.18.10" target="asv">Ps. 18:10</a>): "The fear of the Lord is holy, enduring for ever and ever." | |
| 7354 </p> | |
| 7355 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p6"> | |
| 7356 <b>I answer that,</b> Servile fear, or fear of punishment, will by no means be in heaven, since such a fear is excluded by the security which is | |
| 7357 essential to everlasting happiness, as stated above ( | |
| 7358 <a id="SS_Q19_A11-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q5_A4.html">FS, Q[5], A[4]</a>). | |
| 7359 </p> | |
| 7360 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p7"> But regard to filial fear, as it increases with the increase of charity, so is it perfected when charity is made perfect; | |
| 7361 hence, in heaven, it will not have quite the same act as it has now. | |
| 7362 </p> | |
| 7363 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p8"> In order to make this clear, we must observe that the proper object of fear is a possible evil, just as the proper object | |
| 7364 of hope is a possible good: and since the movement of fear is like one of avoidance, fear implies avoidance of a possible | |
| 7365 arduous evil, for little evils inspire no fear. Now as a thing's good consists in its staying in its own order, so a thing's | |
| 7366 evil consists in forsaking its order. Again, the order of a rational creature is that it should be under God and | |
| 7367 above other creatures. Hence, just as it is an evil for a rational creature to submit, by love, to a lower creature, so too | |
| 7368 is it an evil for it, if it submit not to God, by presumptuously revolt against Him or contemn Him. Now this evil is possible | |
| 7369 to a rational creature considered as to its nature on account of the natural flexibility of the free-will; whereas in the | |
| 7370 blessed, it becomes impossible, by reason of the perfection of glory. Therefore the avoidance of this evil that consists in | |
| 7371 non-subjection to God, and is possible to nature, but impossible in the state of bliss, will be in heaven; while in this life | |
| 7372 there is avoidance of this evil as of something altogether possible. Hence Gregory, expounding the words of Job (26:11), "The | |
| 7373 pillars of heaven tremble, and dread at His beck," says (Moral. xvii, 29): "The heavenly powers that gaze on Him without ceasing, | |
| 7374 tremble while contemplating: but their awe, lest it should be of a penal nature, is one not of fear but of wonder," | |
| 7375 because, to wit, they wonder at God's supereminence and incomprehensibility. Augustine also (De Civ. Dei xiv, 9) in this sense, | |
| 7376 admits fear in heaven, although he leaves the question doubtful. "If," he says, "this chaste fear that endureth for ever and | |
| 7377 ever is to be in the future life, it will not be a fear that is afraid of an evil which might possibly occur, but a fear that | |
| 7378 holds fast to a good which we cannot lose. For when we love the good which we have acquired, with an unchangeable love, | |
| 7379 without doubt, if it is allowable to say so, our fear is sure of avoiding evil. Because chaste fear denotes a will that cannot | |
| 7380 consent to sin, and whereby we avoid sin without trembling lest, in our weakness, we fall, and possess ourselves in the tranquillity | |
| 7381 born of charity. Else, if no kind of fear is possible there, perhaps fear is said to endure for ever and ever, because that | |
| 7382 which fear will lead us to, will be everlasting." | |
| 7383 </p> | |
| 7384 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p9"> | |
| 7385 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The passage quoted excludes from the blessed, the fear that denotes solicitude, and anxiety about evil, but not the fear | |
| 7386 which is accompanied by security. | |
| 7387 </p> | |
| 7388 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p10"> | |
| 7389 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Dionysius says (Div. Nom. ix) "the same things are both like and unlike God. They are like by reason of a variable imitation | |
| 7390 of the Inimitable"---that is, because, so far as they can, they imitate God Who cannot be imitated perfectly---"they are unlike | |
| 7391 because they are the effects of a Cause of Whom they fall short infinitely and immeasurably." Hence, if there be no fear in | |
| 7392 God (since there is none above Him to whom He may be subject) it does not | |
| 7393 follow that there is none in the blessed, whose happiness consists in perfect subjection to God. | |
| 7394 </p> | |
| 7395 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p11"> | |
| 7396 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope implies a certain defect, namely the futurity of happiness, which ceases when happiness is present: whereas fear implies | |
| 7397 a natural defect in a creature, in so far as it is infinitely distant from God, and this defect will remain even in heaven. | |
| 7398 Hence fear will not be cast out altogether. | |
| 7399 </p> | |
| 7400 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p12"></p> | |
| 7401 <p id="SS_Q19_A11-p13"></p> | |
| 7402 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A10.html"></a> | |
| 7403 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A12.html"></a> | |
| 7404 </div> | |
| 7405 <div id="SS_Q19_A12" class="div4"> | |
| 7406 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A11.html"></a> | |
| 7407 <a href="summa.SS_Q20.html"></a> | |
| 7408 <h4 id="SS_Q19_A12-p0.1">Whether poverty of spirit is the beatitude corresponding to the gift of fear? </h4> | |
| 7409 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p1"></p> | |
| 7410 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p2"> | |
| 7411 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that poverty of spirit is not the beatitude corresponding to the gift of fear. For fear is the beginning of | |
| 7412 the spiritual life, as explained above | |
| 7413 <a id="SS_Q19_A12-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html">(A[7])</a>: whereas poverty belongs to the perfection of the spiritual life, according to | |
| 7414 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.19.21" target="asv"> Mat. 19:21, </a> "If thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast, and give to the poor." Therefore poverty of spirit does not correspond | |
| 7415 to the gift of fear. | |
| 7416 </p> | |
| 7417 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p3"> | |
| 7418 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 7419 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.120" target="asv">Ps. 118:120</a>): "Pierce Thou my flesh with Thy fear," whence it seems to follow that it belongs to fear to restrain the flesh. But the | |
| 7420 curbing of the flesh seems to belong rather to the beatitude of mourning. Therefore the beatitude of mourning corresponds | |
| 7421 to the gift of fear, rather than the beatitude of poverty. | |
| 7422 </p> | |
| 7423 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p4"> | |
| 7424 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the gift of fear corresponds to the virtue of hope, as stated above (A[9], ad 1). Now the last beatitude which is, | |
| 7425 "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God," seems above all to correspond to hope, because | |
| 7426 according to | |
| 7427 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.2" target="asv"> Rom. 5:2, </a> "we . . . glory in the hope of the glory of the sons of God." Therefore that beatitude corresponds to the gift of fear, rather | |
| 7428 than poverty of spirit. | |
| 7429 </p> | |
| 7430 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p5"> | |
| 7431 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it was stated above ( | |
| 7432 <a id="SS_Q19_A12-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q70_A2.html">FS, Q[70], A[2]</a>) that the fruits correspond to the beatitudes. Now none of the fruits correspond to the gift of fear. Neither, therefore, | |
| 7433 does any of the beatitudes. | |
| 7434 </p> | |
| 7435 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p6"> | |
| 7436 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 4): "The fear of the Lord is befitting the humble of whom it is said: Blessed are | |
| 7437 the poor in spirit." | |
| 7438 </p> | |
| 7439 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p7"> | |
| 7440 <b>I answer that,</b> Poverty of spirit properly corresponds to fear. Because, since it belongs to filial fear to show reverence and submission | |
| 7441 to God, whatever results from this submission belongs to the gift of fear. Now from the very fact that a man submits to God, | |
| 7442 it follows that he ceases to seek greatness either in himself or in another but seeks it only in God. For that would be inconsistent | |
| 7443 with perfect subjection to God, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 7444 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.19.8" target="asv">Ps. | |
| 7445 19:8 | |
| 7446 </a>): "Some trust in chariots and some in horses; but we will call upon the name of . . . our God." It follows that if a man | |
| 7447 fear God perfectly, he does not, by pride, seek greatness either in himself or in external goods, viz. honors and riches. | |
| 7448 In either case, this proceeds from poverty of spirit, in so far as the latter denotes either the voiding of a puffed up and | |
| 7449 proud spirit, according to Augustine's interpretation (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 4), or the renunciation of worldly | |
| 7450 goods which is done in spirit, i.e. by one's own will, through the instigation of the Holy Spirit, according to the expounding | |
| 7451 of Ambrose on | |
| 7452 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.6.20" target="asv"> Lk. 6:20 </a>and Jerome on | |
| 7453 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q19_A12-p7.3" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.3" target="asv"> Mat. 5:3.</a> | |
| 7454 </p> | |
| 7455 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p8"> | |
| 7456 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Since a beatitude is an act of perfect virtue, all the beatitudes belong to the perfection of spiritual life. And this perfection | |
| 7457 seems to require that whoever would strive to obtain a perfect share of spiritual goods, needs to begin by despising earthly | |
| 7458 goods, wherefore fear holds the first place among the gifts. Perfection, however, does not consist in the renunciation itself | |
| 7459 of temporal goods; since this is the way to perfection: whereas filial | |
| 7460 fear, to which the beatitude of poverty corresponds, is consistent with the perfection of wisdom, as stated above ( | |
| 7461 <a id="SS_Q19_A12-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A7.html">AA[7]</a>,10). | |
| 7462 </p> | |
| 7463 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p9"> | |
| 7464 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The undue exaltation of man either in himself or in another is more directly opposed to that submission to God which is the | |
| 7465 result of filial fear, than is external pleasure. Yet this is, in consequence, opposed to fear, since whoever fears God and | |
| 7466 is subject to Him, takes no delight in things other than God. Nevertheless, pleasure is not concerned, as exaltation is, with | |
| 7467 the arduous character of a thing which fear regards: and so the beatitude of | |
| 7468 poverty corresponds to fear directly, and the beatitude of mourning, consequently. | |
| 7469 </p> | |
| 7470 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p10"> | |
| 7471 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope denotes a movement by way of a relation of tendency to a term, whereas fear implies movement by way of a relation of | |
| 7472 withdrawal from a term: wherefore the last beatitude which is the term of spiritual perfection, fittingly corresponds to hope, | |
| 7473 by way of ultimate object; while the first beatitude, which implies withdrawal from external things which hinder submission | |
| 7474 to God, fittingly corresponds to fear. | |
| 7475 </p> | |
| 7476 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p11"> | |
| 7477 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> As regards the fruits, it seems that those things correspond to the gift of fear, which pertain to the moderate use of temporal | |
| 7478 things or to abstinence therefrom; such are modesty, continency and chastity. | |
| 7479 </p> | |
| 7480 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p12"></p> | |
| 7481 <p id="SS_Q19_A12-p13"></p> | |
| 7482 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A11.html"></a> | |
| 7483 <a href="summa.SS_Q20.html"></a> | |
| 7484 </div> | |
| 7485 <a href="summa.SS_Q18_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7486 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7487 </div> | |
| 7488 <div id="SS_Q20" class="div3"> | |
| 7489 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A12.html"></a> | |
| 7490 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7491 <h3 id="SS_Q20-p0.1">OF DESPAIR (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 7492 <p id="SS_Q20-p1"></p> | |
| 7493 <p id="SS_Q20-p2"> We must now consider the contrary vices; (1) despair; (2) presumption. Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 7494 <p id="SS_Q20-p3"> (1) Whether despair is a sin?</p> | |
| 7495 <p id="SS_Q20-p4"> (2) Whether it can be without unbelief?</p> | |
| 7496 <p id="SS_Q20-p5"> (3) Whether it is the greatest of sins?</p> | |
| 7497 <p id="SS_Q20-p6"> (4) Whether it arises from sloth?</p> | |
| 7498 <div id="SS_Q20_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 7499 <a href="summa.SS_Q20.html"></a> | |
| 7500 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7501 <h4 id="SS_Q20_A1-p0.1">Whether despair is a sin?</h4> | |
| 7502 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 7503 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p2"> | |
| 7504 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that despair is not a sin. For every sin includes conversion to a mutable good, together with aversion from | |
| 7505 the immutable good, as Augustine states (De Lib. Arb. ii, 19). But despair includes no conversion to a mutable good. Therefore | |
| 7506 it is not a sin. | |
| 7507 </p> | |
| 7508 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p3"> | |
| 7509 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which grows from a good root, seems to be no sin, because "a good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit" ( | |
| 7510 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.18" target="asv">Mat. 7:18</a>). Now despair seems to grow from a good root, viz. fear of God, or from horror at the greatness of one's own sins. Therefore | |
| 7511 despair is not a sin. | |
| 7512 </p> | |
| 7513 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p4"> | |
| 7514 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if despair were a sin, it would be a sin also for the damned to despair. But this is not imputed to them as their | |
| 7515 fault but as part of their damnation. Therefore neither is it imputed to wayfarers as their fault, so that it is not a sin. | |
| 7516 </p> | |
| 7517 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p5"> | |
| 7518 <b>On the contrary,</b> That which leads men to sin, seems not only to be a sin itself, but a source of sins. Now such is despair, for the Apostle | |
| 7519 says of certain men ( | |
| 7520 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.19" target="asv">Eph. 4:19</a>): "Who, despairing, have given themselves up to lasciviousness, unto the working of all uncleanness and [Vulg.: 'unto'] covetousness." | |
| 7521 Therefore despair is not only a sin but also the origin of other sins. | |
| 7522 </p> | |
| 7523 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p6"> | |
| 7524 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 2) affirmation and negation in the intellect correspond to search and avoidance | |
| 7525 in the appetite; while truth and falsehood in the intellect correspond to good and evil in the appetite. Consequently every | |
| 7526 appetitive movement which is conformed to a true intellect, is good in itself, while every appetitive movement which is conformed | |
| 7527 to a false intellect is evil in itself and sinful. Now the true opinion of the | |
| 7528 intellect about God is that from Him comes salvation to mankind, and pardon to sinners, according to Ezech. 18:23, "I desire | |
| 7529 not the death of the sinner, but that he should be converted, and live" [*Vulg.: 'Is it My will that a sinner should die . | |
| 7530 . . and not that he should be converted and live?' Cf. | |
| 7531 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.33.11" target="asv"> Ezech. 33:11</a>]: while it is a false opinion that He refuses pardon to the repentant sinner, or that He does not turn sinners to Himself | |
| 7532 by sanctifying grace. Therefore, just as | |
| 7533 the movement of hope, which is in conformity with the true opinion, is praiseworthy and virtuous, so the contrary movement | |
| 7534 of despair, which is in conformity with the false opinion about God, is vicious and sinful. | |
| 7535 </p> | |
| 7536 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p7"> | |
| 7537 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In every mortal sin there is, in some way, aversion from the immutable good, and conversion to a mutable good, but not always | |
| 7538 in the same way. Because, since the theological virtues have God for their object, the sins which are contrary to them, such | |
| 7539 as hatred of God, despair and unbelief, consist principally in aversion from the immutable good; but, consequently, they imply | |
| 7540 conversion to a mutable good, in so far as the soul that is a deserter from | |
| 7541 God, must necessarily turn to other things. Other sins, however, consist principally in conversion to a mutable good, and, | |
| 7542 consequently, in aversion from the immutable good: because the fornicator intends, not to depart from God, but to enjoy carnal | |
| 7543 pleasure, the result of which is that he departs from God. | |
| 7544 </p> | |
| 7545 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p8"> | |
| 7546 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A thing may grow from a virtuous root in two ways: first, directly and on the part of the virtue itself; even as an act proceeds | |
| 7547 from a habit: and in this way no sin can grow from a virtuous root, for in this sense Augustine declared (De Lib. Arb. ii, | |
| 7548 18,19) that "no man makes evil use of virtue." Secondly, a thing proceeds from a virtue indirectly, or is occasioned by a | |
| 7549 virtue, and in this way nothing hinders a sin proceeding from a virtue: thus | |
| 7550 sometimes men pride themselves of their virtues, according to Augustine (Ep. ccxi): "Pride lies in wait for good works that | |
| 7551 they may die." In this way fear of God or horror of one's own sins may lead to despair, in so far as man makes evil use of | |
| 7552 those good things, by allowing them to be an occasion of despair. | |
| 7553 </p> | |
| 7554 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p9"> | |
| 7555 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The damned are outside the pale of hope on account of the impossibility of returning to happiness: hence it is not imputed | |
| 7556 to them that they hope not, but it is a part of their damnation. Even so, it would be no sin for a wayfarer to despair of | |
| 7557 obtaining that which he had no natural capacity for obtaining, or which was not due to be obtained by him; for instance, if | |
| 7558 a physician were to despair of healing some sick man, or if anyone were to despair of | |
| 7559 ever becoming rich. | |
| 7560 </p> | |
| 7561 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 7562 <p id="SS_Q20_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 7563 <a href="summa.SS_Q20.html"></a> | |
| 7564 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7565 </div> | |
| 7566 <div id="SS_Q20_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 7567 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7568 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7569 <h4 id="SS_Q20_A2-p0.1">Whether there can be despair without unbelief?</h4> | |
| 7570 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 7571 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p2"> | |
| 7572 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there can be no despair without unbelief. For the certainty of hope is derived from faith; and so long | |
| 7573 as the cause remains the effect is not done away. Therefore a man cannot lose the certainty of hope, by despairing, unless | |
| 7574 his faith be removed. | |
| 7575 </p> | |
| 7576 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p3"> | |
| 7577 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to prefer one's own guilt to God's mercy and goodness, is to deny the infinity of God's goodness and mercy, and | |
| 7578 so savors of unbelief. But whoever despairs, prefers his own guilt to the Divine mercy and goodness, according to | |
| 7579 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.4.13" target="asv"> Gn. 4:13</a>: "My iniquity is greater than that I may deserve pardon." Therefore whoever despairs, is an unbeliever. | |
| 7580 </p> | |
| 7581 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p4"> | |
| 7582 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whoever falls into a condemned heresy, is an unbeliever. But he that despairs seems to fall into a condemned heresy, | |
| 7583 viz. that of the Novatians, who say that there is no pardon for sins after Baptism. Therefore it seems that whoever despairs, | |
| 7584 is an unbeliever. | |
| 7585 </p> | |
| 7586 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p5"> | |
| 7587 <b>On the contrary,</b> If we remove that which follows, that which precedes remains. But hope follows faith, as stated above ( | |
| 7588 <a id="SS_Q20_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A7.html">Q[17], A[7]</a>). Therefore when hope is removed, faith can remain; so that, not everyone who despairs, is an unbeliever. | |
| 7589 </p> | |
| 7590 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p6"> | |
| 7591 <b>I answer that,</b> Unbelief pertains to the intellect, but despair, to the appetite: and the intellect is about universals, while the appetite | |
| 7592 is moved in connection with particulars, since the appetitive movement is from the soul towards things, which, in themselves, | |
| 7593 are particular. Now it may happen that a man, while having a right opinion in the universal, is not rightly disposed as to | |
| 7594 his appetitive movement, his estimate being corrupted in a particular matter, because, in | |
| 7595 order to pass from the universal opinion to the appetite for a particular thing, it is necessary to have a particular estimate | |
| 7596 (De Anima iii, 2), just as it is impossible to infer a particular conclusion from an universal proposition, except through | |
| 7597 the holding of a particular proposition. Hence it is that a man, while having right faith, in the universal, fails in an appetitive | |
| 7598 movement, in regard to some particular, his particular estimate being corrupted by a habit or a passion, just as the | |
| 7599 fornicator, by choosing fornication as a good for himself at this particular moment, has a corrupt estimate in a particular | |
| 7600 matter, although he retains the true universal estimate according to faith, viz. that fornication is a mortal sin. In the | |
| 7601 same way, a man while retaining in the universal, the true estimate of faith, viz. that there is in the Church the power of | |
| 7602 forgiving sins, may suffer a movement of despair, to wit, that for him, being in such a state, there is no hope of pardon, | |
| 7603 his | |
| 7604 estimate being corrupted in a particular matter. In this way there can be despair, just as there can be other mortal sins, | |
| 7605 without belief. | |
| 7606 </p> | |
| 7607 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p7"> | |
| 7608 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The effect is done away, not only when the first cause is removed, but also when the secondary cause is removed. Hence the | |
| 7609 movement of hope can be done away, not only by the removal of the universal estimate of faith, which is, so to say, the first | |
| 7610 cause of the certainty of hope, but also by the removal of the particular estimate, which is the secondary cause, as it were. | |
| 7611 </p> | |
| 7612 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p8"> | |
| 7613 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> If anyone were to judge, in universal, that God's mercy is not infinite, he would be an unbeliever. But he who despairs judges | |
| 7614 not thus, but that, for him in that state, on account of some particular disposition, there is no hope of the Divine mercy. | |
| 7615 </p> | |
| 7616 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p9"> The same answer applies to the Third Objection, since the Novatians denied, in universal, that there is remission of sins | |
| 7617 in the Church. | |
| 7618 </p> | |
| 7619 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 7620 <p id="SS_Q20_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 7621 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7622 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7623 </div> | |
| 7624 <div id="SS_Q20_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 7625 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7626 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7627 <h4 id="SS_Q20_A3-p0.1">Whether despair is the greatest of sins?</h4> | |
| 7628 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 7629 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p2"> | |
| 7630 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that despair is not the greatest of sins. For there can be despair without unbelief, as stated above | |
| 7631 <a id="SS_Q20_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q20_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. But unbelief is the greatest of sins because it overthrows the foundation of the spiritual edifice. Therefore despair is | |
| 7632 not the greatest of sins. | |
| 7633 </p> | |
| 7634 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p3"> | |
| 7635 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a greater evil is opposed to a greater good, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. viii, 10). But charity is greater | |
| 7636 than hope, according to | |
| 7637 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:13.</a> Therefore hatred of God is a greater sin than despair. | |
| 7638 </p> | |
| 7639 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p4"> | |
| 7640 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in the sin of despair there is nothing but inordinate aversion from God: whereas in other sins there is not only | |
| 7641 inordinate aversion from God, but also an inordinate conversion. Therefore the sin of despair is not more but less grave than | |
| 7642 other sins. | |
| 7643 </p> | |
| 7644 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p5"> | |
| 7645 <b>On the contrary,</b> An incurable sin seems to be most grievous, according to | |
| 7646 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.30.12" target="asv"> Jer. 30:12</a>: "Thy bruise is incurable, thy wound is very grievous." Now the sin of despair is incurable, according to | |
| 7647 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A3-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Jer.15.18" target="asv"> Jer. 15:18</a>: "My wound is desperate so as to refuse to be healed." [*Vulg.: 'Why is my wound,' etc.] Therefore despair is a most grievous | |
| 7648 sin. | |
| 7649 </p> | |
| 7650 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p6"> | |
| 7651 <b>I answer that,</b> Those sins which are contrary to the theological virtues are in themselves more grievous than others: because, since the | |
| 7652 theological virtues have God for their object, the sins which are opposed to them imply aversion from God directly and principally. | |
| 7653 Now every mortal sin takes its principal malice and gravity from the fact of its turning away from God, for if it were possible | |
| 7654 to turn to a mutable good, even inordinately, without turning away from God, it | |
| 7655 would not be a mortal sin. Consequently a sin which, first and of its very nature, includes aversion from God, is most grievous | |
| 7656 among mortal sins. | |
| 7657 </p> | |
| 7658 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p7"> Now unbelief, despair and hatred of God are opposed to the theological virtues: and among them, if we compare hatred of God | |
| 7659 and unbelief to despair, we shall find that, in themselves, that is, in respect of their proper species, they are more grievous. | |
| 7660 For unbelief is due to a man not believing God's own truth; while the hatred of God arises from man's will being opposed to | |
| 7661 God's goodness itself; whereas despair consists in a man ceasing to hope for a share of God's goodness. | |
| 7662 Hence it is clear that unbelief and hatred of God are against God as He is in Himself, while despair is against Him, according | |
| 7663 as His good is partaken of by us. Wherefore strictly speaking it is more grievous sin to disbelieve God's truth, or to hate | |
| 7664 God, than not to hope to receive glory from Him. | |
| 7665 </p> | |
| 7666 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p8"> If, however, despair be compared to the other two sins from our point of view, then despair is more dangerous, since hope | |
| 7667 withdraws us from evils and induces us to seek for good things, so that when hope is given up, men rush headlong into sin, | |
| 7668 and are drawn away from good works. Wherefore a gloss on | |
| 7669 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.24.10" target="asv"> Prov. 24:10, </a> "If thou lose hope being weary in the day of distress, thy strength shall be diminished," says: "Nothing is more hateful | |
| 7670 than despair, for the man | |
| 7671 that has it loses his constancy both in the every day toils of this life, and, what is worse, in the battle of faith." And | |
| 7672 Isidore says (De Sum. Bono ii, 14): "To commit a crime is to kill the soul, but to despair is to fall into hell." | |
| 7673 </p> | |
| 7674 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p9"></p> | |
| 7675 <p id="SS_Q20_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 7676 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7677 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7678 </div> | |
| 7679 <div id="SS_Q20_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 7680 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7681 <a href="summa.SS_Q21.html"></a> | |
| 7682 <h4 id="SS_Q20_A4-p0.1">Whether despair arises from sloth?</h4> | |
| 7683 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 7684 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p2"> | |
| 7685 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that despair does not arise from sloth. Because different causes do not give rise to one same effect. Now despair | |
| 7686 of the future life arises from lust, according to Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45). Therefore it does not arise from sloth. | |
| 7687 </p> | |
| 7688 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p3"> | |
| 7689 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as despair is contrary to hope, so is sloth contrary to spiritual joy. But spiritual joy arises from hope, | |
| 7690 according to | |
| 7691 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.12" target="asv"> Rom. 12:12, </a> "rejoicing in hope." Therefore sloth arises from despair, and not vice versa. | |
| 7692 </p> | |
| 7693 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p4"> | |
| 7694 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, contrary effects have contrary causes. Now hope, the contrary of which is despair, seems to proceed from the consideration | |
| 7695 of Divine favors, especially the Incarnation, for Augustine says (De Trin. xiii, 10): "Nothing was so necessary to raise our | |
| 7696 hope, than that we should be shown how much God loves us. Now what greater proof could we have of this than that God's Son | |
| 7697 should deign to unite Himself to our nature?" Therefore despair arises rather from | |
| 7698 the neglect of the above consideration than from sloth. | |
| 7699 </p> | |
| 7700 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p5"> | |
| 7701 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) reckons despair among the effects of sloth. | |
| 7702 </p> | |
| 7703 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p6"> | |
| 7704 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (Q[17], A[1]; | |
| 7705 <a id="SS_Q20_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q40_A1.html">FS, Q[40], A[1]</a>), the object of hope is a good, difficult but possible to obtain by oneself or by another. Consequently the hope of obtaining | |
| 7706 happiness may be lacking in a person in two ways: first, through his not deeming it an arduous good; secondly, through his | |
| 7707 deeming it impossible to obtain either by himself, or by another. Now, the fact that spiritual goods taste good to us no more, | |
| 7708 or seem to be | |
| 7709 goods of no great account, is chiefly due to our affections being infected with the love of bodily pleasures, among which, | |
| 7710 sexual pleasures hold the first place: for the love of those pleasures leads man to have a distaste for spiritual things, | |
| 7711 and not to hope for them as arduous goods. In this way despair is caused by lust. | |
| 7712 </p> | |
| 7713 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p7"> On the other hand, the fact that a man deems an arduous good impossible to obtain, either by himself or by another, is due | |
| 7714 to his being over downcast, because when this state of mind dominates his affections, it seems to him that he will never be | |
| 7715 able to rise to any good. And since sloth is a sadness that casts down the spirit, in this way despair is born of sloth. | |
| 7716 </p> | |
| 7717 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p8"> Now this is the proper object of hope---that the thing is possible, because the good and the arduous regard other passions | |
| 7718 also. Hence despair is born of sloth in a more special way: though it may arise from lust, for the reason given above. | |
| 7719 </p> | |
| 7720 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p9"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 7721 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p10"> | |
| 7722 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> According to the Philosopher (Rhet. i, 11), just as hope gives rise to joy, so, when a man is joyful he has greater hope: | |
| 7723 and, accordingly, those who are sorrowful fall the more easily into despair, according to | |
| 7724 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q20_A4-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.2.7" target="asv">2 Cor. 2:7</a>: "Lest . . . such an one be swallowed up by overmuch sorrow." Yet, since the object of hope is good, to which the appetite | |
| 7725 tends naturally, and which it shuns, not naturally but only on account of some | |
| 7726 supervening obstacle, it follows that, more directly, hope gives birth to joy, while on the contrary despair is born of sorrow. | |
| 7727 </p> | |
| 7728 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p11"> | |
| 7729 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This very neglect to consider the Divine favors arises from sloth. For when a man is influenced by a certain passion he considers | |
| 7730 chiefly the things which pertain to that passion: so that a man who is full of sorrow does not easily think of great and joyful | |
| 7731 things, but only of sad things, unless by a great effort he turn his thoughts away from sadness. | |
| 7732 </p> | |
| 7733 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 7734 <p id="SS_Q20_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 7735 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7736 <a href="summa.SS_Q21.html"></a> | |
| 7737 </div> | |
| 7738 <a href="summa.SS_Q19_A12.html"></a> | |
| 7739 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7740 </div> | |
| 7741 <div id="SS_Q21" class="div3"> | |
| 7742 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7743 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7744 <h3 id="SS_Q21-p0.1">OF PRESUMPTION (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 7745 <p id="SS_Q21-p1"></p> | |
| 7746 <p id="SS_Q21-p2"> We must now consider presumption, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 7747 <p id="SS_Q21-p3"> (1) What is the object in which presumption trusts?</p> | |
| 7748 <p id="SS_Q21-p4"> (2) Whether presumption is a sin?</p> | |
| 7749 <p id="SS_Q21-p5"> (3) To what is it opposed?</p> | |
| 7750 <p id="SS_Q21-p6"> (4) From what vice does it arise?</p> | |
| 7751 <div id="SS_Q21_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 7752 <a href="summa.SS_Q21.html"></a> | |
| 7753 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7754 <h4 id="SS_Q21_A1-p0.1">Whether presumption trusts in God or in our own power?</h4> | |
| 7755 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 7756 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p2"> | |
| 7757 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that presumption, which is a sin against the Holy Ghost, trusts, not in God, but in our own power. For the | |
| 7758 lesser the power, the more grievously does he sin who trusts in it too much. But man's power is less than God's. Therefore | |
| 7759 it is a more grievous sin to presume on human power than to presume on the power of God. Now the sin against the Holy Ghost | |
| 7760 is most grievous. Therefore presumption, which is reckoned a species of sin against the Holy | |
| 7761 Ghost, trusts to human rather than to Divine power. | |
| 7762 </p> | |
| 7763 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p3"> | |
| 7764 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, other sins arise from the sin against the Holy Ghost, for this sin is called malice which is a source from which | |
| 7765 sins arise. Now other sins seem to arise from the presumption whereby man presumes on himself rather than from the presumption | |
| 7766 whereby he presumes on God, since self-love is the origin of sin, according to Augustine (De Civ. Dei xiv, 28). Therefore | |
| 7767 it seems that presumption which is a sin against the Holy Ghost, relies chiefly on human | |
| 7768 power. | |
| 7769 </p> | |
| 7770 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p4"> | |
| 7771 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, sin arises from the inordinate conversion to a mutable good. Now presumption is a sin. Therefore it arises from | |
| 7772 turning to human power, which is a mutable good, rather than from turning to the power of God, which is an immutable good. | |
| 7773 </p> | |
| 7774 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p5"> | |
| 7775 <b>On the contrary,</b> Just as, through despair, a man despises the Divine mercy, on which hope relies, so, through presumption, he despises the | |
| 7776 Divine justice, which punishes the sinner. Now justice is in God even as mercy is. Therefore, just as despair consists in | |
| 7777 aversion from God, so presumption consists in inordinate conversion to Him. | |
| 7778 </p> | |
| 7779 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p6"> | |
| 7780 <b>I answer that,</b> Presumption seems to imply immoderate hope. Now the object of hope is an arduous possible good: and a thing is possible to | |
| 7781 a man in two ways: first by his own power; secondly, by the power of God alone. With regard to either hope there may be presumption | |
| 7782 owing to lack of moderation. As to the hope whereby a man relies on his own power, there is presumption if he tends to a good | |
| 7783 as though it were possible to him, whereas it surpasses his powers, according | |
| 7784 to | |
| 7785 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q21_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Jdt.6.15" target="asv"> Judith 6:15</a>: "Thou humblest them that presume of themselves." This presumption is contrary to the virtue of magnanimity which holds to | |
| 7786 the mean in this kind of hope. | |
| 7787 </p> | |
| 7788 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p7"> But as to the hope whereby a man relies on the power of God, there may be presumption through immoderation, in the fact that | |
| 7789 a man tends to some good as though it were possible by the power and mercy of God, whereas it is not possible, for instance, | |
| 7790 if a man hope to obtain pardon without repenting, or glory without merits. This presumption is, properly, the sin against | |
| 7791 the Holy Ghost, because, to wit, by presuming thus a man removes or despises the assistance of the Holy Spirit, | |
| 7792 whereby he is withdrawn from sin. | |
| 7793 </p> | |
| 7794 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p8"> | |
| 7795 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated above (Q[20], A[3]; | |
| 7796 <a id="SS_Q21_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q73_A3.html">FS, Q[73], A[3]</a>) a sin which is against God is, in its genus, graver than other sins. Hence presumption whereby a man relies on God inordinately, | |
| 7797 is a more grievous sin than the presumption of trusting in one's own power, since to rely on the Divine power for obtaining | |
| 7798 what is unbecoming to God, is to depreciate the Divine power, and it is evident that it is a graver sin to detract from the | |
| 7799 Divine | |
| 7800 power than to exaggerate one's own. | |
| 7801 </p> | |
| 7802 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p9"> | |
| 7803 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The presumption whereby a man presumes inordinately on God, includes self-love, whereby he loves his own good inordinately. | |
| 7804 For when we desire a thing very much, we think we can easily procure it through others, even though we cannot. | |
| 7805 </p> | |
| 7806 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p10"> | |
| 7807 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Presumption on God's mercy implies both conversion to a mutable good, in so far as it arises from an inordinate desire of | |
| 7808 one's own good, and aversion from the immutable good, in as much as it ascribes to the Divine power that which is unbecoming | |
| 7809 to it, for thus man turns away from God's power. | |
| 7810 </p> | |
| 7811 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 7812 <p id="SS_Q21_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 7813 <a href="summa.SS_Q21.html"></a> | |
| 7814 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7815 </div> | |
| 7816 <div id="SS_Q21_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 7817 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7818 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7819 <h4 id="SS_Q21_A2-p0.1">Whether presumption is a sin?</h4> | |
| 7820 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 7821 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p2"> | |
| 7822 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that presumption is not a sin. For no sin is a reason why man should be heard by God. Yet, through presumption | |
| 7823 some are heard by God, for it is written ( | |
| 7824 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q21_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Jdt.9.17" target="asv">Judith 9:17</a>): "Hear me a poor wretch making supplication to Thee, and presuming of Thy mercy." Therefore presumption on God's mercy is | |
| 7825 not a sin. | |
| 7826 </p> | |
| 7827 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p3"> | |
| 7828 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, presumption denotes excessive hope. But there cannot be excess of that hope which is in God, since His power and | |
| 7829 mercy are infinite. Therefore it seems that presumption is not a sin. | |
| 7830 </p> | |
| 7831 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p4"> | |
| 7832 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which is a sin does not excuse from sin: for the Master says (Sent. ii, D, 22) that "Adam sinned less, because | |
| 7833 he sinned in the hope of pardon," which seems to indicate presumption. Therefore presumption is not a sin. | |
| 7834 </p> | |
| 7835 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p5"> | |
| 7836 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is reckoned a species of sin against the Holy Ghost. | |
| 7837 </p> | |
| 7838 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p6"> | |
| 7839 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 7840 <a id="SS_Q21_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q20_A1.html">Q[20], A[1]</a>) with regard to despair, every appetitive movement that is conformed to a false intellect, is evil in itself and sinful. | |
| 7841 Now presumption is an appetitive movement, since it denotes an inordinate hope. Moreover it is conformed to a false intellect, | |
| 7842 just as despair is: for just as it is false that God does not pardon the repentant, or that He does not turn sinners to repentance, | |
| 7843 so is it false that He | |
| 7844 grants forgiveness to those who persevere in their sins, and that He gives glory to those who cease from good works: and it | |
| 7845 is to this estimate that the movement of presumption is conformed. | |
| 7846 </p> | |
| 7847 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p7"> Consequently presumption is a sin, but less grave than despair, since, on account of His infinite goodness, it is more proper | |
| 7848 to God to have mercy and to spare, than to punish: for the former becomes God in Himself, the latter becomes Him by reason | |
| 7849 of our sins. | |
| 7850 </p> | |
| 7851 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p8"> | |
| 7852 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Presumption sometimes stands for hope, because even the right hope which we have in God seems to be presumption, if it be | |
| 7853 measured according to man's estate: yet it is not, if we look at the immensity of the goodness of God. | |
| 7854 </p> | |
| 7855 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p9"> | |
| 7856 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Presumption does not denote excessive hope, as though man hoped too much in God; but through man hoping to obtain from God | |
| 7857 something unbecoming to Him; which is the same as to hope too little in Him, since it implies a depreciation of His power; | |
| 7858 as stated above (A[1], ad 1). | |
| 7859 </p> | |
| 7860 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p10"> | |
| 7861 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To sin with the intention of persevering in sin and through the hope of being pardoned, is presumptuous, and this does not | |
| 7862 diminish, but increases sin. To sin, however, with the hope of obtaining pardon some time, and with the intention of refraining | |
| 7863 from sin and of repenting of it, is not presumptuous, but diminishes sin, because this seems to indicate a will less hardened | |
| 7864 in sin. | |
| 7865 </p> | |
| 7866 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 7867 <p id="SS_Q21_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 7868 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7869 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7870 </div> | |
| 7871 <div id="SS_Q21_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 7872 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7873 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7874 <h4 id="SS_Q21_A3-p0.1">Whether presumption is more opposed to fear than to hope?</h4> | |
| 7875 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 7876 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p2"> | |
| 7877 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that presumption is more opposed to fear than to hope. Because inordinate fear is opposed to right fear. Now | |
| 7878 presumption seems to pertain to inordinate fear, for it is written ( | |
| 7879 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q21_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.17.10" target="asv">Wis. 17:10</a>): "A troubled conscience always presumes [Douay: 'forecasteth'] grievous things," and ( | |
| 7880 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q21_A3-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.17.11" target="asv">Wis. 17:11</a>) that "fear is a help to presumption [*Vulg.: 'Fear is nothing else but a yielding up of the succours from thought.']." | |
| 7881 Therefore presumption is opposed to fear rather than to hope. | |
| 7882 </p> | |
| 7883 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p3"> | |
| 7884 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, contraries are most distant from one another. Now presumption is more distant from fear than from hope, because | |
| 7885 presumption implies movement to something, just as hope does, whereas fear denotes movement from a thing. Therefore presumption | |
| 7886 is contrary to fear rather than to hope. | |
| 7887 </p> | |
| 7888 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p4"> | |
| 7889 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, presumption excludes fear altogether, whereas it does not exclude hope altogether, but only the rectitude of hope. | |
| 7890 Since therefore contraries destroy one another, it seems that presumption is contrary to fear rather than to hope. | |
| 7891 </p> | |
| 7892 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p5"> | |
| 7893 <b>On the contrary,</b> When two vices are opposed to one another they are contrary to the same virtue, as timidity and audacity are opposed to fortitude. | |
| 7894 Now the sin of presumption is contrary to the sin of despair, which is directly opposed to hope. Therefore it seems that presumption | |
| 7895 also is more directly opposed to hope. | |
| 7896 </p> | |
| 7897 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p6"> | |
| 7898 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine states (Contra Julian. iv, 3), "every virtue not only has a contrary vice manifestly distinct from it, as temerity | |
| 7899 is opposed to prudence, but also a sort of kindred vice, alike, not in truth but only in its deceitful appearance, as cunning | |
| 7900 is opposed to prudence." This agrees with the Philosopher who says (Ethic. ii, 8) that a virtue seems to have more in common | |
| 7901 with one of the contrary vices than with the other, as temperance with | |
| 7902 insensibility, and fortitude with audacity. | |
| 7903 </p> | |
| 7904 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p7"> Accordingly presumption appears to be manifestly opposed to fear, especially servile fear, which looks at the punishment | |
| 7905 arising from God's justice, the remission of which presumption hopes for; yet by a kind of false likeness it is more opposed | |
| 7906 to hope, since it denotes an inordinate hope in God. And since things are more directly opposed when they belong to the same | |
| 7907 genus, than when they belong to different genera, it follows that presumption is more directly opposed to hope | |
| 7908 than to fear. For they both regard and rely on the same object, hope inordinately, presumption inordinately. | |
| 7909 </p> | |
| 7910 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p8"> | |
| 7911 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Just as hope is misused in speaking of evils, and properly applied in speaking of good, so is presumption: it is in this | |
| 7912 way that inordinate fear is called presumption. | |
| 7913 </p> | |
| 7914 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p9"> | |
| 7915 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Contraries are things that are most distant from one another within the same genus. Now presumption and hope denote a movement | |
| 7916 of the same genus, which can be either ordinate or inordinate. Hence presumption is more directly opposed to hope than to | |
| 7917 fear, since it is opposed to hope in respect of its specific difference, as an inordinate thing to an ordinate one, whereas | |
| 7918 it is opposed to fear, in respect of its generic difference, which is the movement | |
| 7919 of hope. | |
| 7920 </p> | |
| 7921 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p10"> | |
| 7922 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Presumption is opposed to fear by a generic contrariety, and to the virtue of hope by a specific contrariety. Hence presumption | |
| 7923 excludes fear altogether even generically, whereas it does not exclude hope except by reason of its difference, by excluding | |
| 7924 its ordinateness. | |
| 7925 </p> | |
| 7926 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 7927 <p id="SS_Q21_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 7928 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7929 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7930 </div> | |
| 7931 <div id="SS_Q21_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 7932 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7933 <a href="summa.SS_Q22.html"></a> | |
| 7934 <h4 id="SS_Q21_A4-p0.1">Whether presumption arises from vainglory? </h4> | |
| 7935 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 7936 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p2"> | |
| 7937 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that presumption does not arise from vainglory. For presumption seems to rely most of all on the Divine mercy. | |
| 7938 Now mercy [misericordia] regards unhappiness [miseriam] which is contrary to glory. Therefore presumption does not arise from | |
| 7939 vainglory. | |
| 7940 </p> | |
| 7941 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p3"> | |
| 7942 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, presumption is opposed to despair. Now despair arises from sorrow, as stated above ( | |
| 7943 <a id="SS_Q21_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q20_A4.html">Q[20], A[4]</a>, ad 2). Since therefore opposites have opposite causes, presumption would seem to arise from pleasure, and consequently from | |
| 7944 sins of the flesh, which give the most absorbing pleasure. | |
| 7945 </p> | |
| 7946 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p4"> | |
| 7947 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the vice of presumption consists in tending to some impossible good, as though it were possible. Now it is owing | |
| 7948 to ignorance that one deems an impossible thing to be possible. Therefore presumption arises from ignorance rather than from | |
| 7949 vainglory. | |
| 7950 </p> | |
| 7951 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p5"> | |
| 7952 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45) that "presumption of novelties is a daughter of vainglory." | |
| 7953 </p> | |
| 7954 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p6"> | |
| 7955 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 7956 <a id="SS_Q21_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q21_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, presumption is twofold; one whereby a man relies on his own power, when he attempts something beyond his power, as though | |
| 7957 it were possible to him. Such like presumption clearly arises from vainglory; for it is owing to a great desire for glory, | |
| 7958 that a man attempts things beyond his power, and especially novelties which call for greater admiration. Hence Gregory states | |
| 7959 explicitly that presumption of novelties | |
| 7960 is a daughter of vainglory. | |
| 7961 </p> | |
| 7962 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p7"> The other presumption is an inordinate trust in the Divine mercy or power, consisting in the hope of obtaining glory without | |
| 7963 merits, or pardon without repentance. Such like presumption seems to arise directly from pride, as though man thought so much | |
| 7964 of himself as to esteem that God would not punish him or exclude him from glory, however much he might be a sinner. | |
| 7965 </p> | |
| 7966 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p8"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 7967 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p9"></p> | |
| 7968 <p id="SS_Q21_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 7969 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A3.html"></a> | |
| 7970 <a href="summa.SS_Q22.html"></a> | |
| 7971 </div> | |
| 7972 <a href="summa.SS_Q20_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7973 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7974 </div> | |
| 7975 <div id="SS_Q22" class="div3"> | |
| 7976 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A4.html"></a> | |
| 7977 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A1.html"></a> | |
| 7978 <h3 id="SS_Q22-p0.1">OF THE PRECEPTS RELATING TO HOPE AND FEAR (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 7979 <p id="SS_Q22-p1"></p> | |
| 7980 <p id="SS_Q22-p2"> We must now consider the precepts relating to hope and fear: under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 7981 <p id="SS_Q22-p3"> (1) The precepts relating to hope;</p> | |
| 7982 <p id="SS_Q22-p4"> (2) The precepts relating to fear.</p> | |
| 7983 <div id="SS_Q22_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 7984 <a href="summa.SS_Q22.html"></a> | |
| 7985 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A2.html"></a> | |
| 7986 <h4 id="SS_Q22_A1-p0.1">Whether there should be a precept of hope?</h4> | |
| 7987 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 7988 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p2"> | |
| 7989 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that no precept should be given relating to the virtue of hope. For when an effect is sufficiently procured | |
| 7990 by one cause, there is no need to induce it by another. Now man is sufficiently induced by his natural inclination to hope | |
| 7991 for good. Therefore there is no need of a precept of the Law to induce him to do this. | |
| 7992 </p> | |
| 7993 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p3"> | |
| 7994 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, since precepts are given about acts of virtue, the chief precepts are about the acts of the chief virtues. Now the | |
| 7995 chief of all the virtues are the three theological virtues, viz. hope, faith and charity. Consequently, as the chief precepts | |
| 7996 of the Law are those of the decalogue, to which all others may be reduced, as stated above ( | |
| 7997 <a id="SS_Q22_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q100_A3.html">FS, Q[100], A[3]</a>), it seems that if any precept of hope were given, it should be found among the | |
| 7998 precepts of the decalogue. But it is not to be found there. Therefore it seems that the Law should contain no precept of hope. | |
| 7999 </p> | |
| 8000 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p4"> | |
| 8001 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to prescribe an act of virtue is equivalent to a prohibition of the act of the opposite vice. Now no precept is | |
| 8002 to be found forbidding despair which is contrary to hope. Therefore it seems that the Law should contain no precept of hope. | |
| 8003 </p> | |
| 8004 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p5"> | |
| 8005 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says on | |
| 8006 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q22_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.12" target="asv"> Jn. 15:12, </a> "This is My commandment, that you love one another" (Tract. lxxxiii in Joan.): "How many things are commanded us about faith! | |
| 8007 How many relating to hope!" Therefore it is fitting that some precepts should be given about hope. | |
| 8008 </p> | |
| 8009 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p6"> | |
| 8010 <b>I answer that,</b> Among the precepts contained in Holy Writ, some belong to the substance of the Law, others are preambles to the Law. The | |
| 8011 preambles to the Law are those without which no law is possible: such are the precepts relating to the act of faith and the | |
| 8012 act of hope, because the act of faith inclines man's mind so that he believes the Author of the Law to be One to Whom he owes | |
| 8013 submission, while, by the hope of a reward, he is induced to observe the precepts. The | |
| 8014 precepts that belong to the substance of the Law are those which relate to right conduct and are imposed on man already subject | |
| 8015 and ready to obey: wherefore when the Law was given these precepts were set forth from the very outset under form of a command. | |
| 8016 </p> | |
| 8017 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p7"> Yet the precepts of hope and faith were not to be given under the form of a command, since, unless man already believed and | |
| 8018 hoped, it would be useless to give him the Law: but, just as the precept of faith had to be given under the form of an announcement | |
| 8019 or reminder, as stated above ( | |
| 8020 <a id="SS_Q22_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q16_A1.html">Q[16], A[1]</a>), so too, the precept of hope, in the first promulgation of the Law, had to be given under the form of a promise. For he | |
| 8021 who promises rewards to them that obey | |
| 8022 him, by that very fact, urges them to hope: hence all the promises contained in the Law are incitements to hope. | |
| 8023 </p> | |
| 8024 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p8"> Since, however, when once the Law has been given, it is for a wise man to induce men not only to observe the precepts, but | |
| 8025 also, and much more, to safeguard the foundation of the Law, therefore, after the first promulgation of the Law, Holy Writ | |
| 8026 holds out to man many inducements to hope, even by way of warning or command, and not merely by way of promise, as in the | |
| 8027 Law; for instance, in the | |
| 8028 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q22_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.61.9" target="asv"> Ps. 61:9</a>: "Hope [Douay: 'Trust'] in Him all ye congregation of the | |
| 8029 people," and in many other passages of the Scriptures. | |
| 8030 </p> | |
| 8031 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p9"> | |
| 8032 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nature inclines us to hope for the good which is proportionate to human nature; but for man to hope for a supernatural good | |
| 8033 he had to be induced by the authority of the Divine law, partly by promises, partly by admonitions and commands. Nevertheless | |
| 8034 there was need for precepts of the Divine law to be given even for those things to which natural reason inclines us, such | |
| 8035 as the acts of the moral virtues, for sake of insuring a greater stability, | |
| 8036 especially since the natural reason of man was clouded by the lusts of sin. | |
| 8037 </p> | |
| 8038 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p10"> | |
| 8039 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The precepts of the law of the decalogue belong to the first promulgation of the Law: hence there was no need for a precept | |
| 8040 of hope among the precepts of the decalogue, and it was enough to induce men to hope by the inclusion of certain promises, | |
| 8041 as in the case of the first and fourth commandments. | |
| 8042 </p> | |
| 8043 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p11"> | |
| 8044 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In those observances to which man is bound as under a duty, it is enough that he receive an affirmative precept as to what | |
| 8045 he has to do, wherein is implied the prohibition of what he must avoid doing: thus he is given a precept concerning the honor | |
| 8046 due to parents, but not a prohibition against dishonoring them, except by the law inflicting punishment on those who dishonor | |
| 8047 their parents. And since in order to be saved it is man's duty to hope in God, | |
| 8048 he had to be induced to do so by one of the above ways, affirmatively, so to speak, wherein is implied the prohibition of | |
| 8049 the opposite. | |
| 8050 </p> | |
| 8051 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 8052 <p id="SS_Q22_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 8053 <a href="summa.SS_Q22.html"></a> | |
| 8054 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8055 </div> | |
| 8056 <div id="SS_Q22_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 8057 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8058 <a href="summa.SS_Q23.html"></a> | |
| 8059 <h4 id="SS_Q22_A2-p0.1">Whether there should have been given a precept of fear?</h4> | |
| 8060 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 8061 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p2"> | |
| 8062 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that, in the Law, there should not have been given a precept of fear. For the fear of God is about things which | |
| 8063 are a preamble to the Law, since it is the "beginning of wisdom." Now things which are a preamble to the Law do not come under | |
| 8064 a precept of the Law. Therefore no precept of fear should be given in the Law. | |
| 8065 </p> | |
| 8066 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p3"> | |
| 8067 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, given the cause, the effect is also given. Now love is the cause of fear, since "every fear proceeds from some kind | |
| 8068 of love," as Augustine states (Qq. lxxxiii, qu. 33). Therefore given the precept of love, it would have been superfluous to | |
| 8069 command fear. | |
| 8070 </p> | |
| 8071 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p4"> | |
| 8072 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, presumption, in a way, is opposed to fear. But the Law contains no prohibition against presumption. Therefore it | |
| 8073 seems that neither should any precept of fear have been given. | |
| 8074 </p> | |
| 8075 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p5"> | |
| 8076 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 8077 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q22_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.10.12" target="asv">Dt. 10:12</a>): "And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but that thou fear the Lord thy God?" But He requires of | |
| 8078 us that which He commands us to do. Therefore it is a matter of precept that man should fear God. | |
| 8079 </p> | |
| 8080 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p6"> | |
| 8081 <b>I answer that,</b> Fear is twofold, servile and filial. Now just as man is induced, by the hope of rewards, to observe precepts of law, so too | |
| 8082 is he induced thereto by the fear of punishment, which fear is servile. | |
| 8083 </p> | |
| 8084 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p7"> And just as according to what has been said | |
| 8085 <a id="SS_Q22_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q22_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, in the promulgation of the Law there was no need for a precept of the act of hope, and men were to be induced thereto by | |
| 8086 promises, so neither was there need for a precept, under form of command, of fear which regards punishment, and men were to | |
| 8087 be induced thereto by the threat of punishment: and this was realized both in the precepts of the decalogue, and afterwards, | |
| 8088 in due sequence, in the secondary | |
| 8089 precepts of the Law. | |
| 8090 </p> | |
| 8091 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p8"> Yet, just as wise men and the prophets who, consequently, strove to strengthen man in the observance of the Law, delivered | |
| 8092 their teaching about hope under the form of admonition or command, so too did they in the matter of fear. | |
| 8093 </p> | |
| 8094 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p9"> On the other hand filial fear which shows reverence to God, is a sort of genus in respect of the love of God, and a kind | |
| 8095 of principle of all observances connected with reverence for God. Hence precepts of filial fear are given in the Law, even | |
| 8096 as precepts of love, because each is a preamble to the external acts prescribed by the Law and to which the precepts of the | |
| 8097 decalogue refer. Hence in the passage quoted in the argument, "On the contrary," man is required "to have fear, to | |
| 8098 walk in God's ways," by worshipping Him, and "to love Him." | |
| 8099 </p> | |
| 8100 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p10"> | |
| 8101 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Filial fear is a preamble to the Law, not as though it were extrinsic thereto, but as being the beginning of the Law, just | |
| 8102 as love is. Hence precepts are given of both, since they are like general principles of the whole Law. | |
| 8103 </p> | |
| 8104 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p11"> | |
| 8105 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> From love proceeds filial fear as also other good works that are done from charity. Hence, just as after the precept of charity, | |
| 8106 precepts are given of the other acts of virtue, so at the same time precepts are given of fear and of the love of charity, | |
| 8107 just as, in demonstrative sciences, it is not enough to lay down the first principles, unless the conclusions also are given | |
| 8108 which follow from them proximately or remotely. | |
| 8109 </p> | |
| 8110 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p12"> | |
| 8111 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Inducement to fear suffices to exclude presumption, even as inducement to hope suffices to exclude despair, as stated above | |
| 8112 (A[1], ad 3). | |
| 8113 </p> | |
| 8114 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 8115 <p id="SS_Q22_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 8116 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8117 <a href="summa.SS_Q23.html"></a> | |
| 8118 </div> | |
| 8119 <a href="summa.SS_Q21_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8120 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8121 </div> | |
| 8122 <div id="SS_Q23" class="div3"> | |
| 8123 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8124 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8125 <h3 id="SS_Q23-p0.1">OF CHARITY, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 8126 <p id="SS_Q23-p1"></p> | |
| 8127 <p id="SS_Q23-p2"> In proper sequence, we must consider charity; and (1) charity itself; (2) the corresponding gift of wisdom. The first consideration | |
| 8128 will be fivefold: (1) Charity itself; (2) The object of charity; (3) Its acts; (4) The opposite vices; (5) The precepts relating | |
| 8129 thereto. | |
| 8130 </p> | |
| 8131 <p id="SS_Q23-p3"> The first of these considerations will be twofold: (1) Charity, considered as regards itself; (2) Charity, considered in | |
| 8132 its relation to its subject. Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry: | |
| 8133 </p> | |
| 8134 <p id="SS_Q23-p4"> (1) Whether charity is friendship?</p> | |
| 8135 <p id="SS_Q23-p5"> (2) Whether it is something created in the soul?</p> | |
| 8136 <p id="SS_Q23-p6"> (3) Whether it is a virtue?</p> | |
| 8137 <p id="SS_Q23-p7"> (4) Whether it is a special virtue?</p> | |
| 8138 <p id="SS_Q23-p8"> (5) Whether it is one virtue?</p> | |
| 8139 <p id="SS_Q23-p9"> (6) Whether it is the greatest of the virtues?</p> | |
| 8140 <p id="SS_Q23-p10"> (7) Whether any true virtue is possible without it?</p> | |
| 8141 <p id="SS_Q23-p11"> (8) Whether it is the form of the virtues?</p> | |
| 8142 <div id="SS_Q23_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 8143 <a href="summa.SS_Q23.html"></a> | |
| 8144 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8145 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A1-p0.1">Whether charity is friendship?</h4> | |
| 8146 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 8147 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p2"> | |
| 8148 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not friendship. For nothing is so appropriate to friendship as to dwell with one's friend, | |
| 8149 according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 5). Now charity is of man towards God and the angels, "whose dwelling [Douay: 'conversation'] | |
| 8150 is not with men" ( | |
| 8151 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Dan.2.11" target="asv">Dan. 2:11</a>). Therefore charity is not friendship. | |
| 8152 </p> | |
| 8153 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p3"> | |
| 8154 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, there is no friendship without return of love (Ethic. viii, 2). But charity extends even to one's enemies, according | |
| 8155 to | |
| 8156 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.44" target="asv">Mat. 5:44</a>: "Love your enemies." Therefore charity is not friendship. | |
| 8157 </p> | |
| 8158 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p4"> | |
| 8159 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 3) there are three kinds of friendship, directed respectively towards | |
| 8160 the delightful, the useful, or the virtuous. Now charity is not the friendship for the useful or delightful; for Jerome says | |
| 8161 in his letter to Paulinus which is to be found at the beginning of the Bible: "True friendship cemented by Christ, is where | |
| 8162 men are drawn together, not by household interests, not by mere bodily presence, not by | |
| 8163 crafty and cajoling flattery, but by the fear of God, and the study of the Divine Scriptures." No more is it friendship for | |
| 8164 the virtuous, since by charity we love even sinners, whereas friendship based on the virtuous is only for virtuous men (Ethic. | |
| 8165 viii). Therefore charity is not friendship. | |
| 8166 </p> | |
| 8167 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p5"> | |
| 8168 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 8169 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.15" target="asv">Jn. 15:15</a>): "I will not now call you servants . . . but My friends." Now this was said to them by reason of nothing else than charity. | |
| 8170 Therefore charity is friendship. | |
| 8171 </p> | |
| 8172 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p6"> | |
| 8173 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 2,3) not every love has the character of friendship, but that love which is together | |
| 8174 with benevolence, when, to wit, we love someone so as to wish good to him. If, however, we do not wish good to what we love, | |
| 8175 but wish its good for ourselves, (thus we are said to love wine, or a horse, or the like), it is love not of friendship, but | |
| 8176 of a kind of concupiscence. For it would be absurd to speak of having friendship for | |
| 8177 wine or for a horse. | |
| 8178 </p> | |
| 8179 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p7"> Yet neither does well-wishing suffice for friendship, for a certain mutual love is requisite, since friendship is between | |
| 8180 friend and friend: and this well-wishing is founded on some kind of communication. | |
| 8181 </p> | |
| 8182 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p8"> Accordingly, since there is a communication between man and God, inasmuch as He communicates His happiness to us, some kind | |
| 8183 of friendship must needs be based on this same communication, of which it is written ( | |
| 8184 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.9" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:9</a>): "God is faithful: by Whom you are called unto the fellowship of His Son." The love which is based on this communication, | |
| 8185 is charity: wherefore it is evident that charity is the friendship of man for God. | |
| 8186 </p> | |
| 8187 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p9"> | |
| 8188 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Man's life is twofold. There is his outward life in respect of his sensitive and corporeal nature: and with regard to this | |
| 8189 life there is no communication or fellowship between us and God or the angels. The other is man's spiritual life in respect | |
| 8190 of his mind, and with regard to this life there is fellowship between us and both God and the angels, imperfectly indeed in | |
| 8191 this present state of life, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 8192 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.3.20" target="asv">Phil. | |
| 8193 3:20 | |
| 8194 </a>): "Our conversation is in heaven." But this "conversation" will be perfected in heaven, when "His servants shall serve Him, | |
| 8195 and they shall see His face" ( | |
| 8196 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A1-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Rev.22.3" target="asv">Apoc. 22:3,4</a>). Therefore charity is imperfect here, but will be perfected in heaven. | |
| 8197 </p> | |
| 8198 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p10"> | |
| 8199 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Friendship extends to a person in two ways: first in respect of himself, and in this way friendship never extends but to | |
| 8200 one's friends: secondly, it extends to someone in respect of another, as, when a man has friendship for a certain person, | |
| 8201 for his sake he loves all belonging to him, be they children, servants, or connected with him in any way. Indeed so much do | |
| 8202 we love our friends, that for their sake we love all who belong to them, even if they | |
| 8203 hurt or hate us; so that, in this way, the friendship of charity extends even to our enemies, whom we love out of charity | |
| 8204 in relation to God, to Whom the friendship of charity is chiefly directed. | |
| 8205 </p> | |
| 8206 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p11"> | |
| 8207 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The friendship that is based on the virtuous is directed to none but a virtuous man as the principal person, but for his | |
| 8208 sake we love those who belong to him, even though they be not virtuous: in this way charity, which above all is friendship | |
| 8209 based on the virtuous, extends to sinners, whom, out of charity, we love for God's sake. | |
| 8210 </p> | |
| 8211 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 8212 <p id="SS_Q23_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 8213 <a href="summa.SS_Q23.html"></a> | |
| 8214 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8215 </div> | |
| 8216 <div id="SS_Q23_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 8217 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8218 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8219 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A2-p0.1">Whether charity is something created in the soul?</h4> | |
| 8220 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 8221 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p2"> | |
| 8222 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not something created in the soul. For Augustine says (De Trin. viii, 7): "He that loveth his | |
| 8223 neighbor, consequently, loveth love itself." Now God is love. Therefore it follows that he loves God in the first place. Again | |
| 8224 he says (De Trin. xv, 17): "It was said: God is Charity, even as it was said: God is a Spirit." Therefore charity is not something | |
| 8225 created in the soul, but is God Himself. | |
| 8226 </p> | |
| 8227 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p3"> | |
| 8228 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, God is the life of the soul spiritually just as the soul is the life of the body, according to | |
| 8229 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.30.20" target="asv"> Dt. 30:20</a>: "He is thy life." Now the soul by itself quickens the body. Therefore God quickens the soul by Himself. But He quickens | |
| 8230 it by charity, according to | |
| 8231 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A2-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.14" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:14</a>: "We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love the brethren." Therefore God is charity itself. | |
| 8232 </p> | |
| 8233 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p4"> | |
| 8234 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no created thing is of infinite power; on the contrary every creature is vanity. But charity is not vanity, indeed | |
| 8235 it is opposed to vanity; and it is of infinite power, since it brings the human soul to the infinite good. Therefore charity | |
| 8236 is not something created in the soul. | |
| 8237 </p> | |
| 8238 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p5"> On the charity, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 10): "By charity I mean the movement of the soul towards the enjoyment | |
| 8239 of God for His own sake." But a movement of the soul is something created in the soul. Therefore charity is something created | |
| 8240 in the soul. | |
| 8241 </p> | |
| 8242 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p6"> | |
| 8243 <b>I answer that,</b> The Master looks thoroughly into this question in Q[17] | |
| 8244 </p> | |
| 8245 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p7"> of the First Book, and concludes that charity is not something created in the soul, but is the Holy Ghost Himself dwelling | |
| 8246 in the mind. Nor does he mean to say that this movement of love whereby we love God is the Holy Ghost Himself, but that this | |
| 8247 movement is from the Holy Ghost without any intermediary habit, whereas other virtuous acts are from the Holy Ghost by means | |
| 8248 of the habits of other virtues, for instance the habit of faith or hope or of some other virtue: and this he | |
| 8249 said on account of the excellence of charity. | |
| 8250 </p> | |
| 8251 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p8"> But if we consider the matter aright, this would be, on the contrary, detrimental to charity. For when the Holy Ghost moves | |
| 8252 the human mind the movement of charity does not proceed from this motion in such a way that the human mind be merely moved, | |
| 8253 without being the principle of this movement, as when a body is moved by some extrinsic motive power. For this is contrary | |
| 8254 to the nature of a voluntary act, whose principle needs to be in itself, as stated above ( | |
| 8255 <a id="SS_Q23_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html">FS, Q[6], A[1]</a>): so that it would follow that to love is not a voluntary act, which involves a contradiction, since love, of its very nature, | |
| 8256 implies an act of the will. | |
| 8257 </p> | |
| 8258 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p9"> Likewise, neither can it be said that the Holy Ghost moves the will in such a way to the act of loving, as though the will | |
| 8259 were an instrument, for an instrument, though it be a principle of action, nevertheless has not the power to act or not to | |
| 8260 act, for then again the act would cease to be voluntary and meritorious, whereas it has been stated above ( | |
| 8261 <a id="SS_Q23_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q114_A4.html">FS, Q[114], A[4]</a>) that the love of charity is the root of merit: and, given that the will is moved by | |
| 8262 the Holy Ghost to the act of love, it is necessary that the will also should be the efficient cause of that act. | |
| 8263 </p> | |
| 8264 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p10"> Now no act is perfectly produced by an active power, unless it be connatural to that power of reason of some form which is | |
| 8265 the principle of that action. Wherefore God, Who moves all things to their due ends, bestowed on each thing the form whereby | |
| 8266 it is inclined to the end appointed to it by Him; and in this way He "ordereth all things sweetly" ( | |
| 8267 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.8.1" target="asv">Wis. 8:1</a>). But it is evident that the act of charity surpasses the nature of the power of the will, so that, | |
| 8268 therefore, unless some form be superadded to the natural power, inclining it to the act of love, this same act would be less | |
| 8269 perfect than the natural acts and the acts of the other powers; nor would it be easy and pleasurable to perform. And this | |
| 8270 is evidently untrue, since no virtue has such a strong inclination to its act as charity has, nor does any virtue perform | |
| 8271 its act with so great pleasure. Therefore it is most necessary that, for us to perform the act of charity, there should be | |
| 8272 in us | |
| 8273 some habitual form superadded to the natural power, inclining that power to the act of charity, and causing it to act with | |
| 8274 ease and pleasure. | |
| 8275 </p> | |
| 8276 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p11"> | |
| 8277 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Divine Essence Itself is charity, even as It is wisdom and goodness. Wherefore just as we are said to be good with the | |
| 8278 goodness which is God, and wise with the wisdom which is God (since the goodness whereby we are formally good is a participation | |
| 8279 of Divine goodness, and the wisdom whereby we are formally wise, is a share of Divine wisdom), so too, the charity whereby | |
| 8280 formally we love our neighbor is a participation of Divine charity. For this | |
| 8281 manner of speaking is common among the Platonists, with whose doctrines Augustine was imbued; and the lack of adverting to | |
| 8282 this has been to some an occasion of error. | |
| 8283 </p> | |
| 8284 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p12"> | |
| 8285 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> God is effectively the life both of the soul by charity, and of the body by the soul: but formally charity is the life of | |
| 8286 the soul, even as the soul is the life of the body. Consequently we may conclude from this that just as the soul is immediately | |
| 8287 united to the body, so is charity to the soul. | |
| 8288 </p> | |
| 8289 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p13"> | |
| 8290 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity works formally. Now the efficacy of a form depends on the power of the agent, who instills the form, wherefore it | |
| 8291 is evident that charity is not vanity. But because it produces an infinite effect, since, by justifying the soul, it unites | |
| 8292 it to God, this proves the infinity of the Divine power, which is the author of charity. | |
| 8293 </p> | |
| 8294 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 8295 <p id="SS_Q23_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 8296 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8297 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8298 </div> | |
| 8299 <div id="SS_Q23_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 8300 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8301 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8302 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A3-p0.1">Whether charity is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 8303 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 8304 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p2"> | |
| 8305 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not a virtue. For charity is a kind of friendship. Now philosophers do not reckon friendship | |
| 8306 a virtue, as may be gathered from Ethic. viii, 1; nor is it numbered among the virtues whether moral or intellectual. Neither, | |
| 8307 therefore, is charity a virtue. | |
| 8308 </p> | |
| 8309 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p3"> | |
| 8310 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "virtue is the ultimate limit of power" (De Coelo et Mundo i, 11). But charity is not something ultimate, this applies | |
| 8311 rather to joy and peace. Therefore it seems that charity is not a virtue, and that this should be said rather of joy and peace. | |
| 8312 </p> | |
| 8313 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p4"> | |
| 8314 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every virtue is an accidental habit. But charity is not an accidental habit, since it is a more excellent thing | |
| 8315 than the soul itself: whereas no accident is more excellent than its subject. Therefore charity is not a virtue. | |
| 8316 </p> | |
| 8317 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p5"> | |
| 8318 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Moribus Eccl. xi): "Charity is a virtue which, when our affections are perfectly ordered, unites us to | |
| 8319 God, for by it we love Him." | |
| 8320 </p> | |
| 8321 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p6"> | |
| 8322 <b>I answer that,</b> Human acts are good according as they are regulated by their due rule and measure. Wherefore human virtue which is the principle | |
| 8323 of all man's good acts consists in following the rule of human acts, which is twofold, as stated above ( | |
| 8324 <a id="SS_Q23_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">Q[17], A[1]</a>), viz. human reason and God. | |
| 8325 </p> | |
| 8326 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p7"> Consequently just as moral virtue is defined as being "in accord with right reason," as stated in Ethic. ii, 6, so too, the | |
| 8327 nature of virtue consists in attaining God, as also stated above with regard to faith, ( | |
| 8328 <a id="SS_Q23_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q4_A5.html">Q[4], A[5]</a>) and hope ( | |
| 8329 <a id="SS_Q23_A3-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A1.html">Q[17], A[1]</a>). Wherefore, it follows that charity is a virtue, for, since charity attains God, it unites us to God, as evidenced by the | |
| 8330 authority of Augustine quoted above. | |
| 8331 </p> | |
| 8332 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p8"> | |
| 8333 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher (Ethic. viii) does not deny that friendship is a virtue, but affirms that it is "either a virtue or with | |
| 8334 a virtue." For we might say that it is a moral virtue about works done in respect of another person, but under a different | |
| 8335 aspect from justice. For justice is about works done in respect of another person, under the aspect of the legal due, whereas | |
| 8336 friendship considers the aspect of a friendly and moral duty, or rather that of a | |
| 8337 gratuitous favor, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 13). Nevertheless it may be admitted that it is not a virtue distinct | |
| 8338 of itself from the other virtues. For its praiseworthiness and virtuousness are derived merely from its object, in so far, | |
| 8339 to wit, as it is based on the moral goodness of the virtues. This is evident from the fact that not every friendship is praiseworthy | |
| 8340 and virtuous, as in the case of friendship based on pleasure or utility. Wherefore friendship for the virtuous is | |
| 8341 something consequent to virtue rather than a virtue. Moreover there is no comparison with charity since it is not founded | |
| 8342 principally on the virtue of a man, but on the goodness of God. | |
| 8343 </p> | |
| 8344 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p9"> | |
| 8345 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It belongs to the same virtue to love a man and to rejoice about him, since joy results from love, as stated above ( | |
| 8346 <a id="SS_Q23_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A2.html">FS, Q[25], A[2]</a>) in the treatise on the passions: wherefore love is reckoned a virtue, rather than joy, which is an effect of love. And when | |
| 8347 virtue is described as being something ultimate, we mean that it is last, not in the order of effect, but in the order of | |
| 8348 excess, just as one hundred pounds exceed sixty. | |
| 8349 </p> | |
| 8350 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p10"> | |
| 8351 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Every accident is inferior to substance if we consider its being, since substance has being in itself, while an accident | |
| 8352 has its being in another: but considered as to its species, an accident which results from the principles of its subject is | |
| 8353 inferior to its subject, even as an effect is inferior to its cause; whereas an accident that results from a participation | |
| 8354 of some higher nature is superior to its subject, in so far as it is a likeness of that | |
| 8355 higher nature, even as light is superior to the diaphanous body. In this way charity is superior to the soul, in as much as | |
| 8356 it is a participation of the Holy Ghost. | |
| 8357 </p> | |
| 8358 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 8359 <p id="SS_Q23_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 8360 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8361 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8362 </div> | |
| 8363 <div id="SS_Q23_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 8364 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8365 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8366 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A4-p0.1">Whether charity is a special virtue?</h4> | |
| 8367 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 8368 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p2"> | |
| 8369 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not a special virtue. For Jerome says: "Let me briefly define all virtue as the charity whereby | |
| 8370 we love God" [*The reference should be to Augustine, Ep. clxvii]: and Augustine says (De Moribus Eccl. xv) [*De Civ. Dei xv, | |
| 8371 22] that "virtue is the order of love." Now no special virtue is included in the definition of virtue in general. Therefore | |
| 8372 charity is not a special virtue. | |
| 8373 </p> | |
| 8374 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p3"> | |
| 8375 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which extends to all works of virtue, cannot be a special virtue. But charity extends to all works of virtue, | |
| 8376 according to | |
| 8377 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.4" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:4</a>: "Charity is patient, is kind," etc.; indeed it extends to all human actions, according to | |
| 8378 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A4-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.16.14" target="asv">1 Cor. 16:14</a>: "Let all your things be done in charity." Therefore charity is not a special virtue. | |
| 8379 </p> | |
| 8380 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p4"> | |
| 8381 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the precepts of the Law refer to acts of virtue. Now Augustine says (De Perfect. Human. Justit. v) that, "Thou shalt | |
| 8382 love" is "a general commandment," and "Thou shalt not covet," "a general prohibition." Therefore charity is a general virtue. | |
| 8383 </p> | |
| 8384 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p5"> | |
| 8385 <b>On the contrary,</b> Nothing general is enumerated together with what is special. But charity is enumerated together with special virtues, viz. | |
| 8386 hope and faith, according to | |
| 8387 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:13</a>: "And now there remain faith, hope, charity, these three." Therefore charity is a special virtue. | |
| 8388 </p> | |
| 8389 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p6"> | |
| 8390 <b>I answer that,</b> Acts and habits are specified by their objects, as shown above ( | |
| 8391 <a id="SS_Q23_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">FS, Q[18], A[2]</a>; | |
| 8392 <a id="SS_Q23_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>). Now the proper object of love is the good, as stated above ( | |
| 8393 <a id="SS_Q23_A4-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q27_A1.html">FS, Q[27], A[1]</a>), so that wherever there is a special aspect of good, there is a special kind of love. But the Divine good, inasmuch as it | |
| 8394 is the object of happiness, has a special aspect of good, wherefore the love of charity, | |
| 8395 which is the love of that good, is a special kind of love. Therefore charity is a special virtue. | |
| 8396 </p> | |
| 8397 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p7"> | |
| 8398 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Charity is included in the definition of every virtue, not as being essentially every virtue, but because every virtue depends | |
| 8399 on it in a way, as we shall state further on ( | |
| 8400 <a id="SS_Q23_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html">AA[7]</a>,8). In this way prudence is included in the definition of the moral virtues, as explained in Ethic. ii, vi, from the fact | |
| 8401 that they depend on prudence. | |
| 8402 </p> | |
| 8403 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p8"> | |
| 8404 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The virtue or art which is concerned about the last end, commands the virtues or arts which are concerned about other ends | |
| 8405 which are secondary, thus the military art commands the art of horse-riding (Ethic. i). Accordingly since charity has for | |
| 8406 its object the last end of human life, viz. everlasting happiness, it follows that it extends to the acts of a man's whole | |
| 8407 life, by commanding them, not by eliciting immediately all acts of virtue. | |
| 8408 </p> | |
| 8409 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p9"> | |
| 8410 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The precept of love is said to be a general command, because all other precepts are reduced thereto as to their end, according | |
| 8411 to | |
| 8412 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A4-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.5" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:5</a>: "The end of the commandment is charity." | |
| 8413 </p> | |
| 8414 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 8415 <p id="SS_Q23_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 8416 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8417 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8418 </div> | |
| 8419 <div id="SS_Q23_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 8420 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8421 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html"></a> | |
| 8422 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A5-p0.1">Whether charity is one virtue?</h4> | |
| 8423 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 8424 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p2"> | |
| 8425 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not one virtue. For habits are distinct according to their objects. Now there are two objects | |
| 8426 of charity---God and our neighbor---which are infinitely distant from one another. Therefore charity is not one virtue. | |
| 8427 </p> | |
| 8428 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p3"> | |
| 8429 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, different aspects of the object diversify a habit, even though that object be one in reality, as shown above (Q[17], | |
| 8430 A[6]; | |
| 8431 <a id="SS_Q23_A5-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A2.html">FS, Q[54], A[2]</a>, ad 1). Now there are many aspects under which God is an object of love, because we are debtors to His love by reason of | |
| 8432 each one of His favors. Therefore charity is not one virtue. | |
| 8433 </p> | |
| 8434 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p4"> | |
| 8435 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity comprises friendship for our neighbor. But the Philosopher reckons several species of friendship (Ethic. | |
| 8436 viii, 3,11,12). Therefore charity is not one virtue, but is divided into a number of various species. | |
| 8437 </p> | |
| 8438 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p5"> | |
| 8439 <b>On the contrary,</b> Just as God is the object of faith, so is He the object of charity. Now faith is one virtue by reason of the unity of the | |
| 8440 Divine truth, according to | |
| 8441 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.5" target="asv"> Eph. 4:5</a>: "One faith." Therefore charity also is one virtue by reason of the unity of the Divine goodness. | |
| 8442 </p> | |
| 8443 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p6"> | |
| 8444 <b>I answer that,</b> Charity, as stated above | |
| 8445 <a id="SS_Q23_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">(A[1])</a> is a kind of friendship of man for God. Now the different species of friendship are differentiated, first of all, in respect | |
| 8446 of a diversity of end, and in this way there are three species of friendship, namely friendship for the useful, for the delightful, | |
| 8447 and for the virtuous; secondly, in respect of the different kinds of communion on which friendships are based; thus there | |
| 8448 is one species of | |
| 8449 friendship between kinsmen, and another between fellow citizens or fellow travellers, the former being based on natural communion, | |
| 8450 the latter on civil communion or on the comradeship of the road, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 12). | |
| 8451 </p> | |
| 8452 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p7"> Now charity cannot be differentiated in either of these ways: for its end is one, namely, the goodness of God; and the fellowship | |
| 8453 of everlasting happiness, on which this friendship is based, is also one. Hence it follows that charity is simply one virtue, | |
| 8454 and not divided into several species. | |
| 8455 </p> | |
| 8456 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p8"> | |
| 8457 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument would hold, if God and our neighbor were equally objects of charity. But this is not true: for God is the principal | |
| 8458 object of charity, while our neighbor is loved out of charity for God's sake. | |
| 8459 </p> | |
| 8460 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p9"> | |
| 8461 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> God is loved by charity for His own sake: wherefore charity regards principally but one aspect of lovableness, namely God's | |
| 8462 goodness, which is His substance, according to | |
| 8463 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A5-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.105.1" target="asv"> Ps. 105:1</a>: "Give glory to the Lord for He is good." Other reasons that inspire us with love for Him, or which make it our duty to love | |
| 8464 Him, are secondary and result from the first. | |
| 8465 </p> | |
| 8466 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p10"> | |
| 8467 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Human friendship of which the Philosopher treats has various ends and various forms of fellowship. This does not apply to | |
| 8468 charity, as stated above: wherefore the comparison fails. | |
| 8469 </p> | |
| 8470 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 8471 <p id="SS_Q23_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 8472 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8473 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html"></a> | |
| 8474 </div> | |
| 8475 <div id="SS_Q23_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 8476 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8477 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html"></a> | |
| 8478 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A6-p0.1">Whether charity is the most excellent of the virtues?</h4> | |
| 8479 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 8480 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p2"> | |
| 8481 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not the most excellent of the virtues. Because the higher power has the higher virtue even | |
| 8482 as it has a higher operation. Now the intellect is higher than the will, since it directs the will. Therefore, faith, which | |
| 8483 is in the intellect, is more excellent than charity which is in the will. | |
| 8484 </p> | |
| 8485 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p3"> | |
| 8486 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the thing by which another works seems the less excellent of the two, even as a servant, by whom his master works, | |
| 8487 is beneath his master. Now "faith . . . worketh by charity," according to | |
| 8488 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.6" target="asv"> Gal. 5:6.</a> Therefore faith is more excellent than charity. | |
| 8489 </p> | |
| 8490 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p4"> | |
| 8491 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which is by way of addition to another seems to be the more perfect of the two. Now hope seems to be something | |
| 8492 additional to charity: for the object of charity is good, whereas the object of hope is an arduous good. Therefore hope is | |
| 8493 more excellent than charity. | |
| 8494 </p> | |
| 8495 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p5"> | |
| 8496 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 8497 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:13</a>): "The greater of these is charity." | |
| 8498 </p> | |
| 8499 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p6"> | |
| 8500 <b>I answer that,</b> Since good, in human acts, depends on their being regulated by the due rule, it must needs be that human virtue, which is | |
| 8501 a principle of good acts, consists in attaining the rule of human acts. Now the rule of human acts is twofold, as stated above | |
| 8502 | |
| 8503 <a id="SS_Q23_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, namely, human reason and God: yet God is the first rule, whereby, even human reason must be regulated. Consequently the | |
| 8504 theological virtues, which consist in attaining this first | |
| 8505 rule, since their object is God, are more excellent than the moral, or the intellectual virtues, which consist in attaining | |
| 8506 human reason: and it follows that among the theological virtues themselves, the first place belongs to that which attains | |
| 8507 God most. | |
| 8508 </p> | |
| 8509 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p7"> Now that which is of itself always ranks before that which is by another. But faith and hope attain God indeed in so far | |
| 8510 as we derive from Him the knowledge of truth or the acquisition of good, whereas charity attains God Himself that it may rest | |
| 8511 in Him, but not that something may accrue to us from Him. Hence charity is more excellent than faith or hope, and, consequently, | |
| 8512 than all the other virtues, just as prudence, which by itself attains reason, is more excellent than the | |
| 8513 other moral virtues, which attain reason in so far as it appoints the mean in human operations or passions. | |
| 8514 </p> | |
| 8515 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p8"> | |
| 8516 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The operation of the intellect is completed by the thing understood being in the intellectual subject, so that the excellence | |
| 8517 of the intellectual operation is assessed according to the measure of the intellect. On the other hand, the operation of the | |
| 8518 will and of every appetitive power is completed in the tendency of the appetite towards a thing as its term, wherefore the | |
| 8519 excellence of the appetitive operation is gauged according to the thing which is | |
| 8520 the object of the operation. Now those things which are beneath the soul are more excellent in the soul than they are in themselves, | |
| 8521 because a thing is contained according to the mode of the container (De Causis xii). On the other hand, things that are above | |
| 8522 the soul, are more excellent in themselves than they are in the soul. Consequently it is better to know than to love the things | |
| 8523 that are beneath us; for which reason the Philosopher gave the preference to the intellectual virtues over the | |
| 8524 moral virtues (Ethic. x, 7,8): whereas the love of the things that are above us, especially of God, ranks before the knowledge | |
| 8525 of such things. Therefore charity is more excellent than faith. | |
| 8526 </p> | |
| 8527 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p9"> | |
| 8528 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faith works by love, not instrumentally, as a master by his servant, but as by its proper form: hence the argument does not | |
| 8529 prove. | |
| 8530 </p> | |
| 8531 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p10"> | |
| 8532 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The same good is the object of charity and of hope: but charity implies union with that good, whereas hope implies distance | |
| 8533 therefrom. Hence charity does not regard that good as being arduous, as hope does, since what is already united has not the | |
| 8534 character of arduous: and this shows that charity is more perfect than hope. | |
| 8535 </p> | |
| 8536 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 8537 <p id="SS_Q23_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 8538 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8539 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html"></a> | |
| 8540 </div> | |
| 8541 <div id="SS_Q23_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 8542 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html"></a> | |
| 8543 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html"></a> | |
| 8544 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A7-p0.1">Whether any true virtue is possible without charity?</h4> | |
| 8545 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 8546 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p2"> | |
| 8547 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there can be true virtue without charity. For it is proper to virtue to produce a good act. Now those | |
| 8548 who have not charity, do some good actions, as when they clothe the naked, or feed the hungry and so forth. Therefore true | |
| 8549 virtue is possible without charity. | |
| 8550 </p> | |
| 8551 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p3"> | |
| 8552 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is not possible without faith, since it comes of "an unfeigned faith," as the Apostle says ( | |
| 8553 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.5" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:5</a>). Now, in unbelievers, there can be true chastity, if they curb their concupiscences, and true justice, if they judge rightly. | |
| 8554 Therefore true virtue is possible without charity. | |
| 8555 </p> | |
| 8556 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p4"> | |
| 8557 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, science and art are virtues, according to Ethic. vi. But they are to be found in sinners who lack charity. Therefore | |
| 8558 true virtue can be without charity. | |
| 8559 </p> | |
| 8560 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p5"> | |
| 8561 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 8562 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.3" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:3</a>): "If I should distribute all my goods to the poor, and if I should deliver my body to be burned, and have not charity, it | |
| 8563 profiteth me nothing." And yet true virtue is very profitable, according to | |
| 8564 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A7-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.8.7" target="asv"> Wis. 8:7</a>: "She teacheth temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have nothing more profitable | |
| 8565 in life." Therefore no true virtue is possible | |
| 8566 without charity. | |
| 8567 </p> | |
| 8568 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p6"> | |
| 8569 <b>I answer that,</b> Virtue is ordered to the good, as stated above ( | |
| 8570 <a id="SS_Q23_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q55_A4.html">FS, Q[55] , A[4]</a>). Now the good is chiefly an end, for things directed to the end are not said to be good except in relation to the end. Accordingly, | |
| 8571 just as the end is twofold, the last end, and the proximate end, so also, is good twofold, one, the ultimate and universal | |
| 8572 good, the other proximate and particular. The ultimate and principal good of man is the enjoyment of God, according | |
| 8573 to | |
| 8574 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A7-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.72.28" target="asv"> Ps. 72:28</a>: "It is good for me to adhere to God," and to this good man is ordered by charity. Man's secondary and, as it were, particular | |
| 8575 good may be twofold: one is truly good, because, considered in itself, it can be directed to the principal good, which is | |
| 8576 the last end; while the other is good apparently and not truly, because it leads us away from the final good. Accordingly | |
| 8577 it is evident that simply true virtue is that which is directed to man's principal good; thus | |
| 8578 also the Philosopher says (Phys. vii, text. 17) that "virtue is the disposition of a perfect thing to that which is best": | |
| 8579 and in this way no true virtue is possible without charity. | |
| 8580 </p> | |
| 8581 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p7"> If, however, we take virtue as being ordered to some particular end, then we speak of virtue being where there is no charity, | |
| 8582 in so far as it is directed to some particular good. But if this particular good is not a true, but an apparent good, it is | |
| 8583 not a true virtue that is ordered to such a good, but a counterfeit virtue. Even so, as Augustine says (Contra Julian. iv, | |
| 8584 3), "the prudence of the miser, whereby he devises various roads to gain, is no true virtue; nor the miser's | |
| 8585 justice, whereby he scorns the property of another through fear of severe punishment; nor the miser's temperance, whereby | |
| 8586 he curbs his desire for expensive pleasures; nor the miser's fortitude, whereby as Horace, says, 'he braves the sea, he crosses | |
| 8587 mountains, he goes through fire, in order to avoid poverty'" (Epis. lib, 1; Ep. i, 45). If, on the other hand, this particular | |
| 8588 good be a true good, for instance the welfare of the state, or the like, it will indeed be a true virtue, imperfect, | |
| 8589 however, unless it be referred to the final and perfect good. Accordingly no strictly true virtue is possible without charity. | |
| 8590 </p> | |
| 8591 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p8"> | |
| 8592 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The act of one lacking charity may be of two kinds; one is in accordance with his lack of charity, as when he does something | |
| 8593 that is referred to that whereby he lacks charity. Such an act is always evil: thus Augustine says (Contra Julian. iv, 3) | |
| 8594 that the actions which an unbeliever performs as an unbeliever, are always sinful, even when he clothes the naked, or does | |
| 8595 any like thing, and directs it to his unbelief as end. | |
| 8596 </p> | |
| 8597 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p9"> There is, however, another act of one lacking charity, not in accordance with his lack of charity, but in accordance with | |
| 8598 his possession of some other gift of God, whether faith, or hope, or even his natural good, which is not completely taken | |
| 8599 away by sin, as stated above (Q[10], A[4]; | |
| 8600 <a id="SS_Q23_A7-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q85_A2.html">FS, Q[85], A[2]</a>). In this way it is possible for an act, without charity, to be generically good, but not perfectly good, because it lacks | |
| 8601 its due order to the last | |
| 8602 end. | |
| 8603 </p> | |
| 8604 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p10"> | |
| 8605 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since the end is in practical matters, what the principle is in speculative matters, just as there can be no strictly true | |
| 8606 science, if a right estimate of the first indemonstrable principle be lacking, so, there can be no strictly true justice, | |
| 8607 or chastity, without that due ordering to the end, which is effected by charity, however rightly a man may be affected about | |
| 8608 other matters. | |
| 8609 </p> | |
| 8610 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p11"> | |
| 8611 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Science and art of their very nature imply a relation to some particular good, and not to the ultimate good of human life, | |
| 8612 as do the moral virtues, which make man good simply, as stated above ( | |
| 8613 <a id="SS_Q23_A7-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q56_A3.html">FS, Q[56] , A[3]</a>). Hence the comparison fails. | |
| 8614 </p> | |
| 8615 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 8616 <p id="SS_Q23_A7-p13"></p> | |
| 8617 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html"></a> | |
| 8618 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html"></a> | |
| 8619 </div> | |
| 8620 <div id="SS_Q23_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 8621 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html"></a> | |
| 8622 <a href="summa.SS_Q24.html"></a> | |
| 8623 <h4 id="SS_Q23_A8-p0.1">Whether charity is the form of the virtues?</h4> | |
| 8624 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 8625 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p2"> | |
| 8626 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not the true form of the virtues. Because the form of a thing is either exemplar or essential. | |
| 8627 Now charity is not the exemplar form of the other virtues, since it would follow that the other virtues are of the same species | |
| 8628 as charity: nor is it the essential form of the other virtues, since then it would not be distinct from them. Therefore it | |
| 8629 is in no way the form of the virtues. | |
| 8630 </p> | |
| 8631 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p3"> | |
| 8632 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is compared to the other virtues as their root and foundation, according to | |
| 8633 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q23_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.3.17" target="asv"> Eph. 3:17</a>: "Rooted and founded in charity." Now a root or foundation is not the form, but rather the matter of a thing, since it is | |
| 8634 the first part in the making. Therefore charity is not the form of the virtues. | |
| 8635 </p> | |
| 8636 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p4"> | |
| 8637 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, formal, final, and efficient causes do not coincide with one another (Phys. ii, 7). Now charity is called the end | |
| 8638 and the mother of the virtues. Therefore it should not be called their form. | |
| 8639 </p> | |
| 8640 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p5"> | |
| 8641 <b>On the contrary,</b> Ambrose [*Lombard, Sent. iii, D, 23] says that charity is the form of the virtues. | |
| 8642 </p> | |
| 8643 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p6"> | |
| 8644 <b>I answer that,</b> In morals the form of an act is taken chiefly from the end. The reason of this is that the principal of moral acts is the | |
| 8645 will, whose object and form, so to speak, are the end. Now the form of an act always follows from a form of the agent. Consequently, | |
| 8646 in morals, that which gives an act its order to the end, must needs give the act its form. Now it is evident, in accordance | |
| 8647 with what has been said | |
| 8648 <a id="SS_Q23_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html">(A[7])</a>, that it is charity which | |
| 8649 directs the acts of all other virtues to the last end, and which, consequently, also gives the form to all other acts of virtue: | |
| 8650 and it is precisely in this sense that charity is called the form of the virtues, for these are called virtues in relation | |
| 8651 to "informed" acts. | |
| 8652 </p> | |
| 8653 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p7"> | |
| 8654 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Charity is called the form of the other virtues not as being their exemplar or their essential form, but rather by way of | |
| 8655 efficient cause, in so far as it sets the form on all, in the aforesaid manner. | |
| 8656 </p> | |
| 8657 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p8"> | |
| 8658 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity is compared to the foundation or root in so far as all other virtues draw their sustenance and nourishment therefrom, | |
| 8659 and not in the sense that the foundation and root have the character of a material cause. | |
| 8660 </p> | |
| 8661 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p9"> | |
| 8662 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity is said to be the end of other virtues, because it directs all other virtues to its own end. And since a mother is | |
| 8663 one who conceives within herself and by another, charity is called the mother of the other virtues, because, by commanding | |
| 8664 them, it conceives the acts of the other virtues, by the desire of the last end. | |
| 8665 </p> | |
| 8666 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p10"></p> | |
| 8667 <p id="SS_Q23_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 8668 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html"></a> | |
| 8669 <a href="summa.SS_Q24.html"></a> | |
| 8670 </div> | |
| 8671 <a href="summa.SS_Q22_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8672 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8673 </div> | |
| 8674 <div id="SS_Q24" class="div3"> | |
| 8675 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html"></a> | |
| 8676 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8677 <h3 id="SS_Q24-p0.1">OF THE SUBJECT OF CHARITY (TWELVE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 8678 <p id="SS_Q24-p1"></p> | |
| 8679 <p id="SS_Q24-p2"> We must now consider charity in relation to its subject, under which head there are twelve points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 8680 <p id="SS_Q24-p3"> (1) Whether charity is in the will as its subject?</p> | |
| 8681 <p id="SS_Q24-p4"> (2) Whether charity is caused in man by preceding acts or by a Divine infusion?</p> | |
| 8682 <p id="SS_Q24-p5"> (3) Whether it is infused according to the capacity of our natural gifts?</p> | |
| 8683 <p id="SS_Q24-p6"> (4) Whether it increases in the person who has it?</p> | |
| 8684 <p id="SS_Q24-p7"> (5) Whether it increases by addition?</p> | |
| 8685 <p id="SS_Q24-p8"> (6) Whether it increases by every act?</p> | |
| 8686 <p id="SS_Q24-p9"> (7) Whether it increases indefinitely?</p> | |
| 8687 <p id="SS_Q24-p10"> (8) Whether the charity of a wayfarer can be perfect?</p> | |
| 8688 <p id="SS_Q24-p11"> (9) Of the various degrees of charity;</p> | |
| 8689 <p id="SS_Q24-p12"> (10) Whether charity can diminish?</p> | |
| 8690 <p id="SS_Q24-p13"> (11) Whether charity can be lost after it has been possessed?</p> | |
| 8691 <p id="SS_Q24-p14"> (12) Whether it is lost through one mortal sin?</p> | |
| 8692 <div id="SS_Q24_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 8693 <a href="summa.SS_Q24.html"></a> | |
| 8694 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8695 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A1-p0.1">Whether the will is the subject of charity?</h4> | |
| 8696 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 8697 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p2"> | |
| 8698 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not the subject of charity. For charity is a kind of love. Now, according to the Philosopher | |
| 8699 (Topic. ii, 3) love is in the concupiscible part. Therefore charity is also in the concupiscible and not in the will. | |
| 8700 </p> | |
| 8701 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p3"> | |
| 8702 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is the foremost of the virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 8703 <a id="SS_Q24_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html">Q[23], A[6]</a>). But the reason is the subject of virtue. Therefore it seems that charity is in the reason and not in the will. | |
| 8704 </p> | |
| 8705 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p4"> | |
| 8706 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity extends to all human acts, according to | |
| 8707 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.16.14" target="asv">1 Cor. 16:14</a>: "Let all your things be done in charity." Now the principle of human acts is the free-will. Therefore it seems that charity | |
| 8708 is chiefly in the free-will as its subject and not in the will. | |
| 8709 </p> | |
| 8710 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p5"> | |
| 8711 <b>On the contrary,</b> The object of charity is the good, which is also the object of the will. Therefore charity is in the will as its subject. | |
| 8712 </p> | |
| 8713 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p6"> | |
| 8714 <b>I answer that,</b> Since, as stated in the | |
| 8715 <a id="SS_Q24_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q80_A2.html">FP, Q[80], A[2]</a>, the appetite is twofold, namely the sensitive, and the intellective which is called the will, the object of each is the | |
| 8716 good, but in different ways: for the object of the sensitive appetite is a good apprehended by sense, whereas the object of | |
| 8717 the intellective appetite or will is good under the universal aspect of good, according as it can be apprehended by the intellect. | |
| 8718 Now the object of | |
| 8719 charity is not a sensible good, but the Divine good which is known by the intellect alone. Therefore the subject of charity | |
| 8720 is not the sensitive, but the intellective appetite, i.e. the will. | |
| 8721 </p> | |
| 8722 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p7"> | |
| 8723 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The concupiscible is a part of the sensitive, not of the intellective appetite, as proved in the | |
| 8724 <a id="SS_Q24_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q81_A2.html">FP, Q[81], A[2]</a>: wherefore the love which is in the concupiscible, is the love of sensible good: nor can the concupiscible reach to the Divine | |
| 8725 good which is an intelligible good; the will alone can. Consequently the concupiscible cannot be the subject of charity. | |
| 8726 </p> | |
| 8727 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p8"> | |
| 8728 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> According to the Philosopher (De Anima iii, 9), the will also is in the reason: wherefore charity is not excluded from the | |
| 8729 reason through being in the will. Yet charity is regulated, not by the reason, as human virtues are, but by God's wisdom, | |
| 8730 and transcends the rule of human reason, according to | |
| 8731 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.3.19" target="asv"> Eph. 3:19</a>: "The charity of Christ, which surpasseth all knowledge." Hence it is not in the reason, either as its subject, like prudence | |
| 8732 is, or as its rule, like justice and temperance are, but only by a certain kinship of the will to the reason. | |
| 8733 </p> | |
| 8734 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p9"> | |
| 8735 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated in the | |
| 8736 <a id="SS_Q24_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q83_A4.html">FP, Q[83], A[4]</a>, the free-will is not a distinct power from the will. Yet charity is not in the will considered as free-will, the act of | |
| 8737 which is to choose. For choice is of things directed to the end, whereas the will is of the end itself (Ethic. iii, 2). Hence | |
| 8738 charity, whose object is the last end, should be described as residing in the will rather than in the free-will. | |
| 8739 </p> | |
| 8740 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 8741 <p id="SS_Q24_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 8742 <a href="summa.SS_Q24.html"></a> | |
| 8743 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8744 </div> | |
| 8745 <div id="SS_Q24_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 8746 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8747 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8748 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A2-p0.1">Whether charity is caused in us by infusion?</h4> | |
| 8749 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 8750 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p2"> | |
| 8751 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not caused in us by infusion. For that which is common to all creatures, is in man naturally. | |
| 8752 Now, according to Dionysius (Div. Nom. iv), the "Divine good", which is the object of charity, "is for all an object of dilection | |
| 8753 and love." Therefore charity is in us naturally, and not by infusion. | |
| 8754 </p> | |
| 8755 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p3"> | |
| 8756 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the more lovable a thing is the easier it is to love it. Now God is supremely lovable, since He is supremely good. | |
| 8757 Therefore it is easier to love Him than other things. But we need no infused habit in order to love other things. Neither, | |
| 8758 therefore, do we need one in order to love God. | |
| 8759 </p> | |
| 8760 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p4"> | |
| 8761 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 8762 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.5" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:5</a>): "The end of the commandment is charity from a pure heart, and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith." Now these three | |
| 8763 have reference to human acts. Therefore charity is caused in us from preceding acts, and not from infusion. | |
| 8764 </p> | |
| 8765 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p5"> | |
| 8766 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 8767 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.5" target="asv">Rom. 5:5</a>): "The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Ghost, Who is given to us." | |
| 8768 </p> | |
| 8769 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p6"> | |
| 8770 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 8771 <a id="SS_Q24_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>), charity is a friendship of man for God, founded upon the fellowship of everlasting happiness. Now this fellowship is in | |
| 8772 respect, not of natural, but of gratuitous gifts, for, according to | |
| 8773 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A2-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.6.23" target="asv"> Rom. 6:23, </a> "the grace of God is life everlasting": wherefore charity itself surpasses our natural facilities. Now that which surpasses | |
| 8774 the faculty of nature, cannot be natural or acquired by the | |
| 8775 natural powers, since a natural effect does not transcend its cause. | |
| 8776 </p> | |
| 8777 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p7"> Therefore charity can be in us neither naturally, nor through acquisition by the natural powers, but by the infusion of the | |
| 8778 Holy Ghost, Who is the love of the Father and the Son, and the participation of Whom in us is created charity, as stated above | |
| 8779 ( | |
| 8780 <a id="SS_Q24_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A2.html">Q[23], A[2]</a>). | |
| 8781 </p> | |
| 8782 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p8"> | |
| 8783 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Dionysius is speaking of the love of God, which is founded on the fellowship of natural goods, wherefore it is in all naturally. | |
| 8784 On the other hand, charity is founded on a supernatural fellowship, so the comparison fails. | |
| 8785 </p> | |
| 8786 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p9"> | |
| 8787 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as God is supremely knowable in Himself yet not to us, on account of a defect in our knowledge which depends on sensible | |
| 8788 things, so too, God is supremely lovable in Himself, in as much as He is the object of happiness. But He is not supremely | |
| 8789 lovable to us in this way, on account of the inclination of our appetite towards visible goods. Hence it is evident that for | |
| 8790 us to love God above all things in this way, it is necessary that charity be | |
| 8791 infused into our hearts. | |
| 8792 </p> | |
| 8793 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p10"> | |
| 8794 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When it is said that in us charity proceeds from "a pure heart, and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith," this must | |
| 8795 be referred to the act of charity which is aroused by these things. Or again, this is said because the aforesaid acts dispose | |
| 8796 man to receive the infusion of charity. The same remark applies to the saying of Augustine (Tract. ix in prim. canon. Joan.): | |
| 8797 "Fear leads to charity," and of a gloss on | |
| 8798 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.1.2" target="asv"> Mat. 1:2</a>: "Faith | |
| 8799 begets hope, and hope charity." | |
| 8800 </p> | |
| 8801 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 8802 <p id="SS_Q24_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 8803 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html"></a> | |
| 8804 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8805 </div> | |
| 8806 <div id="SS_Q24_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 8807 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8808 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8809 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A3-p0.1">Whether charity is infused according to the capacity of our natural gifts?</h4> | |
| 8810 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 8811 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p2"> | |
| 8812 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is infused according to the capacity of our natural gifts. For it is written ( | |
| 8813 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.25.15" target="asv">Mat. 25:15</a>) that "He gave to every one according to his own virtue [Douay: 'proper ability']." Now, in man, none but natural virtue | |
| 8814 precedes charity, since there is no virtue without charity, as stated above ( | |
| 8815 <a id="SS_Q24_A3-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html">Q[23], A[7]</a>). Therefore God infuses charity into man according to the measure of his natural virtue. | |
| 8816 </p> | |
| 8817 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p3"> | |
| 8818 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, among things ordained towards one another, the second is proportionate to the first: thus we find in natural things | |
| 8819 that the form is proportionate to the matter, and in gratuitous gifts, that glory is proportionate to grace. Now, since charity | |
| 8820 is a perfection of nature, it is compared to the capacity of nature as second to first. Therefore it seems that charity is | |
| 8821 infused according to the capacity of nature. | |
| 8822 </p> | |
| 8823 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p4"> | |
| 8824 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, men and angels partake of happiness according to the same measure, since happiness is alike in both, according to | |
| 8825 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.30" target="asv"> Mat. 22:30 </a>and | |
| 8826 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.20.36" target="asv"> Lk. 20:36.</a> Now charity and other gratuitous gifts are bestowed on the angels, according to their natural capacity, as the Master teaches | |
| 8827 (Sent. ii, D, 3). Therefore the same apparently applies to man. | |
| 8828 </p> | |
| 8829 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p5"> | |
| 8830 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 8831 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.3.8" target="asv">Jn. 3:8</a>): "The Spirit breatheth where He will," and ( | |
| 8832 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p5.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.11" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:11</a>): "All these things one and the same Spirit worketh, dividing to every one according as He will." Therefore charity is given, | |
| 8833 not according to our natural capacity, but according as the Spirit wills to distribute His gifts. | |
| 8834 </p> | |
| 8835 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p6"> | |
| 8836 <b>I answer that,</b> The quantity of a thing depends on the proper cause of that thing, since the more universal cause produces a greater effect. | |
| 8837 Now, since charity surpasses the proportion of human nature, as stated above | |
| 8838 <a id="SS_Q24_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html">(A[2])</a> it depends, not on any natural virtue, but on the sole grace of the Holy Ghost Who infuses charity. Wherefore the quantity | |
| 8839 of charity depends neither on the condition of nature nor on the capacity of natural virtue, but only on | |
| 8840 the will of the Holy Ghost Who "divides" His gifts "according as He will." Hence the Apostle says ( | |
| 8841 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Eph.4.7" target="asv">Eph. 4:7</a>): "To every one of us is given grace according to the measure of the giving of Christ." | |
| 8842 </p> | |
| 8843 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p7"> | |
| 8844 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The virtue in accordance with which God gives His gifts to each one, is a disposition or previous preparation or effort of | |
| 8845 the one who receives grace. But the Holy Ghost forestalls even this disposition or effort, by moving man's mind either more | |
| 8846 or less, according as He will. Wherefore the Apostle says ( | |
| 8847 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Col.1.12" target="asv">Col. 1:12</a>): "Who hath made us worthy to be partakers of the lot of the saints in light." | |
| 8848 </p> | |
| 8849 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p8"> | |
| 8850 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The form does not surpass the proportion of the matter. In like manner grace and glory are referred to the same genus, for | |
| 8851 grace is nothing else than a beginning of glory in us. But charity and nature do not belong to the same genus, so that the | |
| 8852 comparison fails. | |
| 8853 </p> | |
| 8854 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p9"> | |
| 8855 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The angel's is an intellectual nature, and it is consistent with his condition that he should be borne wholly whithersoever | |
| 8856 he is borne, as stated in the | |
| 8857 <a id="SS_Q24_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q61_A6.html">FP, Q[61], A[6]</a>. Hence there was a greater effort in the higher angels, both for good in those who persevered, and for evil in those who | |
| 8858 fell, and consequently those of the higher angels who remained steadfast became better than the others, and those who fell | |
| 8859 became worse. | |
| 8860 But man's is a rational nature, with which it is consistent to be sometimes in potentiality and sometimes in act: so that | |
| 8861 it is not necessarily borne wholly whithersoever it is borne, and where there are greater natural gifts there may be less | |
| 8862 effort, and vice versa. Thus the comparison fails. | |
| 8863 </p> | |
| 8864 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 8865 <p id="SS_Q24_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 8866 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html"></a> | |
| 8867 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8868 </div> | |
| 8869 <div id="SS_Q24_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 8870 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8871 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8872 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A4-p0.1">Whether charity can increase?</h4> | |
| 8873 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 8874 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p2"> | |
| 8875 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity cannot increase. For nothing increases save what has quantity. Now quantity is twofold, namely | |
| 8876 dimensive and virtual. The former does not befit charity which is a spiritual perfection, while virtual quantity regards the | |
| 8877 objects in respect of which charity does not increase, since the slightest charity loves all that is to be loved out of charity. | |
| 8878 Therefore charity does not increase. | |
| 8879 </p> | |
| 8880 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p3"> | |
| 8881 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which consists in something extreme receives no increase. But charity consists in something extreme, being | |
| 8882 the greatest of the virtues, and the supreme love of the greatest good. Therefore charity cannot increase. | |
| 8883 </p> | |
| 8884 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p4"> | |
| 8885 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, increase is a kind of movement. Therefore wherever there is increase there is movement, and if there be increase | |
| 8886 of essence there is movement of essence. Now there is no movement of essence save either by corruption or generation. Therefore | |
| 8887 charity cannot increase essentially, unless it happen to be generated anew or corrupted, which is unreasonable. | |
| 8888 </p> | |
| 8889 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p5"> | |
| 8890 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Tract. lxxiv in Joan.) [*Cf. | |
| 8891 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">Ep. clxxxv.</a>] that "charity merits increase that by increase it may merit perfection." | |
| 8892 </p> | |
| 8893 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p6"> | |
| 8894 <b>I answer that,</b> The charity of a wayfarer can increase. For we are called wayfarers by reason of our being on the way to God, Who is the | |
| 8895 last end of our happiness. In this way we advance as we get nigh to God, Who is approached, "not by steps of the body but | |
| 8896 by the affections of the soul" [*St. Augustine, Tract. in Joan. xxxii]: and this approach is the result of charity, since | |
| 8897 it unites man's mind to God. Consequently it is essential to the charity of a wayfarer that it | |
| 8898 can increase, for if it could not, all further advance along the way would cease. Hence the Apostle calls charity the way, | |
| 8899 when he says ( | |
| 8900 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.31" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:31</a>): "I show unto you yet a more excellent way." | |
| 8901 </p> | |
| 8902 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p7"> | |
| 8903 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Charity is not subject to dimensive, but only to virtual quantity: and the latter depends not only on the number of objects, | |
| 8904 namely whether they be in greater number or of greater excellence, but also on the intensity of the act, namely whether a | |
| 8905 thing is loved more, or less; it is in this way that the virtual quantity of charity increases. | |
| 8906 </p> | |
| 8907 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p8"> | |
| 8908 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity consists in an extreme with regard to its object, in so far as its object is the Supreme Good, and from this it follows | |
| 8909 that charity is the most excellent of the virtues. Yet not every charity consists in an extreme, as regards the intensity | |
| 8910 of the act. | |
| 8911 </p> | |
| 8912 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p9"> | |
| 8913 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Some have said that charity does not increase in its essence, but only as to its radication in its subject, or according | |
| 8914 to its fervor. | |
| 8915 </p> | |
| 8916 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p10"> But these people did not know what they were talking about. For since charity is an accident, its being is to be in something. | |
| 8917 So that an essential increase of charity means nothing else but that it is yet more in its subject, which implies a greater | |
| 8918 radication in its subject. Furthermore, charity is essentially a virtue ordained to act, so that an essential increase of | |
| 8919 charity implies ability to produce an act of more fervent love. Hence charity increases essentially, not by | |
| 8920 beginning anew, or ceasing to be in its subject, as the objection imagines, but by beginning to be more and more in its subject. | |
| 8921 </p> | |
| 8922 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 8923 <p id="SS_Q24_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 8924 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A3.html"></a> | |
| 8925 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A5.html"></a> | |
| 8926 </div> | |
| 8927 <div id="SS_Q24_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 8928 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html"></a> | |
| 8929 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A6.html"></a> | |
| 8930 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A5-p0.1">Whether charity increases by addition?</h4> | |
| 8931 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 8932 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p2"> | |
| 8933 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity increases by addition. For just as increase may be in respect of bodily quantity, so may it be | |
| 8934 according to virtual quantity. Now increase in bodily quantity results from addition; for the Philosopher says (De Gener. | |
| 8935 i, 5) that "increase is addition to pre-existing magnitude." Therefore the increase of charity which is according to virtual | |
| 8936 quantity is by addition. | |
| 8937 </p> | |
| 8938 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p3"> | |
| 8939 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is a kind of spiritual light in the soul, according to | |
| 8940 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.2.10" target="asv">1 Jn. 2:10</a>: "He that loveth his brother abideth in the light." Now light increases in the air by addition; thus the light in a house | |
| 8941 increases when another candle is lit. Therefore charity also increases in the soul by addition. | |
| 8942 </p> | |
| 8943 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p4"> | |
| 8944 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the increase of charity is God's work, even as the causing of it, according to | |
| 8945 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.9.10" target="asv">2 Cor. 9:10</a>: "He will increase the growth of the fruits of your justice." Now when God first infuses charity, He puts something in the | |
| 8946 soul that was not there before. Therefore also, when He increases charity, He puts something there which was not there before. | |
| 8947 Therefore charity increases by addition. | |
| 8948 </p> | |
| 8949 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p5"> | |
| 8950 <b>On the contrary,</b> Charity is a simple form. Now nothing greater results from the addition of one simple thing to another, as proved in Phys. | |
| 8951 iii, text. 59, and Metaph. ii, 4. Therefore charity does not increase by addition. | |
| 8952 </p> | |
| 8953 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p6"> | |
| 8954 <b>I answer that,</b> Every addition is of something to something else: so that in every addition we must at least presuppose that the things added | |
| 8955 together are distinct before the addition. Consequently if charity be added to charity, the added charity must be presupposed | |
| 8956 as distinct from charity to which it is added, not necessarily by a distinction of reality, but at least by a distinction | |
| 8957 of thought. For God is able to increase a bodily quantity by adding a magnitude which | |
| 8958 did not exist before, but was created at that very moment; which magnitude, though not pre-existent in reality, is nevertheless | |
| 8959 capable of being distinguished from the quantity to which it is added. Wherefore if charity be added to charity we must presuppose | |
| 8960 the distinction, at least logical, of the one charity from the other. | |
| 8961 </p> | |
| 8962 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p7"> Now distinction among forms is twofold: specific and numeric. Specific distinction of habits follows diversity of objects, | |
| 8963 while numeric distinction follows distinction of subjects. Consequently a habit may receive increase through extending to | |
| 8964 objects to which it did not extend before: thus the science of geometry increases in one who acquires knowledge of geometrical | |
| 8965 matters which he ignored hitherto. But this cannot be said of charity, for even the slightest charity extends | |
| 8966 to all that we have to love by charity. Hence the addition which causes an increase of charity cannot be understood, as though | |
| 8967 the added charity were presupposed to be distinct specifically from that to which it is added. | |
| 8968 </p> | |
| 8969 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p8"> It follows therefore that if charity be added to charity, we must presuppose a numerical distinction between them, which | |
| 8970 follows a distinction of subjects: thus whiteness receives an increase when one white thing is added to another, although | |
| 8971 such an increase does not make a thing whiter. This, however, does not apply to the case in point, since the subject of charity | |
| 8972 is none other than the rational mind, so that such like an increase of charity could only take place by one | |
| 8973 rational mind being added to another; which is impossible. Moreover, even if it were possible, the result would be a greater | |
| 8974 lover, but not a more loving one. It follows, therefore, that charity can by no means increase by addition of charity to charity, | |
| 8975 as some have held to be the case. | |
| 8976 </p> | |
| 8977 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p9"> Accordingly charity increases only by its subject partaking of charity more and more subject thereto. For this is the proper | |
| 8978 mode of increase in a form that is intensified, since the being of such a form consists wholly in its adhering to its subject. | |
| 8979 Consequently, since the magnitude of a thing follows on its being, to say that a form is greater is the same as to say that | |
| 8980 it is more in its subject, and not that another form is added to it: for this would be the case if the | |
| 8981 form, of itself, had any quantity, and not in comparison with its subject. Therefore charity increases by being intensified | |
| 8982 in its subject, and this is for charity to increase in its essence; and not by charity being added to charity. | |
| 8983 </p> | |
| 8984 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p10"> | |
| 8985 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Bodily quantity has something as quantity, and something else, in so far as it is an accidental form. As quantity, it is | |
| 8986 distinguishable in respect of position or number, and in this way we have the increase of magnitude by addition, as may be | |
| 8987 seen in animals. But in so far as it is an accidental form, it is distinguishable only in respect of its subject, and in this | |
| 8988 way it has its proper increase, like other accidental forms, by way of intensity in | |
| 8989 its subject, for instance in things subject to rarefaction, as is proved in Phys. iv, 9. In like manner science, as a habit, | |
| 8990 has its quantity from its objects, and accordingly it increases by addition, when a man knows more things; and again, as an | |
| 8991 accidental form, it has a certain quantity through being in its subject, and in this way it increase in a man who knows the | |
| 8992 same scientific truths with greater certainty now than before. In the same way charity has a twofold quantity; but with regard | |
| 8993 to that which it has from its object, it does not increase, as stated above: hence it follows that it increases solely by | |
| 8994 being intensified. | |
| 8995 </p> | |
| 8996 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p11"> | |
| 8997 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The addition of light to light can be understood through the light being intensified in the air on account of there being | |
| 8998 several luminaries giving light: but this distinction does not apply to the case in point, since there is but one luminary | |
| 8999 shedding forth the light of charity. | |
| 9000 </p> | |
| 9001 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p12"> | |
| 9002 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The infusion of charity denotes a change to the state of "having" charity from the state of "not having it," so that something | |
| 9003 must needs come which was not there before. On the other hand, the increase of charity denotes a change to "more having" from | |
| 9004 "less having," so that there is need, not for anything to be there that was not there before, but for something to be more | |
| 9005 there that previously was less there. This is what God does when He increases | |
| 9006 charity, that is He makes it to have a greater hold on the soul, and the likeness of the Holy Ghost to be more perfectly participated | |
| 9007 by the soul. | |
| 9008 </p> | |
| 9009 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p13"></p> | |
| 9010 <p id="SS_Q24_A5-p14"></p> | |
| 9011 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html"></a> | |
| 9012 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9013 </div> | |
| 9014 <div id="SS_Q24_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 9015 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9016 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9017 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A6-p0.1">Whether charity increases through every act of charity?</h4> | |
| 9018 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 9019 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p2"> | |
| 9020 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity increases through every act of charity. For that which can do what is more, can do what is less. | |
| 9021 But every act of charity can merit everlasting life; and this is more than a simple addition of charity, since it includes | |
| 9022 the perfection of charity. Much more, therefore, does every act of charity increase charity. | |
| 9023 </p> | |
| 9024 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p3"> | |
| 9025 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as the habits of acquired virtue are engendered by acts, so too an increase of charity is caused by an act | |
| 9026 of charity. Now each virtuous act conduces to the engendering of virtue. Therefore also each virtuous act of charity conduces | |
| 9027 to the increase of charity. | |
| 9028 </p> | |
| 9029 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p4"> | |
| 9030 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Gregory [*St. Bernard, Serm. ii in Festo Purif.] says that "to stand still in the way to God is to go back." Now | |
| 9031 no man goes back when he is moved by an act of charity. Therefore whoever is moved by an act of charity goes forward in the | |
| 9032 way to God. Therefore charity increases through every act of charity. | |
| 9033 </p> | |
| 9034 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p5"> | |
| 9035 <b>On the contrary,</b> The effect does not surpass the power of its cause. But an act of charity is sometimes done with tepidity or slackness. Therefore | |
| 9036 it does not conduce to a more excellent charity, rather does it dispose one to a lower degree. | |
| 9037 </p> | |
| 9038 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p6"> | |
| 9039 <b>I answer that,</b> The spiritual increase of charity is somewhat like the increase of a body. Now bodily increase in animals and plants is not | |
| 9040 a continuous movement, so that, to wit, if a thing increase so much in so much time, it need to increase proportionally in | |
| 9041 each part of that time, as happens in local movement; but for a certain space of time nature works by disposing for the increase, | |
| 9042 without causing any actual increase, and afterwards brings into effect that to which | |
| 9043 it had disposed, by giving the animal or plant an actual increase. In like manner charity does not actually increase through | |
| 9044 every act of charity, but each act of charity disposes to an increase of charity, in so far as one act of charity makes man | |
| 9045 more ready to act again according to charity, and this readiness increasing, man breaks out into an act of more fervent love, | |
| 9046 and strives to advance in charity, and then his charity increases actually. | |
| 9047 </p> | |
| 9048 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p7"> | |
| 9049 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Every act of charity merits everlasting life, which, however, is not to be bestowed then and there, but at its proper time. | |
| 9050 In like manner every act of charity merits an increase of charity; yet this increase does not take place at once, but when | |
| 9051 we strive for that increase. | |
| 9052 </p> | |
| 9053 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p8"> | |
| 9054 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even when an acquired virtue is being engendered, each act does not complete the formation of the virtue, but conduces towards | |
| 9055 that effect by disposing to it, while the last act, which is the most perfect, and acts in virtue of all those that preceded | |
| 9056 it, reduces the virtue into act, just as when many drops hollow out a stone. | |
| 9057 </p> | |
| 9058 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p9"> | |
| 9059 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Man advances in the way to God, not merely by actual increase of charity, but also by being disposed to that increase. | |
| 9060 </p> | |
| 9061 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 9062 <p id="SS_Q24_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 9063 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9064 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9065 </div> | |
| 9066 <div id="SS_Q24_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 9067 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9068 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9069 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A7-p0.1">Whether charity increases indefinitely?</h4> | |
| 9070 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 9071 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p2"> | |
| 9072 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity does not increase indefinitely. For every movement is towards some end and term, as stated in | |
| 9073 Metaph. ii, text. 8,9. But the increase of charity is a movement. Therefore it tends to an end and term. Therefore charity | |
| 9074 does not increase indefinitely. | |
| 9075 </p> | |
| 9076 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p3"> | |
| 9077 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no form surpasses the capacity of its subject. But the capacity of the rational creature who is the subject of charity | |
| 9078 is finite. Therefore charity cannot increase indefinitely. | |
| 9079 </p> | |
| 9080 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p4"> | |
| 9081 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every finite thing can, by continual increase, attain to the quantity of another finite thing however much greater, | |
| 9082 unless the amount of its increase be ever less and less. Thus the Philosopher states (Phys. iii, 6) that if we divide a line | |
| 9083 into an indefinite number of parts, and take these parts away and add them indefinitely to another line, we shall never arrive | |
| 9084 at any definite quantity resulting from those two lines, viz. the one from which we | |
| 9085 subtracted and the one to which we added what was subtracted. But this does not occur in the case in point: because there | |
| 9086 is no need for the second increase of charity to be less than the first, since rather is it probable that it would be equal | |
| 9087 or greater. As, therefore, the charity of the blessed is something finite, if the charity of the wayfarer can increase indefinitely, | |
| 9088 it would follow that the charity of the way can equal the charity of heaven; which is absurd. Therefore the wayfarer's | |
| 9089 charity cannot increase indefinitely. | |
| 9090 </p> | |
| 9091 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p5"> | |
| 9092 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 9093 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.3.12" target="asv">Phil. 3:12</a>): "Not as though I had already attained, or were already perfect; but I follow after, if I may, by any means apprehend," | |
| 9094 on which words a gloss says: "Even if he has made great progress, let none of the faithful say: 'Enough.' For whosoever says | |
| 9095 this, leaves the road before coming to his destination." Therefore the wayfarer's charity can ever increase more and more. | |
| 9096 </p> | |
| 9097 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p6"> | |
| 9098 <b>I answer that,</b> A term to the increase of a form may be fixed in three ways: first by reason of the form itself having a fixed measure, and | |
| 9099 when this has been reached it is no longer possible to go any further in that form, but if any further advance is made, another | |
| 9100 form is attained. And example of this is paleness, the bounds of which may, by continual alteration, be passed, either so | |
| 9101 that whiteness ensues, or so that blackness results. Secondly, on the part of the agent, | |
| 9102 whose power does not extend to a further increase of the form in its subject. Thirdly, on the part of the subject, which is | |
| 9103 not capable of ulterior perfection. | |
| 9104 </p> | |
| 9105 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p7"> Now, in none of these ways, is a limit imposed to the increase of man's charity, while he is in the state of the wayfarer. | |
| 9106 For charity itself considered as such has no limit to its increase, since it is a participation of the infinite charity which | |
| 9107 is the Holy Ghost. In like manner the cause of the increase of charity, viz. God, is possessed of infinite power. Furthermore, | |
| 9108 on the part of its subject, no limit to this increase can be determined, because whenever charity | |
| 9109 increases, there is a corresponding increased ability to receive a further increase. It is therefore evident that it is not | |
| 9110 possible to fix any limits to the increase of charity in this life. | |
| 9111 </p> | |
| 9112 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p8"> | |
| 9113 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The increase of charity is directed to an end, which is not in this, but in a future life. | |
| 9114 </p> | |
| 9115 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p9"> | |
| 9116 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The capacity of the rational creature is increased by charity, because the heart is enlarged thereby, according to | |
| 9117 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.6.11" target="asv">2 Cor. 6:11</a>: "Our heart is enlarged"; so that it still remains capable of receiving a further increase. | |
| 9118 </p> | |
| 9119 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p10"> | |
| 9120 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument holds good in those things which have the same kind of quantity, but not in those which have different kinds: | |
| 9121 thus however much a line may increase it does not reach the quantity of a superficies. Now the quantity of a wayfarer's charity | |
| 9122 which follows the knowledge of faith is not of the same kind as the quantity of the charity of the blessed, which follows | |
| 9123 open vision. Hence the argument does not prove. | |
| 9124 </p> | |
| 9125 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p11"></p> | |
| 9126 <p id="SS_Q24_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 9127 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9128 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9129 </div> | |
| 9130 <div id="SS_Q24_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 9131 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9132 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A9.html"></a> | |
| 9133 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A8-p0.1">Whether charity can be perfect in this life?</h4> | |
| 9134 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 9135 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p2"> | |
| 9136 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity cannot be perfect in this life. For this would have been the case with the apostles before all | |
| 9137 others. Yet it was not so, since the Apostle says ( | |
| 9138 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.3.12" target="asv">Phil. 3:12</a>): "Not as though I had already attained, or were already perfect." Therefore charity cannot be perfect in this life. | |
| 9139 </p> | |
| 9140 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p3"> | |
| 9141 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (Qq. lxxxiii, qu. 36) that "whatever kindles charity quenches cupidity, but where charity is perfect, | |
| 9142 cupidity is done away altogether." But this cannot be in this world, wherein it is impossible to live without sin, according | |
| 9143 to | |
| 9144 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.1.8" target="asv">1 Jn. 1:8</a>: "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves." Now all sin arises from some inordinate cupidity. Therefore charity | |
| 9145 cannot be perfect in this life. | |
| 9146 </p> | |
| 9147 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p4"> | |
| 9148 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what is already perfect cannot be perfected any more. But in this life charity can always increase, as stated above | |
| 9149 | |
| 9150 <a id="SS_Q24_A8-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. Therefore charity cannot be perfect in this life. | |
| 9151 </p> | |
| 9152 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p5"> | |
| 9153 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. v) "Charity is perfected by being strengthened; and when it has been brought | |
| 9154 to perfection, it exclaims, 'I desire to be dissolved and to be with Christ.'" Now this is possible in this life, as in the | |
| 9155 case of Paul. Therefore charity can be perfect in this life. | |
| 9156 </p> | |
| 9157 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p6"> | |
| 9158 <b>I answer that,</b> The perfection of charity may be understood in two ways: first with regard to the object loved, secondly with regard to the | |
| 9159 person who loves. With regard to the object loved, charity is perfect, if the object be loved as much as it is lovable. Now | |
| 9160 God is as lovable as He is good, and His goodness is infinite, wherefore He is infinitely lovable. But no creature can love | |
| 9161 Him infinitely since all created power is finite. Consequently no creature's charity can | |
| 9162 be perfect in this way; the charity of God alone can, whereby He loves Himself. | |
| 9163 </p> | |
| 9164 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p7"> On the part of the person who loves, charity is perfect, when he loves as much as he can. This happens in three ways. First, | |
| 9165 so that a man's whole heart is always actually borne towards God: this is the perfection of the charity of heaven, and is | |
| 9166 not possible in this life, wherein, by reason of the weakness of human life, it is impossible to think always actually of | |
| 9167 God, and to be moved by love towards Him. Secondly, so that man makes an earnest endeavor to give his time to God | |
| 9168 and Divine things, while scorning other things except in so far as the needs of the present life demand. This is the perfection | |
| 9169 of charity that is possible to a wayfarer; but is not common to all who have charity. Thirdly, so that a man gives his whole | |
| 9170 heart to God habitually, viz. by neither thinking nor desiring anything contrary to the love of God; and this perfection is | |
| 9171 common to all who have charity. | |
| 9172 </p> | |
| 9173 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p8"> | |
| 9174 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle denies that he has the perfection of heaven, wherefore a gloss on the same passage says that "he was a perfect | |
| 9175 wayfarer, but had not yet achieved the perfection to which the way leads." | |
| 9176 </p> | |
| 9177 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p9"> | |
| 9178 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This is said on account of venial sins, which are contrary, not to the habit, but to the act of charity: hence they are incompatible, | |
| 9179 not with the perfection of the way, but with that of heaven. | |
| 9180 </p> | |
| 9181 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p10"> | |
| 9182 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The perfection of the way is not perfection simply, wherefore it can always increase. | |
| 9183 </p> | |
| 9184 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 9185 <p id="SS_Q24_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 9186 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9187 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A9.html"></a> | |
| 9188 </div> | |
| 9189 <div id="SS_Q24_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 9190 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9191 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A10.html"></a> | |
| 9192 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A9-p0.1">Whether charity is rightly distinguished into three degrees, beginning, progress, and perfection?</h4> | |
| 9193 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 9194 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p2"> | |
| 9195 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem unfitting to distinguish three degrees of charity, beginning, progress, and perfection. For there are many | |
| 9196 degrees between the beginning of charity and its ultimate perfection. Therefore it is not right to put only one. | |
| 9197 </p> | |
| 9198 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p3"> | |
| 9199 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity begins to progress as soon as it begins to be. Therefore we ought not to distinguish between charity as | |
| 9200 progressing and as beginning. | |
| 9201 </p> | |
| 9202 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p4"> | |
| 9203 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in this world, however perfect a man's charity may be, it can increase, as stated above | |
| 9204 <a id="SS_Q24_A9-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. Now for charity to increase is to progress. Therefore perfect charity ought not to be distinguished from progressing charity: | |
| 9205 and so the aforesaid degrees are unsuitably assigned to charity. | |
| 9206 </p> | |
| 9207 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p5"> | |
| 9208 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (In prim. canon. Joan. Tract. v) "As soon as charity is born it takes food," which refers to beginners, "after | |
| 9209 taking food, it waxes strong," which refers to those who are progressing, "and when it has become strong it is perfected," | |
| 9210 which refers to the perfect. Therefore there are three degrees of charity. | |
| 9211 </p> | |
| 9212 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p6"> | |
| 9213 <b>I answer that,</b> The spiritual increase of charity may be considered in respect of a certain likeness to the growth of the human body. For | |
| 9214 although this latter growth may be divided into many parts, yet it has certain fixed divisions according to those particular | |
| 9215 actions or pursuits to which man is brought by this same growth. Thus we speak of a man being an infant until he has the use | |
| 9216 of reason, after which we distinguish another state of man wherein he begins to speak and | |
| 9217 to use his reason, while there is again a third state, that of puberty when he begins to acquire the power of generation, | |
| 9218 and so on until he arrives at perfection. | |
| 9219 </p> | |
| 9220 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p7"> In like manner the divers degrees of charity are distinguished according to the different pursuits to which man is brought | |
| 9221 by the increase of charity. For at first it is incumbent on man to occupy himself chiefly with avoiding sin and resisting | |
| 9222 his concupiscences, which move him in opposition to charity: this concerns beginners, in whom charity has to be fed or fostered | |
| 9223 lest it be destroyed: in the second place man's chief pursuit is to aim at progress in good, and this is the | |
| 9224 pursuit of the proficient, whose chief aim is to strengthen their charity by adding to it: while man's third pursuit is to | |
| 9225 aim chiefly at union with and enjoyment of God: this belongs to the perfect who "desire to be dissolved and to be with Christ." | |
| 9226 </p> | |
| 9227 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p8"> In like manner we observe in local motion that at first there is withdrawal from one term, then approach to the other term, | |
| 9228 and thirdly, rest in this term. | |
| 9229 </p> | |
| 9230 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p9"> | |
| 9231 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> All these distinct degrees which can be discerned in the increase of charity, are comprised in the aforesaid three, even | |
| 9232 as every division of continuous things is included in these three---the beginning, the middle, and the end, as the Philosopher | |
| 9233 states (De Coelo i, 1). | |
| 9234 </p> | |
| 9235 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p10"> | |
| 9236 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although those who are beginners in charity may progress, yet the chief care that besets them is to resist the sins which | |
| 9237 disturb them by their onslaught. Afterwards, however, when they come to feel this onslaught less, they begin to tend to perfection | |
| 9238 with greater security; yet with one hand doing the work, and with the other holding the sword as related in | |
| 9239 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A9-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iiEsd.4.17" target="asv">2 Esdr 4:17 </a>about those who built up Jerusalem. | |
| 9240 </p> | |
| 9241 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p11"> | |
| 9242 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Even the perfect make progress in charity: yet this is not their chief care, but their aim is principally directed towards | |
| 9243 union with God. And though both the beginner and the proficient seek this, yet their solicitude is chiefly about other things, | |
| 9244 with the beginner, about avoiding sin, with the proficient, about progressing in virtue. | |
| 9245 </p> | |
| 9246 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p12"></p> | |
| 9247 <p id="SS_Q24_A9-p13"></p> | |
| 9248 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9249 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A10.html"></a> | |
| 9250 </div> | |
| 9251 <div id="SS_Q24_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 9252 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A9.html"></a> | |
| 9253 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A11.html"></a> | |
| 9254 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A10-p0.1">Whether charity can decrease?</h4> | |
| 9255 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 9256 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p2"> | |
| 9257 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity can decrease. For contraries by their nature affect the same subject. Now increase and decrease | |
| 9258 are contraries. Since then charity increases, as stated above | |
| 9259 <a id="SS_Q24_A10-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, it seems that it can also decrease. | |
| 9260 </p> | |
| 9261 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p3"> | |
| 9262 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine, speaking to God, says (Confess. x) "He loves Thee less, who loves aught besides Thee": and (Qq. lxxxiii, | |
| 9263 qu. 36) he says that "what kindles charity quenches cupidity." For this it seems to follow that, on the contrary, what arouses | |
| 9264 cupidity quenches charity. But cupidity, whereby a man loves something besides God, can increase in man. Therefore charity | |
| 9265 can decrease. | |
| 9266 </p> | |
| 9267 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p4"> | |
| 9268 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. viii, 12) "God makes the just man, by justifying him, but in such a way, that if | |
| 9269 the man turns away from God, he no longer retains the effect of the Divine operation." From this we may gather that when God | |
| 9270 preserves charity in man, He works in the same way as when He first infuses charity into him. Now at the first infusion of | |
| 9271 charity God infuses less charity into him that prepares himself less. Therefore also in | |
| 9272 preserving charity, He preserves less charity in him that prepares himself less. Therefore charity can decrease. | |
| 9273 </p> | |
| 9274 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p5"> | |
| 9275 <b>On the contrary,</b> In Scripture, charity is compared to fire, according to | |
| 9276 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Song.8.6" target="asv"> Cant 8:6</a>: "The lamps thereof," i.e. of charity, "are fire and flames." Now fire ever mounts upward so long as it lasts. Therefore | |
| 9277 as long as charity endures, it can ascend, but cannot descend, i.e. decrease. | |
| 9278 </p> | |
| 9279 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p6"> | |
| 9280 <b>I answer that,</b> The quantity which charity has in comparison with its proper object, cannot decrease, even as neither can it increase, as | |
| 9281 stated above (A[4], ad 2). | |
| 9282 </p> | |
| 9283 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p7"> Since, however, it increases in that quantity which it has in comparison with its subject, here is the place to consider | |
| 9284 whether it can decrease in this way. Now, if it decrease, this must needs be either through an act, or by the mere cessation | |
| 9285 from act. It is true that virtues acquired through acts decrease and sometimes cease altogether through cessation from act, | |
| 9286 as stated above ( | |
| 9287 <a id="SS_Q24_A10-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q53_A3.html">FS, Q[53], A[3]</a>). Wherefore the Philosopher says, in reference to | |
| 9288 friendship (Ethic. viii, 5) "that want of intercourse," i.e. the neglect to call upon or speak with one's friends, "has destroyed | |
| 9289 many a friendship." Now this is because the safe-keeping of a thing depends on its cause, and the cause of human virtue is | |
| 9290 a human act, so that when human acts cease, the virtue acquired thereby decreases and at last ceases altogether. Yet this | |
| 9291 does not occur to charity, because it is not the result of human acts, but is caused by God alone, as stated above | |
| 9292 | |
| 9293 <a id="SS_Q24_A10-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Hence it follows that even when its act ceases, it does not for this reason decrease, or cease altogether, unless the cessation | |
| 9294 involves a sin. | |
| 9295 </p> | |
| 9296 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p8"> The consequence is that a decrease of charity cannot be caused except either by God or by some sinful act. Now no defect | |
| 9297 is caused in us by God, except by way of punishment, in so far as He withdraws His grace in punishment of sin. Hence He does | |
| 9298 not diminish charity except by way of punishment: and this punishment is due on account of sin. | |
| 9299 </p> | |
| 9300 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p9"> It follows, therefore, that if charity decrease, the cause of this decrease must be sin either effectively or by way of merit. | |
| 9301 But mortal sin does not diminish charity, in either of these ways, but destroys it entirely, both effectively, because every | |
| 9302 mortal sin is contrary to charity, as we shall state further on | |
| 9303 <a id="SS_Q24_A10-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A12.html">(A[12])</a>, and by way of merit, since when, by sinning mortally, a man acts against charity, he deserves that God should withdraw charity | |
| 9304 from | |
| 9305 him. | |
| 9306 </p> | |
| 9307 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p10"> In like manner, neither can venial sin diminish charity either effectively or by way of merit. Not effectively, because it | |
| 9308 does not touch charity, since charity is about the last end, whereas venial sin is a disorder about things directed to the | |
| 9309 end: and a man's love for the end is none the less through his committing an inordinate act as regards the things directed | |
| 9310 to the end. Thus sick people sometimes, though they love health much, are irregular in keeping to their diet: and | |
| 9311 thus again, in speculative sciences, the false opinions that are derived from the principles, do not diminish the certitude | |
| 9312 of the principles. So too, venial sin does not merit diminution of charity; for when a man offends in a small matter he does | |
| 9313 not deserve to be mulcted in a great matter. For God does not turn away from man, more than man turns away from Him: wherefore | |
| 9314 he that is out of order in respect of things directed to the end, does not deserve to be mulcted in charity whereby he is | |
| 9315 ordered to the last end. | |
| 9316 </p> | |
| 9317 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p11"> The consequence is that charity can by no means be diminished, if we speak of direct causality, yet whatever disposes to | |
| 9318 its corruption may be said to conduce indirectly to its diminution, and such are venial sins, or even the cessation from the | |
| 9319 practice of works of charity. | |
| 9320 </p> | |
| 9321 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p12"> | |
| 9322 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Contraries affect the same subject when that subject stands in equal relation to both. But charity does not stand in equal | |
| 9323 relation to increase and decrease. For it can have a cause of increase, but not of decrease, as stated above. Hence the argument | |
| 9324 does not prove. | |
| 9325 </p> | |
| 9326 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p13"> | |
| 9327 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Cupidity is twofold, one whereby man places his end in creatures, and this kills charity altogether, since it is its poison, | |
| 9328 as Augustine states (Confess. x). This makes us love God less (i.e. less than we ought to love Him by charity), not indeed | |
| 9329 by diminishing charity but by destroying it altogether. It is thus that we must understand the saying: "He loves Thee less, | |
| 9330 who loves aught beside Thee," for he adds these words, "which he loveth not for | |
| 9331 Thee." This does not apply to venial sin, but only to mortal sin: since that which we love in venial sin, is loved for God's | |
| 9332 sake habitually though not actually. There is another cupidity, that of venial sin, which is always diminished by charity: | |
| 9333 and yet this cupidity cannot diminish charity, for the reason given above. | |
| 9334 </p> | |
| 9335 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p14"> | |
| 9336 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A movement of the free-will is requisite in the infusion of charity, as stated above ( | |
| 9337 <a id="SS_Q24_A10-p14.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q113_A3.html">FS, Q[113], A[3]</a>). Wherefore that which diminishes the intensity of the free-will conduces dispositively to a diminution in the charity to | |
| 9338 be infused. On the other hand, no movement of the free-will is required for the safe-keeping of charity, else it would not | |
| 9339 remain inn us while we sleep. Hence charity does not decrease on account of an | |
| 9340 obstacle on the part of the intensity of the free-will's movement. | |
| 9341 </p> | |
| 9342 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p15"></p> | |
| 9343 <p id="SS_Q24_A10-p16"></p> | |
| 9344 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A9.html"></a> | |
| 9345 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A11.html"></a> | |
| 9346 </div> | |
| 9347 <div id="SS_Q24_A11" class="div4"> | |
| 9348 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A10.html"></a> | |
| 9349 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A12.html"></a> | |
| 9350 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A11-p0.1">Whether we can lose charity when once we have it?</h4> | |
| 9351 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p1"></p> | |
| 9352 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p2"> | |
| 9353 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we cannot lose charity when once we have it. For if we lose it, this can only be through sin. Now he who | |
| 9354 has charity cannot sin, for it is written ( | |
| 9355 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A11-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.9" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:9</a>): "Whosoever is born of God, committeth not sin; for His seed abideth in him, and he cannot sin, because he is born of God." | |
| 9356 But none save the children of God have charity, for it is this which distinguishes "the children of God from the children | |
| 9357 of perdition," as | |
| 9358 Augustine says (De Trin. xv, 17). Therefore he that has charity cannot lose it. | |
| 9359 </p> | |
| 9360 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p3"> | |
| 9361 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Trin. viii, 7) that "if love be not true, it should not be called love." Now, as he says again | |
| 9362 in a letter to Count Julian, "charity which can fail was never true." [*The quotation is from De Salutaribus Documentis ad | |
| 9363 quemdam comitem, vii., among the works of Paul of Friuli, more commonly known as Paul the Deacon, a monk of Monte Cassino.] | |
| 9364 Therefore it was no charity at all. Therefore, when once we have charity, we cannot lose | |
| 9365 it. | |
| 9366 </p> | |
| 9367 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p4"> | |
| 9368 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Gregory says in a homily for Pentecost (In Evang. xxx) that "God's love works great things where it is; if it ceases | |
| 9369 to work it is not charity." Now no man loses charity by doing great things. Therefore if charity be there, it cannot be lost. | |
| 9370 </p> | |
| 9371 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p5"> | |
| 9372 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the free-will is not inclined to sin unless by some motive for sinning. Now charity excludes all motives for sinning, | |
| 9373 both self-love and cupidity, and all such things. Therefore charity cannot be lost. | |
| 9374 </p> | |
| 9375 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p6"> | |
| 9376 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 9377 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A11-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rev.2.4" target="asv">Apoc. 2:4</a>): "I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first charity." | |
| 9378 </p> | |
| 9379 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p7"> | |
| 9380 <b>I answer that,</b> The Holy Ghost dwells in us by charity, as shown above | |
| 9381 <a id="SS_Q24_A11-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A2.html">(A[2];</a> QQ[23],24). We can, accordingly, consider charity in three ways: first on the part of the Holy Ghost, Who moves the soul | |
| 9382 to love God, and in this respect charity is incompatible with sin through the power of the Holy Ghost, Who does unfailingly | |
| 9383 whatever He wills to do. Hence it is impossible for these two things to be true at the same time---that the Holy Ghost should | |
| 9384 will | |
| 9385 to move a certain man to an act of charity, and that this man, by sinning, should lose charity. For the gift of perseverance | |
| 9386 is reckoned among the blessings of God whereby "whoever is delivered, is most certainly delivered," as Augustine says in his | |
| 9387 book on the Predestination of the saints (De Dono Persev. xiv). | |
| 9388 </p> | |
| 9389 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p8"> Secondly, charity may be considered as such, and thus it is incapable of anything that is against its nature. Wherefore charity | |
| 9390 cannot sin at all, even as neither can heat cool, nor unrighteousness do good, as Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, | |
| 9391 24). | |
| 9392 </p> | |
| 9393 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p9"> Thirdly, charity can be considered on the part of its subject, which is changeable on account of the free-will. Moreover | |
| 9394 charity may be compared with this subject, both from the general point of view of form in comparison with matter, and from | |
| 9395 the specific point of view of habit as compared with power. Now it is natural for a form to be in its subject in such a way | |
| 9396 that it can be lost, when it does not entirely fill the potentiality of matter: this is evident in the forms of | |
| 9397 things generated and corrupted, because the matter of such things receives one form in such a way, that it retains the potentiality | |
| 9398 to another form, as though its potentiality were not completely satisfied with the one form. Hence the one form may be lost | |
| 9399 by the other being received. On the other hand the form of a celestial body which entirely fills the potentiality of its matter, | |
| 9400 so that the latter does not retain the potentiality to another form, is in its subject inseparably. Accordingly | |
| 9401 the charity of the blessed, because it entirely fills the potentiality of the rational mind, since every actual movement of | |
| 9402 that mind is directed to God, is possessed by its subject inseparably: whereas the charity of the wayfarer does not so fill | |
| 9403 the potentiality of its subject, because the latter is not always actually directed to God: so that when it is not actually | |
| 9404 directed to God, something may occur whereby charity is lost. | |
| 9405 </p> | |
| 9406 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p10"> It is proper to a habit to incline a power to act, and this belongs to a habit, in so far as it makes whatever is suitable | |
| 9407 to it, to seem good, and whatever is unsuitable, to seem evil. For as the taste judges of savors according to its disposition, | |
| 9408 even so does the human mind judge of things to be done, according to its habitual disposition. Hence the Philosopher says | |
| 9409 (Ethic. iii, 5) that "such as a man is, so does the end appear to him." Accordingly charity is inseparable from | |
| 9410 its possessor, where that which pertains to charity cannot appear otherwise than good, and that is in heaven, where God is | |
| 9411 seen in His Essence, which is the very essence of goodness. Therefore the charity of heaven cannot be lost, whereas the charity | |
| 9412 of the way can, because in this state God is not seen in His Essence, which is the essence of goodness. | |
| 9413 </p> | |
| 9414 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p11"> | |
| 9415 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The passage quoted speaks from the point of view of the power of the Holy Ghost, by Whose safeguarding, those whom He wills | |
| 9416 to move are rendered immune from sin, as much as He wills. | |
| 9417 </p> | |
| 9418 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p12"> | |
| 9419 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The charity which can fail by reason of itself is no true charity; for this would be the case, were its love given only for | |
| 9420 a time, and afterwards were to cease, which would be inconsistent with true love. If, however, charity be lost through the | |
| 9421 changeableness of the subject, and against the purpose of charity included in its act, this is not contrary to true charity. | |
| 9422 </p> | |
| 9423 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p13"> | |
| 9424 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The love of God ever works great things in its purpose, which is essential to charity; but it does not always work great | |
| 9425 things in its act, on account of the condition of its subject. | |
| 9426 </p> | |
| 9427 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p14"> | |
| 9428 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Charity by reason of its act excludes every motive for sinning. But it happens sometimes that charity is not acting actually, | |
| 9429 and then it is possible for a motive to intervene for sinning, and if we consent to this motive, we lose charity. | |
| 9430 </p> | |
| 9431 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p15"></p> | |
| 9432 <p id="SS_Q24_A11-p16"></p> | |
| 9433 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A10.html"></a> | |
| 9434 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A12.html"></a> | |
| 9435 </div> | |
| 9436 <div id="SS_Q24_A12" class="div4"> | |
| 9437 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A11.html"></a> | |
| 9438 <a href="summa.SS_Q25.html"></a> | |
| 9439 <h4 id="SS_Q24_A12-p0.1">Whether charity is lost through one mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 9440 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p1"></p> | |
| 9441 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p2"> | |
| 9442 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity is not lost through one mortal sin. For Origen says (Peri Archon i): "When a man who has mounted | |
| 9443 to the stage of perfection, is satiated, I do not think that he will become empty or fall away suddenly; but he must needs | |
| 9444 do so gradually and by little and little." But man falls away by losing charity. Therefore charity is not lost through only | |
| 9445 one mortal sin. | |
| 9446 </p> | |
| 9447 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p3"> | |
| 9448 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Pope Leo in a sermon on the Passion (60) addresses Peter thus: "Our Lord saw in thee not a conquered faith, not | |
| 9449 an averted love, but constancy shaken. Tears abounded where love never failed, and the words uttered in trepidation were washed | |
| 9450 away by the fount of charity." From this Bernard [*William of St. Thierry, De Nat. et Dig. Amoris. vi.] drew his assertion | |
| 9451 that "charity in Peter was not quenched, but cooled." But Peter sinned mortally in denying | |
| 9452 Christ. Therefore charity is not lost through one mortal sin. | |
| 9453 </p> | |
| 9454 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p4"> | |
| 9455 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is stronger than an acquired virtue. Now a habit of acquired virtue is not destroyed by one contrary sinful | |
| 9456 act. Much less, therefore, is charity destroyed by one contrary mortal sin. | |
| 9457 </p> | |
| 9458 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p5"> | |
| 9459 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, charity denotes love of God and our neighbor. Now, seemingly, one may commit a mortal sin, and yet retain the love | |
| 9460 of God and one's neighbor; because an inordinate affection for things directed to the end, does not remove the love for the | |
| 9461 end, as stated above (A[10] ). Therefore charity towards God can endure, though there be a mortal sin through an inordinate | |
| 9462 affection for some temporal good. | |
| 9463 </p> | |
| 9464 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p6"> | |
| 9465 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the object of a theological virtue is the last end. Now the other theological virtues, namely faith and hope, are | |
| 9466 not done away by one mortal sin, in fact they remain though lifeless. Therefore charity can remain without a form, even when | |
| 9467 a mortal sin has been committed. | |
| 9468 </p> | |
| 9469 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p7"> | |
| 9470 <b>On the contrary,</b> By mortal sin man becomes deserving of eternal death, according to | |
| 9471 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A12-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.6.23" target="asv"> Rom. 6:23</a>: "The wages of sin is death." On the other hand whoever has charity is deserving of eternal life, for it is written ( | |
| 9472 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A12-p7.2" href="./asv.html#John.14.21" target="asv">Jn. 14:21</a>): "He that loveth Me, shall be loved by My Father: and I will love Him, and will manifest Myself to him," in which manifestation | |
| 9473 everlasting life consists, according to | |
| 9474 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q24_A12-p7.3" href="./asv.html#John.17.3" target="asv"> Jn. 17:3</a>: "This is eternal life; that they may | |
| 9475 know Thee the . . . true God, and Jesus Christ Whom Thou hast sent." Now no man can be worthy, at the same time, of eternal | |
| 9476 life and of eternal death. Therefore it is impossible for a man to have charity with a mortal sin. Therefore charity is destroyed | |
| 9477 by one mortal sin. | |
| 9478 </p> | |
| 9479 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p8"> | |
| 9480 <b>I answer that,</b> That one contrary is removed by the other contrary supervening. Now every mortal sin is contrary to charity by its very nature, | |
| 9481 which consists in man's loving God above all things, and subjecting himself to Him entirely, by referring all that is his | |
| 9482 to God. It is therefore essential to charity that man should so love God as to wish to submit to Him in all things, and always | |
| 9483 to follow the rule of His commandments; since whatever is contrary to His | |
| 9484 commandments is manifestly contrary to charity, and therefore by its very nature is capable of destroying charity. | |
| 9485 </p> | |
| 9486 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p9"> If indeed charity were an acquired habit dependent on the power of its subject, it would not necessarily be removed by one | |
| 9487 mortal sin, for act is directly contrary, not to habit but to act. Now the endurance of a habit in its subject does not require | |
| 9488 the endurance of its act, so that when a contrary act supervenes the acquired habit is not at once done away. But charity, | |
| 9489 being an infused habit, depends on the action of God Who infuses it, Who stands in relation to the infusion | |
| 9490 and safekeeping of charity, as the sun does to the diffusion of light in the air, as stated above (A[10], OBJ 3). Consequently, | |
| 9491 just as the light would cease at once in the air, were an obstacle placed to its being lit up by the sun, even so charity | |
| 9492 ceases at once to be in the soul through the placing of an obstacle to the outpouring of charity by God into the soul. | |
| 9493 </p> | |
| 9494 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p10"> Now it is evident that through every mortal sin which is contrary to God's commandments, an obstacle is placed to the outpouring | |
| 9495 of charity, since from the very fact that a man chooses to prefer sin to God's friendship, which requires that we should obey | |
| 9496 His will, it follows that the habit of charity is lost at once through one mortal sin. Hence Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. | |
| 9497 viii, 12) that "man is enlightened by God's presence, but he is darkened at once by God's absence, because | |
| 9498 distance from Him is effected not by change of place but by aversion of the will." | |
| 9499 </p> | |
| 9500 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p11"> | |
| 9501 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This saying of Origen may be understood, in one way, that a man who is in the state of perfection, does not suddenly go so | |
| 9502 far as to commit a mortal sin, but is disposed thereto by some previous negligence, for which reason venial sins are said | |
| 9503 to be dispositions to mortal sin, as stated above ( | |
| 9504 <a id="SS_Q24_A12-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q88_A3.html">FS, Q[88], A[3]</a>). Nevertheless he falls, and loses charity through the one mortal sin if he commits it. | |
| 9505 </p> | |
| 9506 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p12"> Since, however, he adds: "If some slight slip should occur, and he recover himself quickly he does not appear to fall altogether," | |
| 9507 we may reply in another way, that when he speaks of a man being emptied and falling away altogether, he means one who falls | |
| 9508 so as to sin through malice; and this does not occur in a perfect man all at once. | |
| 9509 </p> | |
| 9510 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p13"> | |
| 9511 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity may be lost in two ways; first, directly, by actual contempt, and, in this way, Peter did not lose charity. Secondly, | |
| 9512 indirectly, when a sin is committed against charity, through some passion of desire or fear; it was by sinning against charity | |
| 9513 in this way, that Peter lost charity; yet he soon recovered it. | |
| 9514 </p> | |
| 9515 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p14"> The Reply to the Third Objection is evident from what has been said.</p> | |
| 9516 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p15"> | |
| 9517 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Not every inordinate affection for things directed to the end, i.e., for created goods, constitutes a mortal sin, but only | |
| 9518 such as is directly contrary to the Divine will; and then the inordinate affection is contrary to charity, as stated. | |
| 9519 </p> | |
| 9520 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p16"> | |
| 9521 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Charity denotes union with God, whereas faith and hope do not. Now every mortal sin consists in aversion from God, as stated | |
| 9522 above (Gen. ad lit. viii, 12). Consequently every moral sin is contrary to charity, but not to faith and hope, but only certain | |
| 9523 determinate sins, which destroy the habit of faith or of hope, even as charity is destroyed by every moral sin. Hence it is | |
| 9524 evident that charity cannot remain lifeless, since it is itself the ultimate | |
| 9525 form regarding God under the aspect of last end as stated above ( | |
| 9526 <a id="SS_Q24_A12-p16.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html">Q[23], A[8]</a>). | |
| 9527 </p> | |
| 9528 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p17"></p> | |
| 9529 <p id="SS_Q24_A12-p18"></p> | |
| 9530 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A11.html"></a> | |
| 9531 <a href="summa.SS_Q25.html"></a> | |
| 9532 </div> | |
| 9533 <a href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9534 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html"></a> | |
| 9535 </div> | |
| 9536 <div id="SS_Q25" class="div3"> | |
| 9537 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A12.html"></a> | |
| 9538 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html"></a> | |
| 9539 <h3 id="SS_Q25-p0.1">OF THE OBJECT OF CHARITY (TWELVE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 9540 <p id="SS_Q25-p1"></p> | |
| 9541 <p id="SS_Q25-p2"> We must now consider the object of charity; which consideration will be twofold: (1) The things we ought to love out of charity: | |
| 9542 (2) The order in which they ought to be loved. Under the first head there are twelve points of inquiry: | |
| 9543 </p> | |
| 9544 <p id="SS_Q25-p3"> (1) Whether we should love God alone, out of charity, or should we love our neighbor also?</p> | |
| 9545 <p id="SS_Q25-p4"> (2) Whether charity should be loved out of charity?</p> | |
| 9546 <p id="SS_Q25-p5"> (3) Whether irrational creatures ought to be loved out of charity?</p> | |
| 9547 <p id="SS_Q25-p6"> (4) Whether one may love oneself out of charity?</p> | |
| 9548 <p id="SS_Q25-p7"> (5) Whether one's own body?</p> | |
| 9549 <p id="SS_Q25-p8"> (6) Whether sinners should be loved out of charity?</p> | |
| 9550 <p id="SS_Q25-p9"> (7) Whether sinners love themselves?</p> | |
| 9551 <p id="SS_Q25-p10"> (8) Whether we should love our enemies out of charity?</p> | |
| 9552 <p id="SS_Q25-p11"> (9) Whether we are bound to show them tokens of friendship?</p> | |
| 9553 <p id="SS_Q25-p12"> (10) Whether we ought to love the angels out of charity?</p> | |
| 9554 <p id="SS_Q25-p13"> (11) Whether we ought to love the demons?</p> | |
| 9555 <p id="SS_Q25-p14"> (12) How to enumerate the things we are bound to love out of charity.</p> | |
| 9556 <div id="SS_Q25_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 9557 <a href="summa.SS_Q25.html"></a> | |
| 9558 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A2.html"></a> | |
| 9559 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A1-p0.1">Whether the love of charity stops at God, or extends to our neighbor?</h4> | |
| 9560 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 9561 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p2"> | |
| 9562 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the love of charity stops at God and does not extend to our neighbor. For as we owe God love, so do we | |
| 9563 owe Him fear, according | |
| 9564 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.10.12" target="asv"> Dt. 10:12</a>: "And now Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but that thou fear . . . and love Him?" Now the fear with which | |
| 9565 we fear man, and which is called human fear, is distinct from the fear with which we fear God, and which is either servile | |
| 9566 or filial, as is evident from what has | |
| 9567 been stated above ( | |
| 9568 <a id="SS_Q25_A1-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html">Q[10], A[2]</a>). Therefore also the love with which we love God, is distinct from the love with which we love our neighbor. | |
| 9569 </p> | |
| 9570 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p3"> | |
| 9571 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. viii, 8) that "to be loved is to be honored." Now the honor due to God, which is known | |
| 9572 as "latria," is distinct from the honor due to a creature, and known as "dulia." Therefore again the love wherewith we love | |
| 9573 God, is distinct from that with which we love our neighbor. | |
| 9574 </p> | |
| 9575 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p4"> | |
| 9576 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hope begets charity, as a gloss states on | |
| 9577 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.1.2" target="asv"> Mat. 1:2.</a> Now hope is so due to God that it is reprehensible to hope in man, according to | |
| 9578 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A1-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Jer.17.5" target="asv"> Jer. 17:5</a>: "Cursed be the man that trusteth in man." Therefore charity is so due to God, as not to extend to our neighbor. | |
| 9579 </p> | |
| 9580 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p5"> | |
| 9581 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 9582 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.21" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:21</a>): "This commandment we have from God, that he, who loveth God, love also his brother." | |
| 9583 </p> | |
| 9584 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p6"> | |
| 9585 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (Q[17], A[6]; Q[19], A[3]; | |
| 9586 <a id="SS_Q25_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q54_A3.html">FS, Q[54], A[3]</a>) habits are not differentiated except their acts be of different species. For every act of the one species belongs to the | |
| 9587 same habit. Now since the species of an act is derived from its object, considered under its formal aspect, it follows of | |
| 9588 necessity that it is specifically the same act that tends to an aspect of the object, and that tends to the object under that | |
| 9589 aspect: | |
| 9590 thus it is specifically the same visual act whereby we see the light, and whereby we see the color under the aspect of light. | |
| 9591 </p> | |
| 9592 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p7"> Now the aspect under which our neighbor is to be loved, is God, since what we ought to love in our neighbor is that he may | |
| 9593 be in God. Hence it is clear that it is specifically the same act whereby we love God, and whereby we love our neighbor. Consequently | |
| 9594 the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our neighbor. | |
| 9595 </p> | |
| 9596 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p8"> | |
| 9597 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We may fear our neighbor, even as we may love him, in two ways: first, on account of something that is proper to him, as | |
| 9598 when a man fears a tyrant on account of his cruelty, or loves him by reason of his own desire to get something from him. Such | |
| 9599 like human fear is distinct from the fear of God, and the same applies to love. Secondly, we fear a man, or love him on account | |
| 9600 of what he has of God; as when we fear the secular power by reason of its | |
| 9601 exercising the ministry of God for the punishment of evildoers, and love it for its justice: such like fear of man is not | |
| 9602 distinct from fear of God, as neither is such like love. | |
| 9603 </p> | |
| 9604 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p9"> | |
| 9605 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Love regards good in general, whereas honor regards the honored person's own good, for it is given to a person in recognition | |
| 9606 of his own virtue. Hence love is not differentiated specifically on account of the various degrees of goodness in various | |
| 9607 persons, so long as it is referred to one good common to all, whereas honor is distinguished according to the good belonging | |
| 9608 to individuals. Consequently we love all our neighbors with the same love of | |
| 9609 charity, in so far as they are referred to one good common to them all, which is God; whereas we give various honors to various | |
| 9610 people, according to each one's own virtue, and likewise to God we give the singular honor of latria on account of His singular | |
| 9611 virtue. | |
| 9612 </p> | |
| 9613 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p10"> | |
| 9614 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is wrong to hope in man as though he were the principal author of salvation, but not, to hope in man as helping us ministerially | |
| 9615 under God. In like manner it would be wrong if a man loved his neighbor as though he were his last end, but not, if he loved | |
| 9616 him for God's sake; and this is what charity does. | |
| 9617 </p> | |
| 9618 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 9619 <p id="SS_Q25_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 9620 <a href="summa.SS_Q25.html"></a> | |
| 9621 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A2.html"></a> | |
| 9622 </div> | |
| 9623 <div id="SS_Q25_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 9624 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html"></a> | |
| 9625 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html"></a> | |
| 9626 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A2-p0.1">Whether we should love charity out of charity?</h4> | |
| 9627 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 9628 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p2"> | |
| 9629 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity need not be loved out of charity. For the things to be loved out of charity are contained in the | |
| 9630 two precepts of charity ( | |
| 9631 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.37" target="asv">Mat. 22:37-39</a>): and neither of them includes charity, since charity is neither God nor our neighbor. Therefore charity need not be loved | |
| 9632 out of charity. | |
| 9633 </p> | |
| 9634 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p3"> | |
| 9635 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is founded on the fellowship of happiness, as stated above ( | |
| 9636 <a id="SS_Q25_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>). But charity cannot participate in happiness. Therefore charity need not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9637 </p> | |
| 9638 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p4"> | |
| 9639 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is a kind of friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 9640 <a id="SS_Q25_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>). But no man can have friendship for charity or for an accident, since such things cannot return love for love, which is | |
| 9641 essential to friendship, as stated in Ethic. viii. Therefore charity need not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9642 </p> | |
| 9643 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p5"> | |
| 9644 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. viii, 8): "He that loves his neighbor, must, in consequence, love love itself." But we love our | |
| 9645 neighbor out of charity. Therefore it follows that charity also is loved out of charity. | |
| 9646 </p> | |
| 9647 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p6"> | |
| 9648 <b>I answer that,</b> Charity is love. Now love, by reason of the nature of the power whose act it is, is capable of reflecting on itself; for | |
| 9649 since the object of the will is the universal good, whatever has the aspect of good, can be the object of an act of the will: | |
| 9650 and since to will is itself a good, man can will himself to will. Even so the intellect, whose object is the true, understands | |
| 9651 that it understands, because this again is something true. Love, however, even by reason | |
| 9652 of its own species, is capable of reflecting on itself, because it is a spontaneous movement of the lover towards the beloved, | |
| 9653 wherefore from the moment a man loves, he loves himself to love. | |
| 9654 </p> | |
| 9655 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p7"> Yet charity is not love simply, but has the nature of friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 9656 <a id="SS_Q25_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>). Now by friendship a thing is loved in two ways: first, as the friend for whom we have friendship, and to whom we wish good | |
| 9657 things: secondly, as the good which we wish to a friend. It is in the latter and not in the former way that charity is loved | |
| 9658 out of charity, because charity is the good which we desire for all those whom we love out of charity. The same | |
| 9659 applies to happiness, and to the other virtues. | |
| 9660 </p> | |
| 9661 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p8"> | |
| 9662 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> God and our neighbor are those with whom we are friends, but love of them includes the loving of charity, since we love both | |
| 9663 God and our neighbor, in so far as we love ourselves and our neighbor to love God, and this is to love charity. | |
| 9664 </p> | |
| 9665 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p9"> | |
| 9666 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity is itself the fellowship of the spiritual life, whereby we arrive at happiness: hence it is loved as the good which | |
| 9667 we desire for all whom we love out of charity. | |
| 9668 </p> | |
| 9669 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p10"> | |
| 9670 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument considers friendship as referred to those with whom we are friends. | |
| 9671 </p> | |
| 9672 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 9673 <p id="SS_Q25_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 9674 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html"></a> | |
| 9675 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html"></a> | |
| 9676 </div> | |
| 9677 <div id="SS_Q25_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 9678 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A2.html"></a> | |
| 9679 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A4.html"></a> | |
| 9680 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A3-p0.1">Whether irrational creatures also ought to be loved out of charity?</h4> | |
| 9681 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 9682 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p2"> | |
| 9683 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that irrational creatures also ought to be loved out of charity. For it is chiefly by charity that we are conformed | |
| 9684 to God. Now God loves irrational creatures out of charity, for He loves "all things that are" ( | |
| 9685 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.11.25" target="asv">Wis. 11:25</a>), and whatever He loves, He loves by Himself Who is charity. Therefore we also should love irrational creatures out of charity. | |
| 9686 </p> | |
| 9687 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p3"> | |
| 9688 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity is referred to God principally, and extends to other things as referable to God. Now just as the rational | |
| 9689 creature is referable to God, in as much as it bears the resemblance of image, so too, are the irrational creatures, in as | |
| 9690 much as they bear the resemblance of a trace [*Cf. | |
| 9691 <a id="SS_Q25_A3-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q45_A7.html">FP, Q[45], A[7]</a>]. Therefore charity extends also to irrational creatures. | |
| 9692 </p> | |
| 9693 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p4"> | |
| 9694 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as the object of charity is God. so is the object of faith. Now faith extends to irrational creatures, since | |
| 9695 we believe that heaven and earth were created by God, that the fishes and birds were brought forth out of the waters, and | |
| 9696 animals that walk, and plants, out of the earth. Therefore charity extends also to irrational creatures. | |
| 9697 </p> | |
| 9698 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p5"> | |
| 9699 <b>On the contrary,</b> The love of charity extends to none but God and our neighbor. But the word neighbor cannot be extended to irrational creatures, | |
| 9700 since they have no fellowship with man in the rational life. Therefore charity does not extend to irrational creatures. | |
| 9701 </p> | |
| 9702 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p6"> | |
| 9703 <b>I answer that,</b> According to what has been stated above ( | |
| 9704 <a id="SS_Q25_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q13_A1.html">Q[13], A[1]</a>) charity is a kind of friendship. Now the love of friendship is twofold: first, there is the love for the friend to whom | |
| 9705 our friendship is given, secondly, the love for those good things which we desire for our friend. With regard to the first, | |
| 9706 no irrational creature can be loved out of charity; and for three reasons. Two of these reasons refer in a general way to | |
| 9707 friendship, which | |
| 9708 cannot have an irrational creature for its object: first because friendship is towards one to whom we wish good things, while, | |
| 9709 properly speaking, we cannot wish good things to an irrational creature, because it is not competent, properly speaking, to | |
| 9710 possess good, this being proper to the rational creature which, through its free-will, is the master of its disposal of the | |
| 9711 good it possesses. Hence the Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 6) that we do not speak of good or evil befalling such like things, | |
| 9712 except metaphorically. Secondly, because all friendship is based on some fellowship in life; since "nothing is so proper to | |
| 9713 friendship as to live together," as the Philosopher proves (Ethic. viii, 5). Now irrational creatures can have no fellowship | |
| 9714 in human life which is regulated by reason. Hence friendship with irrational creatures is impossible, except metaphorically | |
| 9715 speaking. The third reason is proper to charity, for charity is based on the fellowship of everlasting happiness, to which | |
| 9716 the | |
| 9717 irrational creature cannot attain. Therefore we cannot have the friendship of charity towards an irrational creature. | |
| 9718 </p> | |
| 9719 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p7"> Nevertheless we can love irrational creatures out of charity, if we regard them as the good things that we desire for others, | |
| 9720 in so far, to wit, as we wish for their preservation, to God's honor and man's use; thus too does God love them out of charity. | |
| 9721 </p> | |
| 9722 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p8"> Wherefore the Reply to the First Objection is evident.</p> | |
| 9723 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p9"> | |
| 9724 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The likeness by way of trace does not confer the capacity for everlasting life, whereas the likeness of image does: and so | |
| 9725 the comparison fails. | |
| 9726 </p> | |
| 9727 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p10"> | |
| 9728 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Faith can extend to all that is in any way true, whereas the friendship of charity extends only to such things as have a | |
| 9729 natural capacity for everlasting life; wherefore the comparison fails. | |
| 9730 </p> | |
| 9731 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 9732 <p id="SS_Q25_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 9733 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A2.html"></a> | |
| 9734 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A4.html"></a> | |
| 9735 </div> | |
| 9736 <div id="SS_Q25_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 9737 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html"></a> | |
| 9738 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9739 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A4-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love himself out of charity?</h4> | |
| 9740 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 9741 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p2"> | |
| 9742 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man is bound to love himself out of charity. For Gregory says in a homily (In Evang. xvii) that there | |
| 9743 "can be no charity between less than two." Therefore no man has charity towards himself. | |
| 9744 </p> | |
| 9745 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p3"> | |
| 9746 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, friendship, by its very nature, implies mutual love and equality (Ethic. viii, 2,7), which cannot be of one man | |
| 9747 towards himself. But charity is a kind of friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 9748 <a id="SS_Q25_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>). Therefore a man cannot have charity towards himself. | |
| 9749 </p> | |
| 9750 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p4"> | |
| 9751 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, anything relating to charity cannot be blameworthy, since charity "dealeth not perversely" ( | |
| 9752 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.23.4" target="asv">1 Cor. 23:4</a>). Now a man deserves to be blamed for loving himself, since it is written ( | |
| 9753 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A4-p4.2" href="./asv.html#iiTim.3.1" target="asv">2 Tim. 3:1,2</a>): "In the last days shall come dangerous times, men shall be lovers of themselves." Therefore a man cannot love himself out | |
| 9754 of charity. | |
| 9755 </p> | |
| 9756 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p5"> | |
| 9757 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 9758 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.19.18" target="asv">Lev. 19:18</a>): "Thou shalt love thy friend as thyself." Now we love our friends out of charity. Therefore we should love ourselves too | |
| 9759 out of charity. | |
| 9760 </p> | |
| 9761 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p6"> | |
| 9762 <b>I answer that,</b> Since charity is a kind of friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 9763 <a id="SS_Q25_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>), we may consider charity from two standpoints: first, under the general notion of friendship, and in this way we must hold | |
| 9764 that, properly speaking, a man is not a friend to himself, but something more than a friend, since friendship implies union, | |
| 9765 for Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that "love is a unitive force," whereas a man is one with himself which is more than | |
| 9766 being united to another. Hence, just as unity is the principle of union, so the love with which a man loves himself is the | |
| 9767 form and root of friendship. For if we have friendship with others it is because we do unto them as we do unto ourselves, | |
| 9768 hence we read in Ethic. ix, 4,8, that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves." Thus | |
| 9769 too with regard to principles we have something greater than science, namely understanding. | |
| 9770 </p> | |
| 9771 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p7"> Secondly, we may speak of charity in respect of its specific nature, namely as denoting man's friendship with God in the | |
| 9772 first place, and, consequently, with the things of God, among which things is man himself who has charity. Hence, among these | |
| 9773 other things which he loves out of charity because they pertain to God, he loves also himself out of charity. | |
| 9774 </p> | |
| 9775 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p8"> | |
| 9776 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Gregory speaks there of charity under the general notion of friendship: and the Second Objection is to be taken in the same | |
| 9777 sense. | |
| 9778 </p> | |
| 9779 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p9"> | |
| 9780 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Those who love themselves are to be blamed, in so far as they love themselves as regards their sensitive nature, which they | |
| 9781 humor. This is not to love oneself truly according to one's rational nature, so as to desire for oneself the good things which | |
| 9782 pertain to the perfection of reason: and in this way chiefly it is through charity that a man loves himself. | |
| 9783 </p> | |
| 9784 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 9785 <p id="SS_Q25_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 9786 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html"></a> | |
| 9787 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9788 </div> | |
| 9789 <div id="SS_Q25_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 9790 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A4.html"></a> | |
| 9791 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9792 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A5-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love his body out of charity?</h4> | |
| 9793 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 9794 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p2"> | |
| 9795 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man ought not to love his body out of charity. For we do not love one with whom we are unwilling to | |
| 9796 associate. But those who have charity shun the society of the body, according to | |
| 9797 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.24" target="asv">Rom. 7:24</a>: "Who shall deliver me from the body of this death?" and | |
| 9798 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A5-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Phil.1.23" target="asv"> Phil. 1:23</a>: "Having a desire to be dissolved and to be with Christ." Therefore our bodies are not to be loved out of charity. | |
| 9799 </p> | |
| 9800 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p3"> | |
| 9801 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the friendship of charity is based on fellowship in the enjoyment of God. But the body can have no share in that | |
| 9802 enjoyment. Therefore the body is not to be loved out of charity. | |
| 9803 </p> | |
| 9804 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p4"> | |
| 9805 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since charity is a kind of friendship it is towards those who are capable of loving in return. But our body cannot | |
| 9806 love us out of charity. Therefore it should not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9807 </p> | |
| 9808 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p5"> | |
| 9809 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 23,26) that there are four things that we should love out of charity, and among them | |
| 9810 he reckons our own body. | |
| 9811 </p> | |
| 9812 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p6"> | |
| 9813 <b>I answer that,</b> Our bodies can be considered in two ways: first, in respect of their nature, secondly, in respect of the corruption of sin | |
| 9814 and its punishment. | |
| 9815 </p> | |
| 9816 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p7"> Now the nature of our body was created, not by an evil principle, as the Manicheans pretend, but by God. Hence we can use | |
| 9817 it for God's service, according to | |
| 9818 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.6.13" target="asv"> Rom. 6:13</a>: "Present . . . your members as instruments of justice unto God." Consequently, out of the love of charity with which we | |
| 9819 love God, we ought to love our bodies also, but we ought not to love the evil effects of sin and the corruption of punishment; | |
| 9820 we ought rather, by the desire of charity, to | |
| 9821 long for the removal of such things. | |
| 9822 </p> | |
| 9823 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p8"> | |
| 9824 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle did not shrink from the society of his body, as regards the nature of the body, in fact in this respect he was | |
| 9825 loth to be deprived thereof, according to | |
| 9826 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A5-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.5.4" target="asv">2 Cor. 5:4</a>: "We would not be unclothed, but clothed over." He did, however, wish to escape from the taint of concupiscence, which remains | |
| 9827 in the body, and from the corruption of the body which weighs down the soul, so as to hinder it from seeing God. Hence he | |
| 9828 says | |
| 9829 expressly: "From the body of this death." | |
| 9830 </p> | |
| 9831 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p9"> | |
| 9832 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although our bodies are unable to enjoy God by knowing and loving Him, yet by the works which we do through the body, we | |
| 9833 are able to attain to the perfect knowledge of God. Hence from the enjoyment in the soul there overflows a certain happiness | |
| 9834 into the body, viz., "the flush of health and incorruption," as Augustine states (Ep. ad Dioscor. cxviii). Hence, since the | |
| 9835 body has, in a fashion, a share of happiness, it can be loved with the love of | |
| 9836 charity. | |
| 9837 </p> | |
| 9838 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p10"> | |
| 9839 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Mutual love is found in the friendship which is for another, but not in that which a man has for himself, either in respect | |
| 9840 of his soul, or in respect of his body. | |
| 9841 </p> | |
| 9842 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 9843 <p id="SS_Q25_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 9844 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A4.html"></a> | |
| 9845 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9846 </div> | |
| 9847 <div id="SS_Q25_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 9848 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9849 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9850 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A6-p0.1">Whether we ought to love sinners out of charity?</h4> | |
| 9851 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 9852 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p2"> | |
| 9853 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought not to love sinners out of charity. For it is written ( | |
| 9854 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.113" target="asv">Ps. 118:113</a>): "I have hated the unjust." But David had perfect charity. Therefore sinners should be hated rather than loved, out of charity. | |
| 9855 </p> | |
| 9856 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p3"> | |
| 9857 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "love is proved by deeds" as Gregory says in a homily for Pentecost (In Evang. xxx). But good men do no works of | |
| 9858 the unjust: on the contrary, they do such as would appear to be works of hate, according to | |
| 9859 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.100.8" target="asv"> Ps. 100:8</a>: "In the morning I put to death all the wicked of the land": and God commanded ( | |
| 9860 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.22.18" target="asv">Ex. 22:18</a>): "Wizards thou shalt not suffer to live." Therefore sinners should not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9861 </p> | |
| 9862 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p4"> | |
| 9863 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is part of friendship that one should desire and wish good things for one's friends. Now the saints, out of charity, | |
| 9864 desire evil things for the wicked, according to | |
| 9865 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.9.18" target="asv"> Ps. 9:18</a>: "May the wicked be turned into hell [*Douay and A. V.: 'The wicked shall be,' etc. See Reply to this Objection.]." Therefore | |
| 9866 sinners should not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9867 </p> | |
| 9868 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p5"> | |
| 9869 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it is proper to friends to rejoice in, and will the same things. Now charity does not make us will what sinners | |
| 9870 will, nor to rejoice in what gives them joy, but rather the contrary. Therefore sinners should not be loved out of charity. | |
| 9871 </p> | |
| 9872 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p6"> | |
| 9873 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, it is proper to friends to associate together, according to Ethic. viii. But we ought not to associate with sinners, | |
| 9874 according to | |
| 9875 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.6.17" target="asv">2 Cor. 6:17</a>: "Go ye out from among them." Therefore we should not love sinners out of charity. | |
| 9876 </p> | |
| 9877 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p7"> | |
| 9878 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 30) that "when it is said: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor,' it is evident that we ought | |
| 9879 to look upon every man as our neighbor." Now sinners do not cease to be men, for sin does not destroy nature. Therefore we | |
| 9880 ought to love sinners out of charity. | |
| 9881 </p> | |
| 9882 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p8"> | |
| 9883 <b>I answer that,</b> Two things may be considered in the sinner: his nature and his guilt. According to his nature, which he has from God, he | |
| 9884 has a capacity for happiness, on the fellowship of which charity is based, as stated above | |
| 9885 <a id="SS_Q25_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html">(A[3];</a> Q[23], AA[1],5), wherefore we ought to love sinners, out of charity, in respect of their nature. | |
| 9886 </p> | |
| 9887 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p9"> On the other hand their guilt is opposed to God, and is an obstacle to happiness. Wherefore, in respect of their guilt whereby | |
| 9888 they are opposed to God, all sinners are to be hated, even one's father or mother or kindred, according to | |
| 9889 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.12.26" target="asv"> Lk. 12:26.</a> For it is our duty to hate, in the sinner, his being a sinner, and to love in him, his being a man capable of bliss; and | |
| 9890 this is to love him truly, out of charity, for God's sake. | |
| 9891 </p> | |
| 9892 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p10"> | |
| 9893 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The prophet hated the unjust, as such, and the object of his hate was their injustice, which was their evil. Such hatred | |
| 9894 is perfect, of which he himself says ( | |
| 9895 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.138.22" target="asv">Ps. 138:22</a>): "I have hated them with a perfect hatred." Now hatred of a person's evil is equivalent to love of his good. Hence also | |
| 9896 this perfect hatred belongs to charity. | |
| 9897 </p> | |
| 9898 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p11"> | |
| 9899 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As the Philosopher observes (Ethic. ix, 3), when our friends fall into sin, we ought not to deny them the amenities of friendship, | |
| 9900 so long as there is hope of their mending their ways, and we ought to help them more readily to regain virtue than to recover | |
| 9901 money, had they lost it, for as much as virtue is more akin than money to friendship. When, however, they fall into very great | |
| 9902 wickedness, and become incurable, we ought no longer to show them | |
| 9903 friendliness. It is for this reason that both Divine and human laws command such like sinners to be put to death, because | |
| 9904 there is greater likelihood of their harming others than of their mending their ways. Nevertheless the judge puts this into | |
| 9905 effect, not out of hatred for the sinners, but out of the love of charity, by reason of which he prefers the public good to | |
| 9906 the life of the individual. Moreover the death inflicted by the judge profits the sinner, if he be converted, unto the expiation | |
| 9907 of his crime; and, if he be not converted, it profits so as to put an end to the sin, because the sinner is thus deprived | |
| 9908 of the power to sin any more. | |
| 9909 </p> | |
| 9910 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p12"> | |
| 9911 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Such like imprecations which we come across in Holy Writ, may be understood in three ways: first, by way of prediction, not | |
| 9912 by way of wish, so that the sense is: "May the wicked be," that is, "The wicked shall be, turned into hell." Secondly, by | |
| 9913 way of wish, yet so that the desire of the wisher is not referred to the man's punishment, but to the justice of the punisher, | |
| 9914 according to | |
| 9915 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.57.11" target="asv"> Ps. 57:11</a>: "The just shall rejoice when he shall | |
| 9916 see the revenge," since, according to | |
| 9917 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p12.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.1.13" target="asv"> Wis. 1:13, </a> not even God "hath pleasure in the destruction of the wicked [Vulg.: 'living']" when He punishes them, but He rejoices in | |
| 9918 His justice, according to | |
| 9919 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p12.3" href="./asv.html#Ps.10.8" target="asv">Ps. 10:8</a>: "The Lord is just and hath loved justice." Thirdly, so that this desire is referred to the removal of the sin, and not to | |
| 9920 the punishment itself, to the effect, namely, that the sin be destroyed, but that the man may live. | |
| 9921 </p> | |
| 9922 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p13"> | |
| 9923 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> We love sinners out of charity, not so as to will what they will, or to rejoice in what gives them joy, but so as to make | |
| 9924 them will what we will, and rejoice in what rejoices us. Hence it is written ( | |
| 9925 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p13.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.15.19" target="asv">Jer. 15:19</a>): "They shall be turned to thee, and thou shalt not to be turned to them." | |
| 9926 </p> | |
| 9927 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p14"> | |
| 9928 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The weak should avoid associating with sinners, on account of the danger in which they stand of being perverted by them. | |
| 9929 But it is commendable for the perfect, of whose perversion there is no fear, to associate with sinners that they may convert | |
| 9930 them. For thus did Our Lord eat and drink with sinners as related by | |
| 9931 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p14.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.9.11" target="asv"> Mat. 9:11-13.</a> Yet all should avoid the society of sinners, as regards fellowship in sin; in this sense it is written | |
| 9932 ( | |
| 9933 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A6-p14.2" href="./asv.html#iiCor.6.17" target="asv">2 Cor. 6:17</a>): "Go out from among them . . . and touch not the unclean thing," i.e. by consenting to sin. | |
| 9934 </p> | |
| 9935 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p15"></p> | |
| 9936 <p id="SS_Q25_A6-p16"></p> | |
| 9937 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A5.html"></a> | |
| 9938 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A7.html"></a> | |
| 9939 </div> | |
| 9940 <div id="SS_Q25_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 9941 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A6.html"></a> | |
| 9942 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A8.html"></a> | |
| 9943 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A7-p0.1">Whether sinners love themselves?</h4> | |
| 9944 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 9945 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p2"> | |
| 9946 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sinners love themselves. For that which is the principle of sin, is most of all in the sinner. Now love | |
| 9947 of self is the principle of sin, since Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 28) that it "builds up the city of Babylon." Therefore | |
| 9948 sinners most of all love themselves. | |
| 9949 </p> | |
| 9950 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p3"> | |
| 9951 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sin does not destroy nature. Now it is in keeping with nature that every man should love himself: wherefore even | |
| 9952 irrational creatures naturally desire their own good, for instance, the preservation of their being, and so forth. Therefore | |
| 9953 sinners love themselves. | |
| 9954 </p> | |
| 9955 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p4"> | |
| 9956 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, good is beloved by all, as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. iv). Now many sinners reckon themselves to be good. Therefore | |
| 9957 many sinners love themselves. | |
| 9958 </p> | |
| 9959 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p5"> | |
| 9960 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 9961 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.10.6" target="asv">Ps. 10:6</a>): "He that loveth iniquity, hateth his own soul." | |
| 9962 </p> | |
| 9963 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p6"> | |
| 9964 <b>I answer that,</b> Love of self is common to all, in one way; in another way it is proper to the good; in a third way, it is proper to the wicked. | |
| 9965 For it is common to all for each one to love what he thinks himself to be. Now a man is said to be a thing, in two ways: first, | |
| 9966 in respect of his substance and nature, and, this way all think themselves to be what they are, that is, composed of a soul | |
| 9967 and body. In this way too, all men, both good and wicked, love themselves, in so | |
| 9968 far as they love their own preservation. | |
| 9969 </p> | |
| 9970 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p7"> Secondly, a man is said to be something in respect of some predominance, as the sovereign of a state is spoken of as being | |
| 9971 the state, and so, what the sovereign does, the state is said to do. In this way, all do not think themselves to be what they | |
| 9972 are. For the reasoning mind is the predominant part of man, while the sensitive and corporeal nature takes the second place, | |
| 9973 the former of which the Apostle calls the "inward man," and the latter, the "outward man" ( | |
| 9974 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A7-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.4.16" target="asv">2 Cor. | |
| 9975 4:16 | |
| 9976 </a>). Now the good look upon their rational nature or the inward man as being the chief thing in them, wherefore in this way | |
| 9977 they think themselves to be what they are. On the other hand, the wicked reckon their sensitive and corporeal nature, or the | |
| 9978 outward man, to hold the first place. Wherefore, since they know not themselves aright, they do not love themselves aright, | |
| 9979 but love what they think themselves to be. But the good know themselves truly, and therefore truly love | |
| 9980 themselves. | |
| 9981 </p> | |
| 9982 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p8"> The Philosopher proves this from five things that are proper to friendship. For in the first place, every friend wishes his | |
| 9983 friend to be and to live; secondly, he desires good things for him; thirdly, he does good things to him; fourthly, he takes | |
| 9984 pleasure in his company; fifthly, he is of one mind with him, rejoicing and sorrowing in almost the same things. In this way | |
| 9985 the good love themselves, as to the inward man, because they wish the preservation thereof in its integrity, | |
| 9986 they desire good things for him, namely spiritual goods, indeed they do their best to obtain them, and they take pleasure | |
| 9987 in entering into their own hearts, because they find there good thoughts in the present, the memory of past good, and the | |
| 9988 hope of future good, all of which are sources of pleasure. Likewise they experience no clashing of wills, since their whole | |
| 9989 soul tends to one thing. | |
| 9990 </p> | |
| 9991 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p9"> On the other hand, the wicked have no wish to be preserved in the integrity of the inward man, nor do they desire spiritual | |
| 9992 goods for him, nor do they work for that end, nor do they take pleasure in their own company by entering into their own hearts, | |
| 9993 because whatever they find there, present, past and future, is evil and horrible; nor do they agree with themselves, on account | |
| 9994 of the gnawings of conscience, according to | |
| 9995 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.49.21" target="asv"> Ps. 49:21</a>: "I will reprove thee and | |
| 9996 set before thy face." | |
| 9997 </p> | |
| 9998 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p10"> In the same manner it may be shown that the wicked love themselves, as regards the corruption of the outward man, whereas | |
| 9999 the good do not love themselves thus. | |
| 10000 </p> | |
| 10001 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p11"> | |
| 10002 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The love of self which is the principle of sin is that which is proper to the wicked, and reaches "to the contempt of God," | |
| 10003 as stated in the passage quoted, because the wicked so desire external goods as to despise spiritual goods. | |
| 10004 </p> | |
| 10005 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p12"> | |
| 10006 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although natural love is not altogether forfeited by wicked men, yet it is perverted in them, as explained above. | |
| 10007 </p> | |
| 10008 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p13"> | |
| 10009 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The wicked have some share of self-love, in so far as they think themselves good. Yet such love of self is not true but apparent: | |
| 10010 and even this is not possible in those who are very wicked. | |
| 10011 </p> | |
| 10012 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p14"></p> | |
| 10013 <p id="SS_Q25_A7-p15"></p> | |
| 10014 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A6.html"></a> | |
| 10015 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10016 </div> | |
| 10017 <div id="SS_Q25_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 10018 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10019 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10020 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A8-p0.1">Whether charity requires that we should love our enemies?</h4> | |
| 10021 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 10022 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p2"> | |
| 10023 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity does not require us to love our enemies. For Augustine says (Enchiridion lxxiii) that "this great | |
| 10024 good," namely, the love of our enemies, is "not so universal in its application, as the object of our petition when we say: | |
| 10025 Forgive us our trespasses." Now no one is forgiven sin without he have charity, because, according to | |
| 10026 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.10.12" target="asv"> Prov. 10:12, </a> "charity covereth all sins." Therefore charity does not require that we should | |
| 10027 love our enemies. | |
| 10028 </p> | |
| 10029 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p3"> | |
| 10030 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity does not do away with nature. Now everything, even an irrational being, naturally hates its contrary, as | |
| 10031 a lamb hates a wolf, and water fire. Therefore charity does not make us love our enemies. | |
| 10032 </p> | |
| 10033 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p4"> | |
| 10034 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity "doth nothing perversely" ( | |
| 10035 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A8-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.4" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:4</a>). Now it seems perverse to love one's enemies, as it would be to hate one's friends: hence Joab upbraided David by saying | |
| 10036 ( | |
| 10037 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A8-p4.2" href="./asv.html#iiKgdms.19.6" target="asv">2 Kings 19:6</a>): "Thou lovest them that hate thee, and thou hatest them that love thee." Therefore charity does not make us love our enemies. | |
| 10038 </p> | |
| 10039 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p5"> | |
| 10040 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 10041 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.4.44" target="asv">Mat. 4:44</a>): "Love your enemies." | |
| 10042 </p> | |
| 10043 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p6"> | |
| 10044 <b>I answer that,</b> Love of one's enemies may be understood in three ways. First, as though we were to love our enemies as such: this is perverse, | |
| 10045 and contrary to charity, since it implies love of that which is evil in another. | |
| 10046 </p> | |
| 10047 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p7"> Secondly love of one's enemies may mean that we love them as to their nature, but in general: and in this sense charity requires | |
| 10048 that we should love our enemies, namely, that in loving God and our neighbor, we should not exclude our enemies from the love | |
| 10049 given to our neighbor in general. | |
| 10050 </p> | |
| 10051 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p8"> Thirdly, love of one's enemies may be considered as specially directed to them, namely, that we should have a special movement | |
| 10052 of love towards our enemies. Charity does not require this absolutely, because it does not require that we should have a special | |
| 10053 movement of love to every individual man, since this would be impossible. Nevertheless charity does require this, in respect | |
| 10054 of our being prepared in mind, namely, that we should be ready to love our enemies individually, if | |
| 10055 the necessity were to occur. That man should actually do so, and love his enemy for God's sake, without it being necessary | |
| 10056 for him to do so, belongs to the perfection of charity. For since man loves his neighbor, out of charity, for God's sake, | |
| 10057 the more he loves God, the more does he put enmities aside and show love towards his neighbor: thus if we loved a certain | |
| 10058 man very much, we would love his children though they were unfriendly towards us. This is the sense in which Augustine speaks | |
| 10059 in the | |
| 10060 passage quoted in the First Objection, the Reply to which is therefore evident. | |
| 10061 </p> | |
| 10062 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p9"> | |
| 10063 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Everything naturally hates its contrary as such. Now our enemies are contrary to us, as enemies, wherefore this itself should | |
| 10064 be hateful to us, for their enmity should displease us. They are not, however, contrary to us, as men and capable of happiness: | |
| 10065 and it is as such that we are bound to love them. | |
| 10066 </p> | |
| 10067 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p10"> | |
| 10068 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is wrong to love one's enemies as such: charity does not do this, as stated above. | |
| 10069 </p> | |
| 10070 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 10071 <p id="SS_Q25_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 10072 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10073 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10074 </div> | |
| 10075 <div id="SS_Q25_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 10076 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10077 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10078 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A9-p0.1">Whether it is necessary for salvation that we should show our enemies the signs and effects of love?</h4> | |
| 10079 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 10080 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p2"> | |
| 10081 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that charity demands of a man to show his enemy the signs or effects of love. For it is written ( | |
| 10082 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.18" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:18</a>): "Let us not love in word nor in tongue, but in deed and in truth." Now a man loves in deed by showing the one he loves | |
| 10083 signs and effects of love. Therefore charity requires that a man show his enemies such signs and effects of love. | |
| 10084 </p> | |
| 10085 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p3"> | |
| 10086 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Our Lord said in the same breath ( | |
| 10087 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.44" target="asv">Mat. 5:44</a>): "Love your enemies," and, "Do good to them that hate you." Now charity demands that we love our enemies. Therefore it demands | |
| 10088 also that we should "do good to them." | |
| 10089 </p> | |
| 10090 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p4"> | |
| 10091 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, not only God but also our neighbor is the object of charity. Now Gregory says in a homily for Pentecost (In Evang. | |
| 10092 xxx), that "love of God cannot be idle for wherever it is it does great things, and if it ceases to work, it is no longer | |
| 10093 love." Hence charity towards our neighbor cannot be without producing works. But charity requires us to love our neighbor | |
| 10094 without exception, though he be an enemy. Therefore charity requires us to show the signs and | |
| 10095 effects of love towards our enemies. | |
| 10096 </p> | |
| 10097 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p5"> | |
| 10098 <b>On the contrary,</b> A gloss on | |
| 10099 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.44" target="asv"> Mat. 5:44, </a> "Do good to them that hate you," says: "To do good to one's enemies is the height of perfection" [*Augustine, Enchiridion | |
| 10100 lxxiii]. Now charity does not require us to do that which belongs to its perfection. Therefore charity does not require us | |
| 10101 to show the signs and effects of love to our enemies. | |
| 10102 </p> | |
| 10103 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p6"> | |
| 10104 <b>I answer that,</b> The effects and signs of charity are the result of inward love, and are in proportion with it. Now it is absolutely necessary, | |
| 10105 for the fulfilment of the precept, that we should inwardly love our enemies in general, but not individually, except as regards | |
| 10106 the mind being prepared to do so, as explained above | |
| 10107 <a id="SS_Q25_A9-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A8.html">(A[8])</a>. | |
| 10108 </p> | |
| 10109 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p7"> We must accordingly apply this to the showing of the effects and signs of love. For some of the signs and favors of love | |
| 10110 are shown to our neighbors in general, as when we pray for all the faithful, or for a whole people, or when anyone bestows | |
| 10111 a favor on a whole community: and the fulfilment of the precept requires that we should show such like favors or signs of | |
| 10112 love towards our enemies. For if we did not so, it would be a proof of vengeful spite, and contrary to what is | |
| 10113 written ( | |
| 10114 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.19.18" target="asv">Lev. 19:18</a>): "Seek not revenge, nor be mindful of the injury of thy citizens." But there are other favors or signs of love, which one | |
| 10115 shows to certain persons in particular: and it is not necessary for salvation that we show our enemies such like favors and | |
| 10116 signs of love, except as regards being ready in our minds, for instance to come to their assistance in a case of urgency, | |
| 10117 according to | |
| 10118 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Prov.25.21" target="asv"> Prov. 25:21</a>: "If thy enemy be hungry, give him to eat; if he thirst, give | |
| 10119 him . . . drink." Outside cases of urgency, to show such like favors to an enemy belongs to the perfection of charity, whereby | |
| 10120 we not only beware, as in duty bound, of being overcome by evil, but also wish to overcome evil by good [* | |
| 10121 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A9-p7.3" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.21" target="asv">Rom. 12:21</a>], which belongs to perfection: for then we not only beware of being drawn into hatred on account of the hurt done to us, | |
| 10122 but purpose to induce our enemy to love us on account of our kindliness. | |
| 10123 </p> | |
| 10124 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p8"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 10125 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p9"></p> | |
| 10126 <p id="SS_Q25_A9-p10"></p> | |
| 10127 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10128 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10129 </div> | |
| 10130 <div id="SS_Q25_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 10131 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10132 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10133 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A10-p0.1">Whether we ought to love the angels out of charity?</h4> | |
| 10134 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 10135 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p2"> | |
| 10136 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we are not bound to love the angels out of charity. For, as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i), charity | |
| 10137 is a twofold love: the love of God and of our neighbor. Now love of the angels is not contained in the love of God, since | |
| 10138 they are created substances; nor is it, seemingly, contained in the love of our neighbor, since they do not belong with us | |
| 10139 to a common species. Therefore we are not bound to love them out of charity. | |
| 10140 </p> | |
| 10141 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p3"> | |
| 10142 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, dumb animals have more in common with us than the angels have, since they belong to the same proximate genus as | |
| 10143 we do. But we have not charity towards dumb animals, as stated above | |
| 10144 <a id="SS_Q25_A10-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Neither, therefore, have we towards the angels. | |
| 10145 </p> | |
| 10146 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p4"> | |
| 10147 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing is so proper to friends as companionship with one another (Ethic. viii, 5). But the angels are not our companions; | |
| 10148 we cannot even see them. Therefore we are unable to give them the friendship of charity. | |
| 10149 </p> | |
| 10150 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p5"> | |
| 10151 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 30): "If the name of neighbor is given either to those whom we pity, or to those who | |
| 10152 pity us, it is evident that the precept binding us to love our neighbor includes also the holy angels from whom we receive | |
| 10153 many merciful favors." | |
| 10154 </p> | |
| 10155 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p6"> | |
| 10156 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 10157 <a id="SS_Q25_A10-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>), the friendship of charity is founded upon the fellowship of everlasting happiness, in which men share in common with the | |
| 10158 angels. For it is written ( | |
| 10159 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A10-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.30" target="asv">Mat. 22:30</a>) that "in the resurrection . . . men shall be as the angels of God in heaven." It is therefore evident that the friendship | |
| 10160 of charity extends also to the angels. | |
| 10161 </p> | |
| 10162 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p7"> | |
| 10163 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Our neighbor is not only one who is united to us in a common species, but also one who is united to us by sharing in the | |
| 10164 blessings pertaining to everlasting life, and it is on the latter fellowship that the friendship of charity is founded. | |
| 10165 </p> | |
| 10166 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p8"> | |
| 10167 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Dumb animals are united to us in the proximate genus, by reason of their sensitive nature; whereas we are partakers of everlasting | |
| 10168 happiness, by reason not of our sensitive nature but of our rational mind wherein we associate with the angels. | |
| 10169 </p> | |
| 10170 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p9"> | |
| 10171 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The companionship of the angels does not consist in outward fellowship, which we have in respect of our sensitive nature; | |
| 10172 it consists in a fellowship of the mind, imperfect indeed in this life, but perfect in heaven, as stated above ( | |
| 10173 <a id="SS_Q25_A10-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>, ad 1). | |
| 10174 </p> | |
| 10175 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p10"></p> | |
| 10176 <p id="SS_Q25_A10-p11"></p> | |
| 10177 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10178 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10179 </div> | |
| 10180 <div id="SS_Q25_A11" class="div4"> | |
| 10181 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10182 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html"></a> | |
| 10183 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A11-p0.1">Whether we are bound to love the demons out of charity?</h4> | |
| 10184 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p1"></p> | |
| 10185 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p2"> | |
| 10186 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought to love the demons out of charity. For the angels are our neighbors by reason of their fellowship | |
| 10187 with us in a rational mind. But the demons also share in our fellowship thus, since natural gifts, such as life and understanding, | |
| 10188 remain in them unimpaired, as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. iv). Therefore we ought to love the demons out of charity. | |
| 10189 </p> | |
| 10190 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p3"> | |
| 10191 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the demons differ from the blessed angels in the matter of sin, even as sinners from just men. Now the just man | |
| 10192 loves the sinner out of charity. Therefore he ought to love the demons also out of charity. | |
| 10193 </p> | |
| 10194 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p4"> | |
| 10195 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, we ought, out of charity, to love, as being our neighbors, those from whom we receive favors, as appears from the | |
| 10196 passage of Augustine quoted above | |
| 10197 <a id="SS_Q25_A11-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A9.html">(A[9])</a>. Now the demons are useful to us in many things, for "by tempting us they work crowns for us," as Augustine says (De Civ. | |
| 10198 Dei xi, 17). Therefore we ought to love the demons out of charity. | |
| 10199 </p> | |
| 10200 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p5"> | |
| 10201 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 10202 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q25_A11-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.28.18" target="asv">Is. 28:18</a>): "Your league with death shall be abolished, and your covenant with hell shall not stand." Now the perfection of a peace | |
| 10203 and covenant is through charity. Therefore we ought not to have charity for the demons who live in hell and compass death. | |
| 10204 </p> | |
| 10205 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p6"> | |
| 10206 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 10207 <a id="SS_Q25_A11-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A6.html">(A[6])</a>, in the sinner, we are bound, out of charity, to love his nature, but to hate his sin. But the name of demon is given to | |
| 10208 designate a nature deformed by sin, wherefore demons should not be loved out of charity. Without however laying stress on | |
| 10209 the word, the question as to whether the spirits called demons ought to be loved out of charity, must be answered in accordance | |
| 10210 with the statement made above ( | |
| 10211 <a id="SS_Q25_A11-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,3), that a thing may be loved out of charity in two ways. First, a thing may be loved as the person who is the object of | |
| 10212 friendship, and thus we cannot have the friendship of charity towards the demons. For it is an essential part of friendship | |
| 10213 that one should be a well-wisher towards one's friend; and it is impossible for us, out of charity, to desire the good of | |
| 10214 everlasting life, to which charity is referred, for those spirits whom God has condemned eternally, | |
| 10215 since this would be in opposition to our charity towards God whereby we approve of His justice. | |
| 10216 </p> | |
| 10217 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p7"> Secondly, we love a thing as being that which we desire to be enduring as another's good. In this way we love irrational | |
| 10218 creatures out of charity, in as much as we wish them to endure, to give glory to God and be useful to man, as stated above | |
| 10219 | |
| 10220 <a id="SS_Q25_A11-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A3.html">(A[3])</a>: and in this way too we can love the nature of the demons even out of charity, in as much as we desire those spirits to endure, | |
| 10221 as to their natural gifts, unto God's glory. | |
| 10222 </p> | |
| 10223 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p8"> | |
| 10224 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The possession of everlasting happiness is not impossible for the angelic mind as it is for the mind of a demon; consequently | |
| 10225 the friendship of charity which is based on the fellowship of everlasting life, rather than on the fellowship of nature, is | |
| 10226 possible towards the angels, but not towards the demons. | |
| 10227 </p> | |
| 10228 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p9"> | |
| 10229 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In this life, men who are in sin retain the possibility of obtaining everlasting happiness: not so those who are lost in | |
| 10230 hell, who, in this respect, are in the same case as the demons. | |
| 10231 </p> | |
| 10232 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p10"> | |
| 10233 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That the demons are useful to us is due not to their intention but to the ordering of Divine providence; hence this leads | |
| 10234 us to be friends, not with them, but with God, Who turns their perverse intention to our profit. | |
| 10235 </p> | |
| 10236 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p11"></p> | |
| 10237 <p id="SS_Q25_A11-p12"></p> | |
| 10238 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10239 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html"></a> | |
| 10240 </div> | |
| 10241 <div id="SS_Q25_A12" class="div4"> | |
| 10242 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10243 <a href="summa.SS_Q26.html"></a> | |
| 10244 <h4 id="SS_Q25_A12-p0.1">Whether four things are rightly reckoned as to be loved out of charity, viz. God, our neighbor, our body and ourselves?</h4> | |
| 10245 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p1"></p> | |
| 10246 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p2"> | |
| 10247 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that these four things are not rightly reckoned as to be loved out of charity, to wit: God, our neighbor, our | |
| 10248 body, and ourselves. For, as Augustine states (Tract. super Joan. lxxxiii), "he that loveth not God, loveth not himself." | |
| 10249 Hence love of oneself is included in the love of God. Therefore love of oneself is not distinct from the love of God. | |
| 10250 </p> | |
| 10251 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p3"> | |
| 10252 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a part ought not to be condivided with the whole. But our body is part of ourselves. Therefore it ought not to be | |
| 10253 condivided with ourselves as a distinct object of love. | |
| 10254 </p> | |
| 10255 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p4"> | |
| 10256 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as a man has a body, so has his neighbor. Since then the love with which a man loves his neighbor, is distinct | |
| 10257 from the love with which a man loves himself, so the love with which a man loves his neighbor's body, ought to be distinct | |
| 10258 from the love with which he loves his own body. Therefore these four things are not rightly distinguished as objects to be | |
| 10259 loved out of charity. | |
| 10260 </p> | |
| 10261 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p5"> | |
| 10262 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 23): "There are four things to be loved; one which is above us," namely God, "another, | |
| 10263 which is ourselves, a third which is nigh to us," namely our neighbor, "and a fourth which is beneath us," namely our own | |
| 10264 body. | |
| 10265 </p> | |
| 10266 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p6"> | |
| 10267 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 10268 <a id="SS_Q25_A12-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], AA[1]</a>,5), the friendship of charity is based on the fellowship of happiness. Now, in this fellowship, one thing is considered as | |
| 10269 the principle from which happiness flows, namely God; a second is that which directly partakes of happiness, namely men and | |
| 10270 angels; a third is a thing to which happiness comes by a kind of overflow, namely the human body. | |
| 10271 </p> | |
| 10272 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p7"> Now the source from which happiness flows is lovable by reason of its being the cause of happiness: that which is a partaker | |
| 10273 of happiness, can be an object of love for two reasons, either through being identified with ourselves, or through being associated | |
| 10274 with us in partaking of happiness, and in this respect, there are two things to be loved out of charity, in as much as man | |
| 10275 loves both himself and his neighbor. | |
| 10276 </p> | |
| 10277 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p8"> | |
| 10278 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The different relations between a lover and the various things loved make a different kind of lovableness. Accordingly, since | |
| 10279 the relation between the human lover and God is different from his relation to himself, these two are reckoned as distinct | |
| 10280 objects of love, for the love of the one is the cause of the love of the other, so that the former love being removed the | |
| 10281 latter is taken away. | |
| 10282 </p> | |
| 10283 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p9"> | |
| 10284 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The subject of charity is the rational mind that can be capable of obtaining happiness, to which the body does not reach | |
| 10285 directly, but only by a kind of overflow. Hence, by his reasonable mind which holds the first place in him, man, out of charity, | |
| 10286 loves himself in one way, and his own body in another. | |
| 10287 </p> | |
| 10288 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p10"> | |
| 10289 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Man loves his neighbor, both as to his soul and as to his body, by reason of a certain fellowship in happiness. Wherefore, | |
| 10290 on the part of his neighbor, there is only one reason for loving him; and our neighbor's body is not reckoned as a special | |
| 10291 object of love. | |
| 10292 </p> | |
| 10293 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p11"></p> | |
| 10294 <p id="SS_Q25_A12-p12"></p> | |
| 10295 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10296 <a href="summa.SS_Q26.html"></a> | |
| 10297 </div> | |
| 10298 <a href="summa.SS_Q24_A12.html"></a> | |
| 10299 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html"></a> | |
| 10300 </div> | |
| 10301 <div id="SS_Q26" class="div3"> | |
| 10302 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html"></a> | |
| 10303 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html"></a> | |
| 10304 <h3 id="SS_Q26-p0.1">OF THE ORDER OF CHARITY (THIRTEEN ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 10305 <p id="SS_Q26-p1"></p> | |
| 10306 <p id="SS_Q26-p2"> We must now consider the order of charity, under which head there are thirteen points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 10307 <p id="SS_Q26-p3"> (1) Whether there is an order in charity?</p> | |
| 10308 <p id="SS_Q26-p4"> (2) Whether man ought to love God more than his neighbor?</p> | |
| 10309 <p id="SS_Q26-p5"> (3) Whether more than himself?</p> | |
| 10310 <p id="SS_Q26-p6"> (4) Whether he ought to love himself more than his neighbor?</p> | |
| 10311 <p id="SS_Q26-p7"> (5) Whether man ought to love his neighbor more than his own body?</p> | |
| 10312 <p id="SS_Q26-p8"> (6) Whether he ought to love one neighbor more than another?</p> | |
| 10313 <p id="SS_Q26-p9"> (7) Whether he ought to love more, a neighbor who is better, or one who is more closely united to him?</p> | |
| 10314 <p id="SS_Q26-p10"> (8) Whether he ought to love more, one who is akin to him by blood, or one who is united to him by other ties?</p> | |
| 10315 <p id="SS_Q26-p11"> (9) Whether, out of charity, a man ought to love his son more than his father ?</p> | |
| 10316 <p id="SS_Q26-p12"> (10) Whether he ought to love his mother more than his father?</p> | |
| 10317 <p id="SS_Q26-p13"> (11) Whether he ought to love his wife more than his father or mother?</p> | |
| 10318 <p id="SS_Q26-p14"> (12) Whether we ought to love those who are kind to us more than those whom we are kind to?</p> | |
| 10319 <p id="SS_Q26-p15"> (13) Whether the order of charity endures in heaven?</p> | |
| 10320 <div id="SS_Q26_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 10321 <a href="summa.SS_Q26.html"></a> | |
| 10322 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html"></a> | |
| 10323 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A1-p0.1">Whether there is order in charity?</h4> | |
| 10324 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 10325 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p2"> | |
| 10326 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is no order in charity. For charity is a virtue. But no order is assigned to the other virtues. | |
| 10327 Neither, therefore, should any order be assigned to charity. | |
| 10328 </p> | |
| 10329 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p3"> | |
| 10330 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as the object of faith is the First Truth, so is the object of charity the Sovereign Good. Now no order is | |
| 10331 appointed for faith, but all things are believed equally. Neither, therefore, ought there to be any order in charity. | |
| 10332 </p> | |
| 10333 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p4"> | |
| 10334 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is in the will: whereas ordering belongs, not to the will, but to the reason. Therefore no order should | |
| 10335 be ascribed to charity. | |
| 10336 </p> | |
| 10337 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p5"> | |
| 10338 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 10339 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Song.2.4" target="asv">Cant 2:4</a>): "He brought me into the cellar of wine, he set in order charity in me." | |
| 10340 </p> | |
| 10341 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p6"> | |
| 10342 <b>I answer that,</b> As the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, text. 16), the terms "before" and "after" are used in reference to some principle. Now | |
| 10343 order implies that certain things are, in some way, before or after. Hence wherever there is a principle, there must needs | |
| 10344 be also order of some kind. But it has been said above ( | |
| 10345 <a id="SS_Q26_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>; | |
| 10346 <a id="SS_Q26_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html"> Q[25], A[12]</a>) that the love of charity tends to God as to the principle of happiness, on the | |
| 10347 fellowship of which the friendship of charity is based. Consequently there must needs be some order in things loved out of | |
| 10348 charity, which order is in reference to the first principle of that love, which is God. | |
| 10349 </p> | |
| 10350 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p7"> | |
| 10351 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Charity tends towards the last end considered as last end: and this does not apply to any other virtue, as stated above ( | |
| 10352 <a id="SS_Q26_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html">Q[23], A[6]</a> ). Now the end has the character of principle in matters of appetite and action, as was shown above ( | |
| 10353 <a id="SS_Q26_A1-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A7.html">Q[23], A[7]</a>, ad 2; FS, A[1], ad 1). Wherefore charity, above all, implies relation to the First Principle, and consequently, in charity | |
| 10354 above all, we find an order in | |
| 10355 reference to the First Principle. | |
| 10356 </p> | |
| 10357 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p8"> | |
| 10358 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Faith pertains to the cognitive power, whose operation depends on the thing known being in the knower. On the other hand, | |
| 10359 charity is in an appetitive power, whose operation consists in the soul tending to things themselves. Now order is to be found | |
| 10360 in things themselves, and flows from them into our knowledge. Hence order is more appropriate to charity than to faith. | |
| 10361 </p> | |
| 10362 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p9"> And yet there is a certain order in faith, in so far as it is chiefly about God, and secondarily about things referred to | |
| 10363 God. | |
| 10364 </p> | |
| 10365 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p10"> | |
| 10366 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Order belongs to reason as the faculty that orders, and to the appetitive power as to the faculty which is ordered. It is | |
| 10367 in this way that order is stated to be in charity. | |
| 10368 </p> | |
| 10369 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 10370 <p id="SS_Q26_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 10371 <a href="summa.SS_Q26.html"></a> | |
| 10372 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html"></a> | |
| 10373 </div> | |
| 10374 <div id="SS_Q26_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 10375 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html"></a> | |
| 10376 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A3.html"></a> | |
| 10377 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A2-p0.1">Whether God ought to be loved more than our neighbor?</h4> | |
| 10378 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 10379 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p2"> | |
| 10380 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God ought not to be loved more than our neighbor. For it is written ( | |
| 10381 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.20" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:20</a>): "He that loveth not his brother whom he seeth, how can he love God, Whom he seeth not?" Whence it seems to follow that | |
| 10382 the more a thing is visible the more lovable it is, since loving begins with seeing, according to Ethic. ix, 5,12. Now God | |
| 10383 is less visible than our neighbor. Therefore He is less lovable, out of charity, than our | |
| 10384 neighbor. | |
| 10385 </p> | |
| 10386 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p3"> | |
| 10387 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, likeness causes love, according to | |
| 10388 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.13.19" target="asv"> Ecclus. 13:19</a>: "Every beast loveth its like." Now man bears more likeness to his neighbor than to God. Therefore man loves his neighbor, | |
| 10389 out of charity, more than he loves God. | |
| 10390 </p> | |
| 10391 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p4"> | |
| 10392 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what charity loves in a neighbor, is God, according to Augustine (De Doctr. Christ. i, 22,27). Now God is not greater | |
| 10393 in Himself than He is in our neighbor. Therefore He is not more to be loved in Himself than in our neighbor. Therefore we | |
| 10394 ought not to love God more than our neighbor. | |
| 10395 </p> | |
| 10396 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p5"> | |
| 10397 <b>On the contrary,</b> A thing ought to be loved more, if others ought to be hated on its account. Now we ought to hate our neighbor for God's sake, | |
| 10398 if, to wit, he leads us astray from God, according to | |
| 10399 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.26" target="asv"> Lk. 14:26</a>: "If any man come to Me and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, end children, and brethren, and sisters . . . he cannot | |
| 10400 be My disciple." Therefore we ought to love God, out of charity, more than our neighbor. | |
| 10401 </p> | |
| 10402 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p6"> | |
| 10403 <b>I answer that,</b> Each kind of friendship regards chiefly the subject in which we chiefly find the good on the fellowship of which that friendship | |
| 10404 is based: thus civil friendship regards chiefly the ruler of the state, on whom the entire common good of the state depends; | |
| 10405 hence to him before all, the citizens owe fidelity and obedience. Now the friendship of charity is based on the fellowship | |
| 10406 of happiness, which consists essentially in God, as the First Principle, whence it | |
| 10407 flows to all who are capable of happiness. | |
| 10408 </p> | |
| 10409 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p7"> Therefore God ought to be loved chiefly and before all out of charity: for He is loved as the cause of happiness, whereas | |
| 10410 our neighbor is loved as receiving together with us a share of happiness from Him. | |
| 10411 </p> | |
| 10412 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p8"> | |
| 10413 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A thing is a cause of love in two ways: first, as being the reason for loving. In this way good is the cause of love, since | |
| 10414 each thing is loved according to its measure of goodness. Secondly, a thing causes love, as being a way to acquire love. It | |
| 10415 is in this way that seeing is the cause of loving, not as though a thing were lovable according as it is visible, but because | |
| 10416 by seeing a thing we are led to love it. Hence it does not follow that what is | |
| 10417 more visible is more lovable, but that as an object of love we meet with it before others: and that is the sense of the Apostle's | |
| 10418 argument. For, since our neighbor is more visible to us, he is the first lovable object we meet with, because "the soul learns, | |
| 10419 from those things it knows, to love what it knows not," as Gregory says in a homily (In Evang. xi). Hence it can be argued | |
| 10420 that, if any man loves not his neighbor, neither does he love God, not because his neighbor is more lovable, but | |
| 10421 because he is the first thing to demand our love: and God is more lovable by reason of His greater goodness. | |
| 10422 </p> | |
| 10423 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p9"> | |
| 10424 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The likeness we have to God precedes and causes the likeness we have to our neighbor: because from the very fact that we | |
| 10425 share along with our neighbor in something received from God, we become like to our neighbor. Hence by reason of this likeness | |
| 10426 we ought to love God more than we love our neighbor. | |
| 10427 </p> | |
| 10428 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p10"> | |
| 10429 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Considered in His substance, God is equally in all, in whomsoever He may be, for He is not lessened by being in anything. | |
| 10430 And yet our neighbor does not possess God's goodness equally with God, for God has it essentially, and our neighbor by participation. | |
| 10431 </p> | |
| 10432 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 10433 <p id="SS_Q26_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 10434 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html"></a> | |
| 10435 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A3.html"></a> | |
| 10436 </div> | |
| 10437 <div id="SS_Q26_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 10438 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html"></a> | |
| 10439 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A4.html"></a> | |
| 10440 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A3-p0.1">Whether out of charity, man is bound to love God more than himself?</h4> | |
| 10441 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 10442 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p2"> | |
| 10443 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man is not bound, out of charity, to love God more than himself. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, | |
| 10444 8) that "a man's friendly relations with others arise from his friendly relations with himself." Now the cause is stronger | |
| 10445 than its effect. Therefore man's friendship towards himself is greater than his friendship for anyone else. Therefore he ought | |
| 10446 to love himself more than God. | |
| 10447 </p> | |
| 10448 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p3"> | |
| 10449 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, one loves a thing in so far as it is one's own good. Now the reason for loving a thing is more loved than the thing | |
| 10450 itself which is loved for that reason, even as the principles which are the reason for knowing a thing are more known. Therefore | |
| 10451 man loves himself more than any other good loved by him. Therefore he does not love God more than himself. | |
| 10452 </p> | |
| 10453 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p4"> | |
| 10454 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a man loves God as much as he loves to enjoy God. But a man loves himself as much as he loves to enjoy God; since | |
| 10455 this is the highest good a man can wish for himself. Therefore man is not bound, out of charity, to love God more than himself. | |
| 10456 </p> | |
| 10457 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p5"> | |
| 10458 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 22): "If thou oughtest to love thyself, not for thy own sake, but for the sake of Him | |
| 10459 in Whom is the rightest end of thy love, let no other man take offense if him also thou lovest for God's sake." Now "the cause | |
| 10460 of a thing being such is yet more so." Therefore man ought to love God more than himself. | |
| 10461 </p> | |
| 10462 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p6"> | |
| 10463 <b>I answer that,</b> The good we receive from God is twofold, the good of nature, and the good of grace. Now the fellowship of natural goods bestowed | |
| 10464 on us by God is the foundation of natural love, in virtue of which not only man, so long as his nature remains unimpaired, | |
| 10465 loves God above all things and more than himself, but also every single creature, each in its own way, i.e. either by an intellectual, | |
| 10466 or by a rational, or by an animal, or at least by a natural love, as stones | |
| 10467 do, for instance, and other things bereft of knowledge, because each part naturally loves the common good of the whole more | |
| 10468 than its own particular good. This is evidenced by its operation, since the principal inclination of each part is towards | |
| 10469 common action conducive to the good of the whole. It may also be seen in civic virtues whereby sometimes the citizens suffer | |
| 10470 damage even to their own property and persons for the sake of the common good. Wherefore much more is this realized with regard | |
| 10471 to the friendship of charity which is based on the fellowship of the gifts of grace. | |
| 10472 </p> | |
| 10473 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p7"> Therefore man ought, out of charity, to love God, Who is the common good of all, more than himself: since happiness is in | |
| 10474 God as in the universal and fountain principle of all who are able to have a share of that happiness. | |
| 10475 </p> | |
| 10476 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p8"> | |
| 10477 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher is speaking of friendly relations towards another person in whom the good, which is the object of friendship, | |
| 10478 resides in some restricted way; and not of friendly relations with another in whom the aforesaid good resides in totality. | |
| 10479 </p> | |
| 10480 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p9"> | |
| 10481 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The part does indeed love the good of the whole, as becomes a part, not however so as to refer the good of the whole to itself, | |
| 10482 but rather itself to the good of the whole. | |
| 10483 </p> | |
| 10484 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p10"> | |
| 10485 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That a man wishes to enjoy God pertains to that love of God which is love of concupiscence. Now we love God with the love | |
| 10486 of friendship more than with the love of concupiscence, because the Divine good is greater in itself, than our share of good | |
| 10487 in enjoying Him. Hence, out of charity, man simply loves God more than himself. | |
| 10488 </p> | |
| 10489 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 10490 <p id="SS_Q26_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 10491 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html"></a> | |
| 10492 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A4.html"></a> | |
| 10493 </div> | |
| 10494 <div id="SS_Q26_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 10495 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A3.html"></a> | |
| 10496 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A5.html"></a> | |
| 10497 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A4-p0.1">Whether our of charity, man ought to love himself more than his neighbor?</h4> | |
| 10498 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 10499 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p2"> | |
| 10500 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man ought not, out of charity, to love himself more than his neighbor. For the principal object of charity | |
| 10501 is God, as stated above | |
| 10502 <a id="SS_Q26_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html">(A[2];</a> Q[25], AA[1],12). Now sometimes our neighbor is more closely united to God than we are ourselves. Therefore we ought to love | |
| 10503 such a one more than ourselves. | |
| 10504 </p> | |
| 10505 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p3"> | |
| 10506 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the more we love a person, the more we avoid injuring him. Now a man, out of charity, submits to injury for his | |
| 10507 neighbor's sake, according to | |
| 10508 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.12.26" target="asv"> Prov. 12:26</a>: "He that neglecteth a loss for the sake of a friend, is just." Therefore a man ought, out of charity, to love his neighbor | |
| 10509 more than himself. | |
| 10510 </p> | |
| 10511 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p4"> | |
| 10512 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 10513 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.5" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:5</a>) "charity seeketh not its own." Now the thing we love most is the one whose good we seek most. Therefore a man does not, | |
| 10514 out of charity, love himself more than his neighbor. | |
| 10515 </p> | |
| 10516 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p5"> | |
| 10517 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 10518 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.19.18" target="asv">Lev. 19:18, </a> | |
| 10519 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.39" target="asv">Mat. 22:39</a>): "Thou shalt love thy neighbor ( | |
| 10520 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A4-p5.3" href="./asv.html#Lev.19.18" target="asv">Lev. 19:18</a>: 'friend') as thyself." Whence it seems to follow that man's love for himself is the model of his love for another. But the | |
| 10521 model exceeds the copy. Therefore, out of charity, a man ought to love himself more than his neighbor. | |
| 10522 </p> | |
| 10523 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p6"> | |
| 10524 <b>I answer that,</b> There are two things in man, his spiritual nature and his corporeal nature. And a man is said to love himself by reason of | |
| 10525 his loving himself with regard to his spiritual nature, as stated above ( | |
| 10526 <a id="SS_Q26_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A7.html">Q[25], A[7]</a>): so that accordingly, a man ought, out of charity, to love himself more than he loves any other person. | |
| 10527 </p> | |
| 10528 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p7"> This is evident from the very reason for loving: since, as stated above ( | |
| 10529 <a id="SS_Q26_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html">Q[25], AA[1]</a>,12), God is loved as the principle of good, on which the love of charity is founded; while man, out of charity, loves himself | |
| 10530 by reason of his being a partaker of the aforesaid good, and loves his neighbor by reason of his fellowship in that good. | |
| 10531 Now fellowship is a reason for love according to a certain union in relation to God. Wherefore just as unity surpasses | |
| 10532 union, the fact that man himself has a share of the Divine good, is a more potent reason for loving than that another should | |
| 10533 be a partner with him in that share. Therefore man, out of charity, ought to love himself more than his neighbor: in sign | |
| 10534 whereof, a man ought not to give way to any evil of sin, which counteracts his share of happiness, not even that he may free | |
| 10535 his neighbor from sin. | |
| 10536 </p> | |
| 10537 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p8"> | |
| 10538 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The love of charity takes its quantity not only from its object which is God, but also from the lover, who is the man that | |
| 10539 has charity, even as the quantity of any action depends in some way on the subject. Wherefore, though a better neighbor is | |
| 10540 nearer to God, yet because he is not as near to the man who has charity, as this man is to himself, it does not follow that | |
| 10541 a man is bound to love his neighbor more than himself. | |
| 10542 </p> | |
| 10543 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p9"> | |
| 10544 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A man ought to bear bodily injury for his friend's sake, and precisely in so doing he loves himself more as regards his spiritual | |
| 10545 mind, because it pertains to the perfection of virtue, which is a good of the mind. In spiritual matters, however, man ought | |
| 10546 not to suffer injury by sinning, in order to free his neighbor from sin, as stated above. | |
| 10547 </p> | |
| 10548 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p10"> | |
| 10549 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says in his Rule (Ep. ccxi), the saying, "'charity seeks not her own,' means that it prefers the common to the | |
| 10550 private good." Now the common good is always more lovable to the individual than his private good, even as the good of the | |
| 10551 whole is more lovable to the part, than the latter's own partial good, as stated above | |
| 10552 <a id="SS_Q26_A4-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. | |
| 10553 </p> | |
| 10554 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 10555 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 10556 <p id="SS_Q26_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 10557 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A3.html"></a> | |
| 10558 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A5.html"></a> | |
| 10559 </div> | |
| 10560 <div id="SS_Q26_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 10561 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A4.html"></a> | |
| 10562 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A6.html"></a> | |
| 10563 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A5-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love his neighbor more than his own body?</h4> | |
| 10564 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 10565 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p2"> | |
| 10566 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man is not bound to love his neighbor more than his own body. For his neighbor includes his neighbor's | |
| 10567 body. If therefore a man ought to love his neighbor more than his own body, it follows that he ought to love his neighbor's | |
| 10568 body more than his own. | |
| 10569 </p> | |
| 10570 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p3"> | |
| 10571 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a man ought to love his own soul more than his neighbor's, as stated above | |
| 10572 <a id="SS_Q26_A5-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Now a man's own body is nearer to his soul than his neighbor. Therefore we ought to love our body more than our neighbor. | |
| 10573 </p> | |
| 10574 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p4"> | |
| 10575 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a man imperils that which he loves less for the sake of what he loves more. Now every man is not bound to imperil | |
| 10576 his own body for his neighbor's safety: this belongs to the perfect, according to | |
| 10577 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.13" target="asv">Jn. 15:13</a>: "Greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends." Therefore a man is not bound, out of | |
| 10578 charity, to love his neighbor more than his own body. | |
| 10579 </p> | |
| 10580 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p5"> | |
| 10581 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 27) that "we ought to love our neighbor more than our own body." | |
| 10582 </p> | |
| 10583 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p6"> | |
| 10584 <b>I answer that,</b> Out of charity we ought to love more that which has more fully the reason for being loved out of charity, as stated above | |
| 10585 | |
| 10586 <a id="SS_Q26_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html">(A[2];</a> Q[25], A[12]). Now fellowship in the full participation of happiness which is the reason for loving one's neighbor, is a | |
| 10587 greater reason for loving, than the participation of happiness by way of overflow, which is the reason for loving one's own | |
| 10588 body. Therefore, as regards the welfare of the soul we ought to | |
| 10589 love our neighbor more than our own body. | |
| 10590 </p> | |
| 10591 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p7"> | |
| 10592 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. ix, 8) a thing seems to be that which is predominant in it: so that when we say that | |
| 10593 we ought to love our neighbor more than our own body, this refers to his soul, which is his predominant part. | |
| 10594 </p> | |
| 10595 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p8"> | |
| 10596 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Our body is nearer to our soul than our neighbor, as regards the constitution of our own nature: but as regards the participation | |
| 10597 of happiness, our neighbor's soul is more closely associated with our own soul, than even our own body is. | |
| 10598 </p> | |
| 10599 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p9"> | |
| 10600 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Every man is immediately concerned with the care of his own body, but not with his neighbor's welfare, except perhaps in | |
| 10601 cases of urgency: wherefore charity does not necessarily require a man to imperil his own body for his neighbor's welfare, | |
| 10602 except in a case where he is under obligation to do so and if a man of his own accord offer himself for that purpose, this | |
| 10603 belongs to the perfection of charity. | |
| 10604 </p> | |
| 10605 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 10606 <p id="SS_Q26_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 10607 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A4.html"></a> | |
| 10608 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A6.html"></a> | |
| 10609 </div> | |
| 10610 <div id="SS_Q26_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 10611 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A5.html"></a> | |
| 10612 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10613 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A6-p0.1">Whether we ought to love one neighbor more than another? </h4> | |
| 10614 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 10615 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p2"> | |
| 10616 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought not to love one neighbor more than another. For Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 28): "One | |
| 10617 ought to love all men equally. Since, however, one cannot do good to all, we ought to consider those chiefly who by reason | |
| 10618 of place, time or any other circumstance, by a kind of chance, are more closely united to us." Therefore one neighbor ought | |
| 10619 not to be loved more than another. | |
| 10620 </p> | |
| 10621 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p3"> | |
| 10622 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, where there is one and the same reason for loving several, there should be no inequality of love. Now there is one | |
| 10623 and the same reason for loving all one's neighbors, which reason is God, as Augustine states (De Doctr. Christ. i, 27). Therefore | |
| 10624 we ought to love all our neighbors equally. | |
| 10625 </p> | |
| 10626 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p4"> | |
| 10627 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to love a man is to wish him good things, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, 4). Now to all our neighbors we wish | |
| 10628 an equal good, viz. everlasting life. Therefore we ought to love all our neighbors equally. | |
| 10629 </p> | |
| 10630 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p5"> | |
| 10631 <b>On the contrary,</b> One's obligation to love a person is proportionate to the gravity of the sin one commits in acting against that love. Now | |
| 10632 it is a more grievous sin to act against the love of certain neighbors, than against the love of others. Hence the commandment | |
| 10633 ( | |
| 10634 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.10.9" target="asv">Lev. 10:9</a>), "He that curseth his father or mother, dying let him die," which does not apply to those who cursed others than the above. | |
| 10635 Therefore we ought to love some neighbors more than | |
| 10636 others. | |
| 10637 </p> | |
| 10638 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p6"> | |
| 10639 <b>I answer that,</b> There have been two opinions on this question: for some have said that we ought, out of charity, to love all our neighbors | |
| 10640 equally, as regards our affection, but not as regards the outward effect. They held that the order of love is to be understood | |
| 10641 as applying to outward favors, which we ought to confer on those who are connected with us in preference to those who are | |
| 10642 unconnected, and not to the inward affection, which ought to be given equally to all | |
| 10643 including our enemies. | |
| 10644 </p> | |
| 10645 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p7"> But this is unreasonable. For the affection of charity, which is the inclination of grace, is not less orderly than the natural | |
| 10646 appetite, which is the inclination of nature, for both inclinations flow from Divine wisdom. Now we observe in the physical | |
| 10647 order that the natural inclination in each thing is proportionate to the act or movement that is becoming to the nature of | |
| 10648 that thing: thus in earth the inclination of gravity is greater than in water, because it is becoming to | |
| 10649 earth to be beneath water. Consequently the inclination also of grace which is the effect of charity, must needs be proportionate | |
| 10650 to those actions which have to be performed outwardly, so that, to wit, the affection of our charity be more intense towards | |
| 10651 those to whom we ought to behave with greater kindness. | |
| 10652 </p> | |
| 10653 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p8"> We must, therefore, say that, even as regards the affection we ought to love one neighbor more than another. The reason is | |
| 10654 that, since the principle of love is God, and the person who loves, it must needs be that the affection of love increases | |
| 10655 in proportion to the nearness to one or the other of those principles. For as we stated above | |
| 10656 <a id="SS_Q26_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, wherever we find a principle, order depends on relation to that principle. | |
| 10657 </p> | |
| 10658 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p9"> | |
| 10659 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Love can be unequal in two ways: first on the part of the good we wish our friend. In this respect we love all men equally | |
| 10660 out of charity: because we wish them all one same generic good, namely everlasting happiness. Secondly love is said to be | |
| 10661 greater through its action being more intense: and in this way we ought not to love all equally. | |
| 10662 </p> | |
| 10663 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p10"> Or we may reply that we have unequal love for certain persons in two ways: first, through our loving some and not loving | |
| 10664 others. As regards beneficence we are bound to observe this inequality, because we cannot do good to all: but as regards benevolence, | |
| 10665 love ought not to be thus unequal. The other inequality arises from our loving some more than others: and Augustine does not | |
| 10666 mean to exclude the latter inequality, but the former, as is evident from what he says of | |
| 10667 beneficence. | |
| 10668 </p> | |
| 10669 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p11"> | |
| 10670 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Our neighbors are not all equally related to God; some are nearer to Him, by reason of their greater goodness, and those | |
| 10671 we ought, out of charity, to love more than those who are not so near to Him. | |
| 10672 </p> | |
| 10673 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p12"> | |
| 10674 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument considers the quantity of love on the part of the good which we wish our friends. | |
| 10675 </p> | |
| 10676 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p13"></p> | |
| 10677 <p id="SS_Q26_A6-p14"></p> | |
| 10678 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A5.html"></a> | |
| 10679 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10680 </div> | |
| 10681 <div id="SS_Q26_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 10682 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A6.html"></a> | |
| 10683 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10684 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A7-p0.1">Whether we ought to love those who are better more those who are more closely united us?</h4> | |
| 10685 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 10686 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p2"> | |
| 10687 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought to love those who are better more than those who are more closely united to us. For that which | |
| 10688 is in no way hateful seems more lovable than that which is hateful for some reason: just as a thing is all the whiter for | |
| 10689 having less black mixed with it. Now those who are connected with us are hateful for some reason, according to | |
| 10690 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.26" target="asv"> Lk. 14:26</a>: "If any man come to Me, and hate not his father," etc. On the other hand | |
| 10691 good men are not hateful for any reason. Therefore it seems that we ought to love those who are better more than those who | |
| 10692 are more closely connected with us. | |
| 10693 </p> | |
| 10694 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p3"> | |
| 10695 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, by charity above all, man is likened to God. But God loves more the better man. Therefore man also, out of charity, | |
| 10696 ought to love the better man more than one who is more closely united to him. | |
| 10697 </p> | |
| 10698 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p4"> | |
| 10699 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in every friendship that ought to be loved most which has most to do with the foundation of that friendship: for, | |
| 10700 by natural friendship we love most those who are connected with us by nature, our parents for instance, or our children. Now | |
| 10701 the friendship of charity is founded upon the fellowship of happiness, which has more to do with better men than with those | |
| 10702 who are more closely united to us. Therefore, out of charity, we ought to love better men | |
| 10703 more than those who are more closely connected with us. | |
| 10704 </p> | |
| 10705 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p5"> | |
| 10706 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 10707 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:8</a>): "If any man have not care of his own and especially of those of his house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than | |
| 10708 an infidel." Now the inward affection of charity ought to correspond to the outward effect. Therefore charity regards those | |
| 10709 who are nearer to us before those who are better. | |
| 10710 </p> | |
| 10711 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p6"> | |
| 10712 <b>I answer that,</b> Every act should be proportionate both to its object and to the agent. But from its object it takes its species, while, from | |
| 10713 the power of the agent it takes the mode of its intensity: thus movement has its species from the term to which it tends, | |
| 10714 while the intensity of its speed arises from the disposition of the thing moved and the power of the mover. Accordingly love | |
| 10715 takes its species from its object, but its intensity is due to the lover. | |
| 10716 </p> | |
| 10717 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p7"> Now the object of charity's love is God, and man is the lover. Therefore the specific diversity of the love which is in accordance | |
| 10718 with charity, as regards the love of our neighbor, depends on his relation to God, so that, out of charity, we should wish | |
| 10719 a greater good to one who is nearer to God; for though the good which charity wishes to all, viz. everlasting happiness, is | |
| 10720 one in itself, yet it has various degrees according to various shares of happiness, and it belongs to | |
| 10721 charity to wish God's justice to be maintained, in accordance with which better men have a fuller share of happiness. And | |
| 10722 this regards the species of love; for there are different species of love according to the different goods that we wish for | |
| 10723 those whom we love. | |
| 10724 </p> | |
| 10725 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p8"> On the other hand, the intensity of love is measured with regard to the man who loves, and accordingly man loves those who | |
| 10726 are more closely united to him, with more intense affection as to the good he wishes for them, than he loves those who are | |
| 10727 better as to the greater good he wishes for them. | |
| 10728 </p> | |
| 10729 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p9"> Again a further difference must be observed here: for some neighbors are connected with us by their natural origin, a connection | |
| 10730 which cannot be severed, since that origin makes them to be what they are. But the goodness of virtue, wherein some are close | |
| 10731 to God, can come and go, increase and decrease, as was shown above ( | |
| 10732 <a id="SS_Q26_A7-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A4.html">Q[24], AA[4]</a>,10,11). Hence it is possible for one, out of charity, to wish this man who is more closely united to one, to be better | |
| 10733 than another, and so reach a higher degree of happiness. | |
| 10734 </p> | |
| 10735 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p10"> Moreover there is yet another reason for which, out of charity, we love more those who are more nearly connected with us, | |
| 10736 since we love them in more ways. For, towards those who are not connected with us we have no other friendship than charity, | |
| 10737 whereas for those who are connected with us, we have certain other friendships, according to the way in which they are connected. | |
| 10738 Now since the good on which every other friendship of the virtuous is based, is directed, as to its end, to | |
| 10739 the good on which charity is based, it follows that charity commands each act of another friendship, even as the art which | |
| 10740 is about the end commands the art which is about the means. Consequently this very act of loving someone because he is akin | |
| 10741 or connected with us, or because he is a fellow-countryman or for any like reason that is referable to the end of charity, | |
| 10742 can be commanded by charity, so that, out of charity both eliciting and commanding, we love in more ways those who are more | |
| 10743 nearly connected with us. | |
| 10744 </p> | |
| 10745 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p11"> | |
| 10746 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We are commanded to hate, in our kindred, not their kinship, but only the fact of their being an obstacle between us and | |
| 10747 God. In this respect they are not akin but hostile to us, according to | |
| 10748 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A7-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Mic.7.6" target="asv">Micah 7:6</a>: "A men's enemies are they of his own household." | |
| 10749 </p> | |
| 10750 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p12"> | |
| 10751 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Charity conforms man to God proportionately, by making man comport himself towards what is his, as God does towards what | |
| 10752 is His. For we may, out of charity, will certain things as becoming to us which God does not will, because it becomes Him | |
| 10753 not to will them, as stated above ( | |
| 10754 <a id="SS_Q26_A7-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A10.html">FS, Q[19], A[10]</a>), when we were treating of the goodness of the will. | |
| 10755 </p> | |
| 10756 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p13"> | |
| 10757 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity elicits the act of love not only as regards the object, but also as regards the lover, as stated above. The result | |
| 10758 is that the man who is more nearly united to us is more loved. | |
| 10759 </p> | |
| 10760 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p14"></p> | |
| 10761 <p id="SS_Q26_A7-p15"></p> | |
| 10762 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A6.html"></a> | |
| 10763 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10764 </div> | |
| 10765 <div id="SS_Q26_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 10766 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10767 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10768 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A8-p0.1">Whether we ought to love more those who are connected with us by ties of blood?</h4> | |
| 10769 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 10770 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p2"> | |
| 10771 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought not to love more those who are more closely united to us by ties of blood. For it is written | |
| 10772 ( | |
| 10773 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.18.24" target="asv">Prov. 18:24</a>): "A man amiable in society, shall be more friendly than a brother." Again, Valerius Maximus says (Fact. et Dict. Memor. | |
| 10774 iv 7): "The ties of friendship are most strong and in no way yield to the ties of blood." Moreover it is quite certain and | |
| 10775 undeniable, that as to the latter, the lot of birth is | |
| 10776 fortuitous, whereas we contract the former by an untrammelled will, and a solid pledge. Therefore we ought not to love more | |
| 10777 than others those who are united to us by ties of blood. | |
| 10778 </p> | |
| 10779 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p3"> | |
| 10780 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Ambrose says (De Officiis i, 7): "I love not less you whom I have begotten in the Gospel, than if I had begotten | |
| 10781 you in wedlock, for nature is no more eager to love than grace." Surely we ought to love those whom we expect to be with us | |
| 10782 for ever more than those who will be with us only in this world. Therefore we should not love our kindred more than those | |
| 10783 who are otherwise connected with us. | |
| 10784 </p> | |
| 10785 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p4"> | |
| 10786 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "Love is proved by deeds," as Gregory states (Hom. in Evang. xxx). Now we are bound to do acts of love to others | |
| 10787 than our kindred: thus in the army a man must obey his officer rather than his father. Therefore we are not bound to love | |
| 10788 our kindred most of all. | |
| 10789 </p> | |
| 10790 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p5"> | |
| 10791 <b>On the contrary,</b> The commandments of the decalogue contain a special precept about the honor due to our parents ( | |
| 10792 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.12" target="asv">Ex. 20:12</a>). Therefore we ought to love more specially those who are united to us by ties of blood. | |
| 10793 </p> | |
| 10794 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p6"> | |
| 10795 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 10796 <a id="SS_Q26_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html">(A[7])</a>, we ought out of charity to love those who are more closely united to us more, both because our love for them is more intense, | |
| 10797 and because there are more reasons for loving them. Now intensity of love arises from the union of lover and beloved: and | |
| 10798 therefore we should measure the love of different persons according to the different kinds of union, so that a man is more | |
| 10799 loved in matters touching that particular | |
| 10800 union in respect of which he is loved. And, again, in comparing love to love we should compare one union with another. Accordingly | |
| 10801 we must say that friendship among blood relations is based upon their connection by natural origin, the friendship of fellow-citizens | |
| 10802 on their civic fellowship, and the friendship of those who are fighting side by side on the comradeship of battle. Wherefore | |
| 10803 in matters pertaining to nature we should love our kindred most, in matters concerning relations between | |
| 10804 citizens, we should prefer our fellow-citizens, and on the battlefield our fellow-soldiers. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. | |
| 10805 ix, 2) that "it is our duty to render to each class of people such respect as is natural and appropriate. This is in fact | |
| 10806 the principle upon which we seem to act, for we invite our relations to a wedding . . . It would seem to be a special duty | |
| 10807 to afford our parents the means of living . . . and to honor them." | |
| 10808 </p> | |
| 10809 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p7"> The same applies to other kinds of friendship.</p> | |
| 10810 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p8"> If however we compare union with union, it is evident that the union arising from natural origin is prior to, and more stable | |
| 10811 than, all others, because it is something affecting the very substance, whereas other unions supervene and may cease altogether. | |
| 10812 Therefore the friendship of kindred is more stable, while other friendships may be stronger in respect of that which is proper | |
| 10813 to each of them. | |
| 10814 </p> | |
| 10815 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p9"> | |
| 10816 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In as much as the friendship of comrades originates through their own choice, love of this kind takes precedence of the love | |
| 10817 of kindred in matters where we are free to do as we choose, for instance in matters of action. Yet the friendship of kindred | |
| 10818 is more stable, since it is more natural, and preponderates over others in matters touching nature: consequently we are more | |
| 10819 beholden to them in the providing of necessaries. | |
| 10820 </p> | |
| 10821 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p10"> | |
| 10822 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Ambrose is speaking of love with regard to favors respecting the fellowship of grace, namely, moral instruction. For in this | |
| 10823 matter, a man ought to provide for his spiritual children whom he has begotten spiritually, more than for the sons of his | |
| 10824 body, whom he is bound to support in bodily sustenance. | |
| 10825 </p> | |
| 10826 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p11"> | |
| 10827 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The fact that in the battle a man obeys his officer rather than his father proves, that he loves his father less, not simply | |
| 10828 relatively, i.e. as regards the love which is based on fellowship in battle. | |
| 10829 </p> | |
| 10830 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 10831 <p id="SS_Q26_A8-p13"></p> | |
| 10832 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html"></a> | |
| 10833 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10834 </div> | |
| 10835 <div id="SS_Q26_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 10836 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10837 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10838 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A9-p0.1">Whether a man ought, out of charity, to love his children more than his father?</h4> | |
| 10839 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 10840 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p2"> | |
| 10841 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that a man ought, out of charity, to love his children more than his father. For we ought to love those more to | |
| 10842 whom we are more bound to do good. Now we are more bound to do good to our children than to our parents, since the Apostle | |
| 10843 says ( | |
| 10844 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.14" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:14</a>): "Neither ought the children to lay up for the parents, but the parents for the children." Therefore a man ought to love | |
| 10845 his children more than his parents. | |
| 10846 </p> | |
| 10847 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p3"> | |
| 10848 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, grace perfects nature. But parents naturally love their children more than these love them, as the Philosopher states | |
| 10849 (Ethic. viii, 12). Therefore a man ought to love his children more than his parents. | |
| 10850 </p> | |
| 10851 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p4"> | |
| 10852 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man's affections are conformed to God by charity. But God loves His children more than they love Him. Therefore | |
| 10853 we also ought to love our children more than our parents. | |
| 10854 </p> | |
| 10855 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p5"> | |
| 10856 <b>On the contrary,</b> Ambrose [*Origen, Hom. ii in Cant.] says: "We ought to love God first, then our parents, then our children, and lastly those | |
| 10857 of our household." | |
| 10858 </p> | |
| 10859 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p6"> | |
| 10860 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[4], ad 1; A[7]), the degrees of love may be measured from two standpoints. First, from that of the object. | |
| 10861 In this respect the better a thing is, and the more like to God, the more is it to be loved: and in this way a man ought to | |
| 10862 love his father more than his children, because, to wit, he loves his father as his principle, in which respect he is a more | |
| 10863 exalted good and more like God. | |
| 10864 </p> | |
| 10865 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p7"> Secondly, the degrees of love may be measured from the standpoint of the lover, and in this respect a man loves more that | |
| 10866 which is more closely connected with him, in which way a man's children are more lovable to him than his father, as the Philosopher | |
| 10867 states (Ethic. viii). First, because parents love their children as being part of themselves, whereas the father is not part | |
| 10868 of his son, so that the love of a father for his children, is more like a man's love for himself. | |
| 10869 Secondly, because parents know better that so and so is their child than vice versa. Thirdly, because children are nearer | |
| 10870 to their parents, as being part of them, than their parents are to them to whom they stand in the relation of a principle. | |
| 10871 Fourthly, because parents have loved longer, for the father begins to love his child at once, whereas the child begins to | |
| 10872 love his father after a lapse of time; and the longer love lasts, the stronger it is, according to | |
| 10873 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A9-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.9.14" target="asv"> Ecclus. | |
| 10874 9:14 | |
| 10875 </a>: "Forsake not an old friend, for the new will not be like to him." | |
| 10876 </p> | |
| 10877 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p8"> | |
| 10878 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The debt due to a principle is submission of respect and honor, whereas that due to the effect is one of influence and care. | |
| 10879 Hence the duty of children to their parents consists chiefly in honor: while that of parents to their children is especially | |
| 10880 one of care. | |
| 10881 </p> | |
| 10882 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p9"> | |
| 10883 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is natural for a man as father to love his children more, if we consider them as closely connected with him: but if we | |
| 10884 consider which is the more exalted good, the son naturally loves his father more. | |
| 10885 </p> | |
| 10886 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p10"> | |
| 10887 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 32), God loves us for our good and for His honor. Wherefore since our father is related | |
| 10888 to us as principle, even as God is, it belongs properly to the father to receive honor from his children, and to the children | |
| 10889 to be provided by their parents with what is good for them. Nevertheless in cases of necessity the child is bound out of the | |
| 10890 favors received to provide for his parents before all. | |
| 10891 </p> | |
| 10892 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p11"></p> | |
| 10893 <p id="SS_Q26_A9-p12"></p> | |
| 10894 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A8.html"></a> | |
| 10895 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10896 </div> | |
| 10897 <div id="SS_Q26_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 10898 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10899 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10900 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A10-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love his mother more than his father?</h4> | |
| 10901 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 10902 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p2"> | |
| 10903 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man ought to love his mother more than his father. For, as the Philosopher says (De Gener. Animal. i, | |
| 10904 20), "the female produces the body in generation." Now man receives his soul, not from his father, but from God by creation, | |
| 10905 as stated in the | |
| 10906 <a id="SS_Q26_A10-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html">FP, Q[90], A[2]</a>; Q[118]. Therefore a man receives more from his mother than from his father: and consequently he ought to love her more than | |
| 10907 him. | |
| 10908 </p> | |
| 10909 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p3"> | |
| 10910 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, where greater love is given, greater love is due. Now a mother loves her child more than the father does: for the | |
| 10911 Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, 7) that "mothers have greater love for their children. For the mother labors more in child-bearing, | |
| 10912 and she knows more surely than the father who are her children." | |
| 10913 </p> | |
| 10914 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p4"> | |
| 10915 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, love should be more fond towards those who have labored for us more, according to | |
| 10916 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A10-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.16.6" target="asv"> Rom. 16:6</a>: "Salute Mary, who hath labored much among you." Now the mother labors more than the father in giving birth and education | |
| 10917 to her child; wherefore it is written ( | |
| 10918 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A10-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Sir.7.29" target="asv">Ecclus. 7:29</a>): "Forget not the groanings of thy mother." Therefore a man ought to love his mother more than his father. | |
| 10919 </p> | |
| 10920 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p5"> | |
| 10921 <b>On the contrary,</b> Jerome says on | |
| 10922 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.44.25" target="asv"> Ezech. 44:25 </a>that "man ought to love God the Father of all, and then his own father," and mentions the mother afterwards. | |
| 10923 </p> | |
| 10924 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p6"> | |
| 10925 <b>I answer that,</b> In making such comparisons as this, we must take the answer in the strict sense, so that the present question is whether | |
| 10926 the father as father, ought to be loved more than the mother as mother. The reason is that virtue and vice may make such a | |
| 10927 difference in such like matters, that friendship may be diminished or destroyed, as the Philosopher remarks (Ethic. viii, | |
| 10928 7). Hence Ambrose [*Origen, Hom. ii in Cant.] says: "Good servants should be preferred to wicked | |
| 10929 children." | |
| 10930 </p> | |
| 10931 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p7"> Strictly speaking, however, the father should be loved more than the mother. For father and mother are loved as principles | |
| 10932 of our natural origin. Now the father is principle in a more excellent way than the mother, because he is the active principle, | |
| 10933 while the mother is a passive and material principle. Consequently, strictly speaking, the father is to be loved more. | |
| 10934 </p> | |
| 10935 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p8"> | |
| 10936 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the begetting of man, the mother supplies the formless matter of the body; and the latter receives its form through the | |
| 10937 formative power that is in the semen of the father. And though this power cannot create the rational soul, yet it disposes | |
| 10938 the matter of the body to receive that form. | |
| 10939 </p> | |
| 10940 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p9"> | |
| 10941 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This applies to another kind of love. For the friendship between lover and lover differs specifically from the friendship | |
| 10942 between child and parent: while the friendship we are speaking of here, is that which a man owes his father and mother through | |
| 10943 being begotten of them. | |
| 10944 </p> | |
| 10945 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p10"> The Reply to the Third Objection is evident.</p> | |
| 10946 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p11"></p> | |
| 10947 <p id="SS_Q26_A10-p12"></p> | |
| 10948 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html"></a> | |
| 10949 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A11.html"></a> | |
| 10950 </div> | |
| 10951 <div id="SS_Q26_A11" class="div4"> | |
| 10952 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A10.html"></a> | |
| 10953 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A12.html"></a> | |
| 10954 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A11-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love his wife more than his father and mother?</h4> | |
| 10955 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p1"></p> | |
| 10956 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p2"> | |
| 10957 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man ought to love his wife more than his father and mother. For no man leaves a thing for another unless | |
| 10958 he love the latter more. Now it is written ( | |
| 10959 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A11-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.2.24" target="asv">Gn. 2:24</a>) that "a man shell leave father and mother" on account of his wife. Therefore a man ought to love his wife more than his | |
| 10960 father and mother. | |
| 10961 </p> | |
| 10962 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p3"> | |
| 10963 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 10964 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A11-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.5.33" target="asv">Eph. 5:33</a>) that a husband should "love his wife as himself." Now a man ought to love himself more than his parents. Therefore he ought | |
| 10965 to love his wife also more than his parents. | |
| 10966 </p> | |
| 10967 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p4"> | |
| 10968 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, love should be greater where there are more reasons for loving. Now there are more reasons for love in the friendship | |
| 10969 of a man towards his wife. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. viii, 12) that "in this friendship there are the motives of utility, | |
| 10970 pleasure, and also of virtue, if husband and wife are virtuous." Therefore a man's love for his wife ought to be greater than | |
| 10971 his love for his parents. | |
| 10972 </p> | |
| 10973 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p5"> | |
| 10974 <b>On the contrary,</b> According to | |
| 10975 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A11-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.5.28" target="asv"> Eph. 5:28, </a> "men ought to love their wives as their own bodies." Now a man ought to love his body less than his neighbor, as stated above | |
| 10976 | |
| 10977 <a id="SS_Q26_A11-p5.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A5.html">(A[5])</a>: and among his neighbors he should love his parents most. Therefore he ought to love his parents more than his wife. | |
| 10978 </p> | |
| 10979 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p6"> | |
| 10980 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 10981 <a id="SS_Q26_A11-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html">(A[9])</a>, the degrees of love may be taken from the good (which is loved), or from the union between those who love. On the part of | |
| 10982 the good which is the object loved, a man should love his parents more than his wife, because he loves them as his principles | |
| 10983 and considered as a more exalted good. | |
| 10984 </p> | |
| 10985 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p7"> But on the part of the union, the wife ought to be loved more, because she is united with her husband, as one flesh, according | |
| 10986 to | |
| 10987 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A11-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.19.6" target="asv"> Mat. 19:6</a>: "Therefore now they are not two, but one flesh." Consequently a man loves his wife more intensely, but his parents with | |
| 10988 greater reverence. | |
| 10989 </p> | |
| 10990 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p8"> | |
| 10991 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A man does not in all respects leave his father and mother for the sake of his wife: for in certain cases a man ought to | |
| 10992 succor his parents rather than his wife. He does however leave all his kinsfolk, and cleaves to his wife as regards the union | |
| 10993 of carnal connection and co-habitation. | |
| 10994 </p> | |
| 10995 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p9"> | |
| 10996 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The words of the Apostle do not mean that a man ought to love his wife equally with himself, but that a man's love for himself | |
| 10997 is the reason for his love of his wife, since she is one with him. | |
| 10998 </p> | |
| 10999 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p10"> | |
| 11000 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There are also several reasons for a man's love for his father; and these, in a certain respect, namely, as regards good, | |
| 11001 are more weighty than those for which a man loves his wife; although the latter outweigh the former as regards the closeness | |
| 11002 of the union. | |
| 11003 </p> | |
| 11004 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p11"> As to the argument in the contrary sense, it must be observed that in the words quoted, the particle "as" denotes not equality | |
| 11005 of love but the motive of love. For the principal reason why a man loves his wife is her being united to him in the flesh. | |
| 11006 </p> | |
| 11007 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p12"></p> | |
| 11008 <p id="SS_Q26_A11-p13"></p> | |
| 11009 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A10.html"></a> | |
| 11010 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A12.html"></a> | |
| 11011 </div> | |
| 11012 <div id="SS_Q26_A12" class="div4"> | |
| 11013 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A11.html"></a> | |
| 11014 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A13.html"></a> | |
| 11015 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A12-p0.1">Whether a man ought to love more his benefactor than one he has benefited?</h4> | |
| 11016 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p1"></p> | |
| 11017 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p2"> | |
| 11018 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a man ought to love his benefactor more than one he has benefited. For Augustine says (De Catech. Rud. | |
| 11019 iv): "Nothing will incite another more to love you than that you love him first: for he must have a hard heart indeed, who | |
| 11020 not only refuses to love, but declines to return love already given." Now a man's benefactor forestalls him in the kindly | |
| 11021 deeds of charity. Therefore we ought to love our benefactors above all. | |
| 11022 </p> | |
| 11023 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p3"> | |
| 11024 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the more grievously we sin by ceasing to love a man or by working against him, the more ought we to love him. Now | |
| 11025 it is a more grievous sin to cease loving a benefactor or to work against him, than to cease loving one to whom one has hitherto | |
| 11026 done kindly actions. Therefore we ought to love our benefactors more than those to whom we are kind. | |
| 11027 </p> | |
| 11028 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p4"> | |
| 11029 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, of all things lovable, God is to be loved most, and then one's father, as Jerome says [*Comment. in Ezechiel xliv, | |
| 11030 25]. Now these are our greatest benefactors. Therefore a benefactor should be loved above all others. | |
| 11031 </p> | |
| 11032 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p5"> | |
| 11033 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, 7), that "benefactors seem to love recipients of their benefactions, rather than vice versa." | |
| 11034 </p> | |
| 11035 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p6"> | |
| 11036 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 11037 <a id="SS_Q26_A12-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html">AA[9]</a>,11), a thing is loved more in two ways: first because it has the character of a more excellent good, secondly by reason of | |
| 11038 a closer connection. In the first way we ought to love our benefactor most, because, since he is a principle of good to the | |
| 11039 man he has benefited, he has the character of a more excellent good, as stated above with regard to one's father | |
| 11040 <a id="SS_Q26_A12-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html">(A[9])</a>. | |
| 11041 </p> | |
| 11042 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p7"> In the second way, however, we love those more who have received benefactions from us, as the Philosopher proves (Ethic. | |
| 11043 ix, 7) by four arguments. First because the recipient of benefactions is the handiwork of the benefactor, so that we are wont | |
| 11044 to say of a man: "He was made by so and so." Now it is natural to a man to love his own work (thus it is to be observed that | |
| 11045 poets love their own poems): and the reason is that we love "to be" and "to live," and these are made manifest | |
| 11046 in our "action." Secondly, because we all naturally love that in which we see our own good. Now it is true that the benefactor | |
| 11047 has some good of his in the recipient of his benefaction, and the recipient some good in the benefactor; but the benefactor | |
| 11048 sees his virtuous good in the recipient, while the recipient sees his useful good in the benefactor. Now it gives more pleasure | |
| 11049 to see one's virtuous good than one's useful good, both because it is more enduring for usefulness quickly flits by, and | |
| 11050 the pleasure of calling a thing to mind is not like the pleasure of having it present and because it is more pleasant to recall | |
| 11051 virtuous goods than the profit we have derived from others. Thirdly, because is it the lover's part to act, since he wills | |
| 11052 and works the good of the beloved, while the beloved takes a passive part in receiving good, so that to love surpasses being | |
| 11053 loved, for which reason the greater love is on the part of the benefactor. Fourthly because it is more difficult to give | |
| 11054 than to receive favors: and we are most fond of things which have cost us most trouble, while we almost despise what comes | |
| 11055 easy to us. | |
| 11056 </p> | |
| 11057 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p8"> | |
| 11058 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is some thing in the benefactor that incites the recipient to love him: whereas the benefactor loves the recipient, not | |
| 11059 through being incited by him, but through being moved thereto of his own accord: and what we do of our own accord surpasses | |
| 11060 what we do through another. | |
| 11061 </p> | |
| 11062 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p9"> | |
| 11063 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The love of the beneficiary for the benefactor is more of a duty, wherefore the contrary is the greater sin. On the other | |
| 11064 hand, the love of the benefactor for the beneficiary is more spontaneous, wherefore it is quicker to act. | |
| 11065 </p> | |
| 11066 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p10"> | |
| 11067 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God also loves us more than we love Him, and parents love their children more than these love them. Yet it does not follow | |
| 11068 that we love all who have received good from us, more than any of our benefactors. For we prefer such benefactors as God and | |
| 11069 our parents, from whom we have received the greatest favors, to those on whom we have bestowed lesser benefits. | |
| 11070 </p> | |
| 11071 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p11"></p> | |
| 11072 <p id="SS_Q26_A12-p12"></p> | |
| 11073 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A11.html"></a> | |
| 11074 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A13.html"></a> | |
| 11075 </div> | |
| 11076 <div id="SS_Q26_A13" class="div4"> | |
| 11077 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A12.html"></a> | |
| 11078 <a href="summa.SS_Q27.html"></a> | |
| 11079 <h4 id="SS_Q26_A13-p0.1">Whether the order of charity endures in heaven?</h4> | |
| 11080 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p1"></p> | |
| 11081 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p2"> | |
| 11082 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the order of charity does not endure in heaven. For Augustine says (De Vera Relig. xlviii): "Perfect charity | |
| 11083 consists in loving greater goods more, and lesser goods less." Now charity will be perfect in heaven. Therefore a man will | |
| 11084 love those who are better more than either himself or those who are connected with him. | |
| 11085 </p> | |
| 11086 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p3"> | |
| 11087 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, we love more him to whom we wish a greater good. Now each one in heaven wishes a greater good for those who have | |
| 11088 more good, else his will would not be conformed in all things to God's will: and there to be better is to have more good. | |
| 11089 Therefore in heaven each one loves more those who are better, and consequently he loves others more than himself, and one | |
| 11090 who is not connected with him, more than one who is. | |
| 11091 </p> | |
| 11092 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p4"> | |
| 11093 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in heaven love will be entirely for God's sake, for then will be fulfilled the words of | |
| 11094 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q26_A13-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.28" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:28</a>: "That God may be all in all." Therefore he who is nearer God will be loved more, so that a man will love a better man more | |
| 11095 than himself, and one who is not connected with him, more than one who is. | |
| 11096 </p> | |
| 11097 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p5"> | |
| 11098 <b>On the contrary,</b> Nature is not done away, but perfected, by glory. Now the order of charity given above ( | |
| 11099 <a id="SS_Q26_A13-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,3,4) is derived from nature: since all things naturally love themselves more than others. Therefore this order of charity | |
| 11100 will endure in heaven. | |
| 11101 </p> | |
| 11102 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p6"> | |
| 11103 <b>I answer that,</b> The order of charity must needs remain in heaven, as regards the love of God above all things. For this will be realized | |
| 11104 simply when man shall enjoy God perfectly. But, as regards the order between man himself and other men, a distinction would | |
| 11105 seem to be necessary, because, as we stated above ( | |
| 11106 <a id="SS_Q26_A13-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html">AA[7]</a>,9), the degrees of love may be distinguished either in respect of the good which a man desires for another, or according | |
| 11107 to the | |
| 11108 intensity of love itself. In the first way a man will love better men more than himself, and those who are less good, less | |
| 11109 than himself: because, by reason of the perfect conformity of the human to the Divine will, each of the blessed will desire | |
| 11110 everyone to have what is due to him according to Divine justice. Nor will that be a time for advancing by means of merit to | |
| 11111 a yet greater reward, as happens now while it is possible for a man to desire both the virtue and the reward of a better man, | |
| 11112 whereas then the will of each one will rest within the limits determined by God. But in the second way a man will love himself | |
| 11113 more than even his better neighbors, because the intensity of the act of love arises on the part of the person who loves, | |
| 11114 as stated above ( | |
| 11115 <a id="SS_Q26_A13-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A7.html">AA[7]</a>,9). Moreover it is for this that the gift of charity is bestowed by God on each one, namely, that he may first of all direct | |
| 11116 his mind to God, and this pertains to a man's love for himself, and that, in | |
| 11117 the second place, he may wish other things to be directed to God, and even work for that end according to his capacity. | |
| 11118 </p> | |
| 11119 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p7"> As to the order to be observed among our neighbors, a man will simply love those who are better, according to the love of | |
| 11120 charity. Because the entire life of the blessed consists in directing their minds to God, wherefore the entire ordering of | |
| 11121 their love will be ruled with respect to God, so that each one will love more and reckon to be nearer to himself those who | |
| 11122 are nearer to God. For then one man will no longer succor another, as he needs to in the present life, wherein each | |
| 11123 man has to succor those who are closely connected with him rather than those who are not, no matter what be the nature of | |
| 11124 their distress: hence it is that in this life, a man, by the inclination of charity, loves more those who are more closely | |
| 11125 united to him, for he is under a greater obligation to bestow on them the effect of charity. It will however be possible in | |
| 11126 heaven for a man to love in several ways one who is connected with him, since the causes of virtuous love will not be banished | |
| 11127 from the mind of the blessed. Yet all these reasons are incomparably surpassed by that which is taken from nighness to God. | |
| 11128 </p> | |
| 11129 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p8"> | |
| 11130 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument should be granted as to those who are connected together; but as regards man himself, he ought to love himself | |
| 11131 so much the more than others, as his charity is more perfect, since perfect entire reason of his love, for God is man's charity | |
| 11132 directs man to God perfectly, and this belongs to love of oneself, as stated above. | |
| 11133 </p> | |
| 11134 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p9"> | |
| 11135 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers the order of charity in respect of the degree of good one wills the person one loves. | |
| 11136 </p> | |
| 11137 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p10"> | |
| 11138 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God will be to each one the entire reason of his love, for God is man's entire good. For if we make the impossible supposition | |
| 11139 that God were not man's good, He would not be man's reason for loving. Hence it is that in the order of love man should love | |
| 11140 himself more than all else after God. | |
| 11141 </p> | |
| 11142 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p11"></p> | |
| 11143 <p id="SS_Q26_A13-p12"></p> | |
| 11144 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A12.html"></a> | |
| 11145 <a href="summa.SS_Q27.html"></a> | |
| 11146 </div> | |
| 11147 <a href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html"></a> | |
| 11148 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11149 </div> | |
| 11150 <div id="SS_Q27" class="div3"> | |
| 11151 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A13.html"></a> | |
| 11152 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11153 <h3 id="SS_Q27-p0.1">OF THE PRINCIPLE ACT OF CHARITY, WHICH IS TO LOVE (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 11154 <p id="SS_Q27-p1"></p> | |
| 11155 <p id="SS_Q27-p2"> We must now consider the act of charity, and (1) the principal act of charity, which is to love, (2) the other acts or effects | |
| 11156 which follow from that act. | |
| 11157 </p> | |
| 11158 <p id="SS_Q27-p3"> Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 11159 <p id="SS_Q27-p4"> (1) Which is the more proper to charity, to love or to be loved?</p> | |
| 11160 <p id="SS_Q27-p5"> (2) Whether to love considered as an act of charity is the same as goodwill?</p> | |
| 11161 <p id="SS_Q27-p6"> (3) Whether God should be loved for His own sake?</p> | |
| 11162 <p id="SS_Q27-p7"> (4) Whether God can be loved immediately in this life?</p> | |
| 11163 <p id="SS_Q27-p8"> (5) Whether God can be loved wholly?</p> | |
| 11164 <p id="SS_Q27-p9"> (6) Whether the love of God is according to measure?</p> | |
| 11165 <p id="SS_Q27-p10"> (7) Which is the better, to love one's friend, or one's enemy? (8) Which is the better, to love God, or one's neighbor?</p> | |
| 11166 <div id="SS_Q27_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 11167 <a href="summa.SS_Q27.html"></a> | |
| 11168 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11169 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A1-p0.1">Whether to be loved is more proper to charity than to love?</h4> | |
| 11170 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 11171 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p2"> | |
| 11172 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is more proper to charity to be loved than to love. For the better charity is to be found in those | |
| 11173 who are themselves better. But those who are better should be more loved. Therefore to be loved is more proper to charity. | |
| 11174 </p> | |
| 11175 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p3"> | |
| 11176 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is to be found in more subjects seems to be more in keeping with nature, and, for that reason, better. | |
| 11177 Now, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. viii, 8), "many would rather be loved than love, and lovers of flattery always abound." | |
| 11178 Therefore it is better to be loved than to love, and consequently it is more in keeping with charity. | |
| 11179 </p> | |
| 11180 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p4"> | |
| 11181 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "the cause of anything being such is yet more so." Now men love because they are loved, for Augustine says (De Catech. | |
| 11182 Rud. iv) that "nothing incites another more to love you than that you love him first." Therefore charity consists in being | |
| 11183 loved rather than in loving. | |
| 11184 </p> | |
| 11185 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p5"> | |
| 11186 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. viii, 8) that friendship consists in loving rather than in being loved. Now charity is a kind | |
| 11187 of friendship. Therefore it consists in loving rather than in being loved. | |
| 11188 </p> | |
| 11189 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p6"> | |
| 11190 <b>I answer that,</b> To love belongs to charity as charity. For, since charity is a virtue, by its very essence it has an inclination to its proper | |
| 11191 act. Now to be loved is not the act of the charity of the person loved; for this act is to love: and to be loved is competent | |
| 11192 to him as coming under the common notion of good, in so far as another tends towards his good by an act of charity. Hence | |
| 11193 it is clear that to love is more proper to charity than to be loved: for that which | |
| 11194 befits a thing by reason of itself and its essence is more competent to it than that which is befitting to it by reason of | |
| 11195 something else. This can be exemplified in two ways. First, in the fact that friends are more commended for loving than for | |
| 11196 being loved, indeed, if they be loved and yet love not, they are blamed. Secondly, because a mother, whose love is the greatest, | |
| 11197 seeks rather to love than to be loved: for "some women," as the Philosopher observes (Ethic. viii, 8) "entrust their | |
| 11198 children to a nurse; they do love them indeed, yet seek not to be loved in return, if they happen not to be loved." | |
| 11199 </p> | |
| 11200 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p7"> | |
| 11201 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A better man, through being better, is more lovable; but through having more perfect charity, loves more. He loves more, | |
| 11202 however, in proportion to the person he loves. For a better man does not love that which is beneath him less than it ought | |
| 11203 to be loved: whereas he who is less good fails to love one who is better, as much as he ought to be loved. | |
| 11204 </p> | |
| 11205 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p8"> | |
| 11206 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As the Philosopher says (Ethic. viii, 8), "men wish to be loved in as much as they wish to be honored." For just as honor | |
| 11207 is bestowed on a man in order to bear witness to the good which is in him, so by being loved a man is shown to have some good, | |
| 11208 since good alone is lovable. Accordingly men seek to be loved and to be honored, for the sake of something else, viz. to make | |
| 11209 known the good which is in the person loved. On the other hand, those who have | |
| 11210 charity seek to love for the sake of loving, as though this were itself the good of charity, even as the act of any virtue | |
| 11211 is that virtue's good. Hence it is more proper to charity to wish to love than to wish to be loved. | |
| 11212 </p> | |
| 11213 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p9"> | |
| 11214 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Some love on account of being loved, not so that to be loved is the end of their loving, but because it is a kind of way | |
| 11215 leading a man to love. | |
| 11216 </p> | |
| 11217 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 11218 <p id="SS_Q27_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 11219 <a href="summa.SS_Q27.html"></a> | |
| 11220 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11221 </div> | |
| 11222 <div id="SS_Q27_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 11223 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11224 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11225 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A2-p0.1">Whether to love considered as an act of charity is the same as goodwill?</h4> | |
| 11226 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 11227 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p2"> | |
| 11228 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that to love, considered as an act of charity, is nothing else than goodwill. For the Philosopher says (Rhet. | |
| 11229 ii, 4) that "to love is to wish a person well"; and this is goodwill. Therefore the act of charity is nothing but goodwill. | |
| 11230 </p> | |
| 11231 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p3"> | |
| 11232 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the act belongs to the same subject as the habit. Now the habit of charity is in the power of the will, as stated | |
| 11233 above ( | |
| 11234 <a id="SS_Q27_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html">Q[24], A[1]</a>). Therefore the act of charity is also an act of the will. But it tends to good only, and this is goodwill. Therefore the | |
| 11235 act of charity is nothing else than goodwill. | |
| 11236 </p> | |
| 11237 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p4"> | |
| 11238 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher reckons five things pertaining to friendship (Ethic. ix, 4), the first of which is that a man should | |
| 11239 wish his friend well; the second, that he should wish him to be and to live; the third, that he should take pleasure in his | |
| 11240 company; the fourth, that he should make choice of the same things; the fifth, that he should grieve and rejoice with him. | |
| 11241 Now the first two pertain to goodwill. Therefore goodwill is the first act of charity. | |
| 11242 </p> | |
| 11243 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p5"> | |
| 11244 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, 5) that "goodwill is neither friendship nor love, but the beginning of friendship." Now | |
| 11245 charity is friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 11246 <a id="SS_Q27_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>). Therefore goodwill is not the same as to love considered as an act of charity. | |
| 11247 </p> | |
| 11248 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p6"> | |
| 11249 <b>I answer that,</b> Goodwill properly speaking is that act of the will whereby we wish well to another. Now this act of the will differs from | |
| 11250 actual love, considered not only as being in the sensitive appetite but also as being in the intellective appetite or will. | |
| 11251 For the love which is in the sensitive appetite is a passion. Now every passion seeks its object with a certain eagerness. | |
| 11252 And the passion of love is not aroused suddenly, but is born of an earnest consideration of | |
| 11253 the object loved; wherefore the Philosopher, showing the difference between goodwill and the love which is a passion, says | |
| 11254 (Ethic. ix, 5) that goodwill does not imply impetuosity or desire, that is to say, has not an eager inclination, because it | |
| 11255 is by the sole judgment of his reason that one man wishes another well. Again such like love arises from previous acquaintance, | |
| 11256 whereas goodwill sometimes arises suddenly, as happens to us if we look on at a boxing-match, and we wish one of the boxers | |
| 11257 to win. But the love, which is in the intellective appetite, also differs from goodwill, because it denotes a certain union | |
| 11258 of affections between the lover and the beloved, in as much as the lover deems the beloved as somewhat united to him, or belonging | |
| 11259 to him, and so tends towards him. On the other hand, goodwill is a simple act of the will, whereby we wish a person well, | |
| 11260 even without presupposing the aforesaid union of the affections with him. Accordingly, to love, considered as an act of | |
| 11261 charity, includes goodwill, but such dilection or love adds union of affections, wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, | |
| 11262 5) that "goodwill is a beginning of friendship." | |
| 11263 </p> | |
| 11264 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p7"> | |
| 11265 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher, by thus defining "to love," does not describe it fully, but mentions only that part of its definition in | |
| 11266 which the act of love is chiefly manifested. | |
| 11267 </p> | |
| 11268 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p8"> | |
| 11269 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> To love is indeed an act of the will tending to the good, but it adds a certain union with the beloved, which union is not | |
| 11270 denoted by goodwill. | |
| 11271 </p> | |
| 11272 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p9"> | |
| 11273 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> These things mentioned by the Philosopher belong to friendship because they arise from a man's love for himself, as he says | |
| 11274 in the same passage, in so far as a man does all these things in respect of his friend, even as he does them to himself: and | |
| 11275 this belongs to the aforesaid union of the affections. | |
| 11276 </p> | |
| 11277 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 11278 <p id="SS_Q27_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 11279 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11280 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11281 </div> | |
| 11282 <div id="SS_Q27_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 11283 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11284 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11285 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A3-p0.1">Whether out of charity God ought to be loved for Himself?</h4> | |
| 11286 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 11287 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p2"> | |
| 11288 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God is loved out of charity, not for Himself but for the sake of something else. For Gregory says in a | |
| 11289 homily (In Evang. xi): "The soul learns from the things it knows, to love those it knows not," where by things unknown he | |
| 11290 means the intelligible and the Divine, and by things known he indicates the objects of the senses. Therefore God is to be | |
| 11291 loved for the sake of something else. | |
| 11292 </p> | |
| 11293 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p3"> | |
| 11294 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, love follows knowledge. But God is known through something else, according to | |
| 11295 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv"> Rom. 1:20</a>: "The invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made." Therefore He is also loved | |
| 11296 on account of something else and not for Himself. | |
| 11297 </p> | |
| 11298 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p4"> | |
| 11299 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "hope begets charity" as a gloss says on | |
| 11300 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.1.1" target="asv"> Mat. 1:1, </a> and "fear leads to charity," according to Augustine in his commentary on the First Canonical Epistle of John (In prim. canon. | |
| 11301 Joan. Tract. ix). Now hope looks forward to obtain something from God, while fear shuns something which can be inflicted by | |
| 11302 God. Therefore it seems that God is to be loved on account of some good we hope for, or some evil to be feared. Therefore | |
| 11303 He is not to | |
| 11304 be loved for Himself. | |
| 11305 </p> | |
| 11306 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p5"> | |
| 11307 <b>On the contrary,</b> According to Augustine (De Doctr. Christ. i), to enjoy is to cleave to something for its own sake. Now "God is to be enjoyed" | |
| 11308 as he says in the same book. Therefore God is to be loved for Himself. | |
| 11309 </p> | |
| 11310 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p6"> | |
| 11311 <b>I answer that,</b> The preposition "for" denotes a relation of causality. Now there are four kinds of cause, viz., final, formal, efficient, | |
| 11312 and material, to which a material disposition also is to be reduced, though it is not a cause simply but relatively. According | |
| 11313 to these four different causes one thing is said to be loved for another. In respect of the final cause, we love medicine, | |
| 11314 for instance, for health; in respect of the formal cause, we love a man for his virtue, | |
| 11315 because, to wit, by his virtue he is formally good and therefore lovable; in respect of the efficient cause, we love certain | |
| 11316 men because, for instance, they are the sons of such and such a father; and in respect of the disposition which is reducible | |
| 11317 to the genus of a material cause, we speak of loving something for that which disposed us to love it, e.g. we love a man for | |
| 11318 the favors received from him, although after we have begun to love our friend, we no longer love him for his favors, but for | |
| 11319 his virtue. Accordingly, as regards the first three ways, we love God, not for anything else, but for Himself. For He is not | |
| 11320 directed to anything else as to an end, but is Himself the last end of all things; nor does He require to receive any form | |
| 11321 in order to be good, for His very substance is His goodness, which is itself the exemplar of all other good things; nor again | |
| 11322 does goodness accrue to Him from aught else, but from Him to all other things. In the fourth way, however, He can be loved | |
| 11323 for something else, because we are disposed by certain things to advance in His love, for instance, by favors bestowed by | |
| 11324 Him, by the rewards we hope to receive from Him, or even by the punishments which we are minded to avoid through Him. | |
| 11325 </p> | |
| 11326 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p7"> | |
| 11327 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> From the things it knows the soul learns to love what it knows not, not as though the things it knows were the reason for | |
| 11328 its loving things it knows not, through being the formal, final, or efficient cause of this love, but because this knowledge | |
| 11329 disposes man to love the unknown. | |
| 11330 </p> | |
| 11331 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p8"> | |
| 11332 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Knowledge of God is indeed acquired through other things, but after He is known, He is no longer known through them, but | |
| 11333 through Himself, according to | |
| 11334 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#John.4.42" target="asv"> Jn. 4:42</a>: "We now believe, not for thy saying: for we ourselves have heard Him, and know that this is indeed the Saviour of the world." | |
| 11335 </p> | |
| 11336 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p9"> | |
| 11337 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Hope and fear lead to charity by way of a certain disposition, as was shown above ( | |
| 11338 <a id="SS_Q27_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A8.html">Q[17], A[8]</a>; | |
| 11339 <a id="SS_Q27_A3-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q19_A4.html"> Q[19], AA[4]</a>,7,10). | |
| 11340 </p> | |
| 11341 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 11342 <p id="SS_Q27_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 11343 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11344 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11345 </div> | |
| 11346 <div id="SS_Q27_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 11347 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11348 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A5.html"></a> | |
| 11349 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A4-p0.1">Whether God can be loved immediately in this life?</h4> | |
| 11350 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 11351 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p2"> | |
| 11352 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God cannot be loved immediately in this life. For the "unknown cannot be loved" as Augustine says (De | |
| 11353 Trin. x, 1). Now we do not know God immediately in this life, since "we see now through a glass, in a dark manner" ( | |
| 11354 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12</a>). Neither, therefore, do we love Him immediately. | |
| 11355 </p> | |
| 11356 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p3"> | |
| 11357 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, he who cannot do what is less, cannot do what is more. Now it is more to love God than to know Him, since "he who | |
| 11358 is joined" to God by love, is "one spirit with Him" ( | |
| 11359 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.6.17" target="asv">1 Cor. 6:17</a>). But man cannot know God immediately. Therefore much less can he love Him immediately. | |
| 11360 </p> | |
| 11361 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p4"> | |
| 11362 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man is severed from God by sin, according to | |
| 11363 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.59.2" target="asv"> Is. 59:2</a>: "Your iniquities have divided between you and your God." Now sin is in the will rather than in the intellect. Therefore | |
| 11364 man is less able to love God immediately than to know Him immediately. | |
| 11365 </p> | |
| 11366 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p5"> | |
| 11367 <b>On the contrary,</b> Knowledge of God, through being mediate, is said to be "enigmatic," and "falls away" in heaven, as stated in | |
| 11368 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12.</a> But charity "does not fall away" as stated in the same passage ( | |
| 11369 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:12</a>). Therefore the charity of the way adheres to God immediately. | |
| 11370 </p> | |
| 11371 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p6"> | |
| 11372 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 11373 <a id="SS_Q27_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q82_A3.html">FP, Q[82], A[3]</a>; Q[84], A[7]), the act of a cognitive power is completed by the thing known being in the knower, whereas the act of an appetitive | |
| 11374 power consists in the appetite being inclined towards the thing in itself. Hence it follows that the movement of the appetitive | |
| 11375 power is towards things in respect of their own condition, whereas the act of a cognitive power follows the mode of the knower. | |
| 11376 </p> | |
| 11377 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p7"> Now in itself the very order of things is such, that God is knowable and lovable for Himself, since He is essentially truth | |
| 11378 and goodness itself, whereby other things are known and loved: but with regard to us, since our knowledge is derived through | |
| 11379 the senses, those things are knowable first which are nearer to our senses, and the last term of knowledge is that which is | |
| 11380 most remote from our senses. | |
| 11381 </p> | |
| 11382 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p8"> Accordingly, we must assert that to love which is an act of the appetitive power, even in this state of life, tends to God | |
| 11383 first, and flows on from Him to other things, and in this sense charity loves God immediately, and other things through God. | |
| 11384 On the other hand, with regard to knowledge, it is the reverse, since we know God through other things, either as a cause | |
| 11385 through its effects, or by way of pre-eminence or negation as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. i; cf. | |
| 11386 | |
| 11387 <a id="SS_Q27_A4-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q12_A12.html">FP, Q[12], A[12]</a>). | |
| 11388 </p> | |
| 11389 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p9"> | |
| 11390 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the unknown cannot be loved, it does not follow that the order of knowledge is the same as the order of love, since | |
| 11391 love is the term of knowledge, and consequently, love can begin at once where knowledge ends, namely in the thing itself which | |
| 11392 is known through another thing. | |
| 11393 </p> | |
| 11394 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p10"> | |
| 11395 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since to love God is something greater than to know Him, especially in this state of life, it follows that love of God presupposes | |
| 11396 knowledge of God. And because this knowledge does not rest in creatures, but, through them, tends to something else, love | |
| 11397 begins there, and thence goes on to other things by a circular movement so to speak; for knowledge begins from creatures, | |
| 11398 tends to God, and love begins with God as the last end, and passes on to | |
| 11399 creatures. | |
| 11400 </p> | |
| 11401 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p11"> | |
| 11402 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Aversion from God, which is brought about by sin, is removed by charity, but not by knowledge alone: hence charity, by loving | |
| 11403 God, unites the soul immediately to Him with a chain of spiritual union. | |
| 11404 </p> | |
| 11405 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 11406 <p id="SS_Q27_A4-p13"></p> | |
| 11407 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11408 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A5.html"></a> | |
| 11409 </div> | |
| 11410 <div id="SS_Q27_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 11411 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11412 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A6.html"></a> | |
| 11413 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A5-p0.1">Whether God can be loved wholly? [*Cf. Q[184], A[2]]</h4> | |
| 11414 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 11415 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p2"> | |
| 11416 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that God cannot be loved wholly. For love follows knowledge. Now God cannot be wholly known by us, since this | |
| 11417 would imply comprehension of Him. Therefore He cannot be wholly loved by us. | |
| 11418 </p> | |
| 11419 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p3"> | |
| 11420 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, love is a kind of union, as Dionysius shows (Div. Nom. iv). But the heart of man cannot be wholly united to God, | |
| 11421 because "God is greater than our heart" ( | |
| 11422 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.20" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:20</a>). Therefore God cannot be loved wholly. | |
| 11423 </p> | |
| 11424 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p4"> | |
| 11425 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, God loves Himself wholly. If therefore He be loved wholly by another, this one will love Him as much as God loves | |
| 11426 Himself. But this is unreasonable. Therefore God cannot be wholly loved by a creature. | |
| 11427 </p> | |
| 11428 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p5"> | |
| 11429 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 11430 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.5" target="asv">Dt. 6:5</a>): "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart." | |
| 11431 </p> | |
| 11432 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p6"> | |
| 11433 <b>I answer that,</b> Since love may be considered as something between lover and beloved, when we ask whether God can be wholly loved, the question | |
| 11434 may be understood in three ways, first so that the qualification "wholly" be referred to the thing loved, and thus God is | |
| 11435 to be loved wholly, since man should love all that pertains to God. | |
| 11436 </p> | |
| 11437 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p7"> Secondly, it may be understood as though "wholly" qualified the lover: and thus again God ought to be loved wholly, since | |
| 11438 man ought to love God with all his might, and to refer all he has to the love of God, according to | |
| 11439 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.5" target="asv"> Dt. 6:5</a>: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart." | |
| 11440 </p> | |
| 11441 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p8"> Thirdly, it may be understood by way of comparison of the lover to the thing loved, so that the mode of the lover equal the | |
| 11442 mode of the thing loved. This is impossible: for, since a thing is lovable in proportion to its goodness, God is infinitely | |
| 11443 lovable, since His goodness is infinite. Now no creature can love God infinitely, because all power of creatures, whether | |
| 11444 it be natural or infused, is finite. | |
| 11445 </p> | |
| 11446 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections, because the first three objections consider the question in this third sense, | |
| 11447 while the last takes it in the second sense. | |
| 11448 </p> | |
| 11449 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 11450 <p id="SS_Q27_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 11451 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11452 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A6.html"></a> | |
| 11453 </div> | |
| 11454 <div id="SS_Q27_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 11455 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A5.html"></a> | |
| 11456 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A7.html"></a> | |
| 11457 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A6-p0.1">Whether in loving God we ought to observe any mode?</h4> | |
| 11458 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 11459 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p2"> | |
| 11460 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we ought to observe some mode in loving God. For the notion of good consists in mode, species and order, | |
| 11461 as Augustine states (De Nat. Boni iii, iv). Now the love of God is the best thing in man, according to | |
| 11462 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Col.3.14" target="asv"> Col. 3:14</a>: "Above all . . . things, have charity." Therefore there ought to be a mode of the love of God. | |
| 11463 </p> | |
| 11464 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p3"> | |
| 11465 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Morib. Eccl. viii): "Prithee, tell me which is the mode of love. For I fear lest I burn with | |
| 11466 the desire and love of my Lord, more or less than I ought." But it would be useless to seek the mode of the Divine love, unless | |
| 11467 there were one. Therefore there is a mode of the love of God. | |
| 11468 </p> | |
| 11469 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p4"> | |
| 11470 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. iv, 3), "the measure which nature appoints to a thing, is its mode." Now the measure | |
| 11471 of the human will, as also of external action, is the reason. Therefore just as it is necessary for the reason to appoint | |
| 11472 a mode to the exterior effect of charity, according to | |
| 11473 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.1" target="asv"> Rom. 12:1</a>: "Your reasonable service," so also the interior love of God requires a mode. | |
| 11474 </p> | |
| 11475 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p5"> | |
| 11476 <b>On the contrary,</b> Bernard says (De Dilig. Deum 1) that "God is the cause of our loving God; the measure is to love Him without measure." | |
| 11477 </p> | |
| 11478 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p6"> | |
| 11479 <b>I answer that,</b> As appears from the words of Augustine quoted above (OBJ 3) mode signifies a determination of measure; which determination | |
| 11480 is to be found both in the measure and in the thing measured, but not in the same way. For it is found in the measure essentially, | |
| 11481 because a measure is of itself the determining and modifying rule of other things; whereas in the things measured, it is found | |
| 11482 relatively, that is in so far as they attain to the measure. Hence there can be | |
| 11483 nothing unmodified in the measure whereas the thing measured is unmodified if it fails to attain to the measure, whether by | |
| 11484 deficiency or by excess. | |
| 11485 </p> | |
| 11486 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p7"> Now in all matters of appetite and action the measure is the end, because the proper reason for all that we desire or do | |
| 11487 should be taken from the end, as the Philosopher proves (Phys. ii, 9). Therefore the end has a mode by itself, while the means | |
| 11488 take their mode from being proportionate to the end. Hence, according to the Philosopher (Polit. i, 3), "in every art, the | |
| 11489 desire for the end is endless and unlimited," whereas there is a limit to the means: thus the physician does not | |
| 11490 put limits to health, but makes it as perfect as he possibly can; but he puts a limit to medicine, for he does not give as | |
| 11491 much medicine as he can, but according as health demands so that if he give too much or too little, the medicine would be | |
| 11492 immoderate. | |
| 11493 </p> | |
| 11494 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p8"> Again, the end of all human actions and affections is the love of God, whereby principally we attain to our last end, as | |
| 11495 stated above ( | |
| 11496 <a id="SS_Q27_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html">Q[23], A[6]</a>), wherefore the mode in the love of God, must not be taken as in a thing measured where we find too much or too little, but | |
| 11497 as in the measure itself, where there cannot be excess, and where the more the rule is attained the better it is, so that | |
| 11498 the more we love God the better our love is. | |
| 11499 </p> | |
| 11500 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p9"> | |
| 11501 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That which is so by its essence takes precedence of that which is so through another, wherefore the goodness of the measure | |
| 11502 which has the mode essentially, takes precedence of the goodness of the thing measured, which has its mode through something | |
| 11503 else; and so too, charity, which has a mode as a measure has, stands before the other virtues, which have a mode through being | |
| 11504 measured . | |
| 11505 </p> | |
| 11506 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p10"> | |
| 11507 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As Augustine adds in the same passage, "the measure of our love for God is to love Him with our whole heart," that is to | |
| 11508 love Him as much as He can be loved, and this belongs to the mode which is proper to the measure. | |
| 11509 </p> | |
| 11510 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p11"> | |
| 11511 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> An affection, whose object is subject to reason's judgment, should be measured by reason. But the object of the Divine love | |
| 11512 which is God surpasses the judgment of reason, wherefore it is not measured by reason but transcends it. Nor is there parity | |
| 11513 between the interior act and external acts of charity. For the interior act of charity has the character of an end, since | |
| 11514 man's ultimate good consists in his soul cleaving to God, according to | |
| 11515 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A6-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.72.28" target="asv"> Ps. | |
| 11516 72:28 | |
| 11517 </a>: "It is good for me to adhere to my God"; whereas the exterior acts are as means to the end, and so have to be measured both | |
| 11518 according to charity and according to reason. | |
| 11519 </p> | |
| 11520 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 11521 <p id="SS_Q27_A6-p13"></p> | |
| 11522 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A5.html"></a> | |
| 11523 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A7.html"></a> | |
| 11524 </div> | |
| 11525 <div id="SS_Q27_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 11526 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A6.html"></a> | |
| 11527 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A8.html"></a> | |
| 11528 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A7-p0.1">Whether it is more meritorious to love an enemy than to love a friend?</h4> | |
| 11529 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 11530 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p2"> | |
| 11531 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem more meritorious to love an enemy than to love a friend. For it is written ( | |
| 11532 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.46" target="asv">Mat. 5:46</a>): "If you love them that love you, what reward shall you have?" Therefore it is not deserving of reward to love one's friend: | |
| 11533 whereas, as the same passage proves, to love one's enemy is deserving of a reward. Therefore it is more meritorious to love | |
| 11534 one's enemy than to love one's friend. | |
| 11535 </p> | |
| 11536 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p3"> | |
| 11537 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an act is the more meritorious through proceeding from a greater charity. But it belongs to the perfect children | |
| 11538 of God to love their enemies, whereas those also who have imperfect charity love their friends. Therefore it is more meritorious | |
| 11539 to love one's enemy than to love one's friend. | |
| 11540 </p> | |
| 11541 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p4"> | |
| 11542 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, where there is more effort for good, there seems to be more merit, since "every man shall receive his own reward | |
| 11543 according to his own labor" ( | |
| 11544 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A7-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.8" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:8</a>). Now a man has to make a greater effort to love his enemy than to love his friend, because it is more difficult. Therefore | |
| 11545 it seems more meritorious to love one's enemy than to love one's friend. | |
| 11546 </p> | |
| 11547 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p5"> | |
| 11548 <b>On the contrary,</b> The better an action is, the more meritorious it is. Now it is better to love one's friend, since it is better to love a | |
| 11549 better man, and the friend who loves you is better than the enemy who hates you. Therefore it is more meritorious to love | |
| 11550 one's friend than to love one's enemy. | |
| 11551 </p> | |
| 11552 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p6"> | |
| 11553 <b>I answer that,</b> God is the reason for our loving our neighbor out of charity, as stated above ( | |
| 11554 <a id="SS_Q27_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html">Q[25], A[1]</a>). When therefore it is asked which is better or more meritorious, to love one's friend or one's enemy, these two loves may | |
| 11555 be compared in two ways, first, on the part of our neighbor whom we love, secondly, on the part of the reason for which we | |
| 11556 love him. | |
| 11557 </p> | |
| 11558 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p7"> In the first way, love of one's friend surpasses love of one's enemy, because a friend is both better and more closely united | |
| 11559 to us, so that he is a more suitable matter of love and consequently the act of love that passes over this matter, is better, | |
| 11560 and therefore its opposite is worse, for it is worse to hate a friend than an enemy. | |
| 11561 </p> | |
| 11562 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p8"> In the second way, however, it is better to love one's enemy than one's friend, and this for two reasons. First, because | |
| 11563 it is possible to love one's friend for another reason than God, whereas God is the only reason for loving one's enemy. Secondly, | |
| 11564 because if we suppose that both are loved for God, our love for God is proved to be all the stronger through carrying a man's | |
| 11565 affections to things which are furthest from him, namely, to the love of his enemies, even as the power of | |
| 11566 a furnace is proved to be the stronger, according as it throws its heat to more distant objects. Hence our love for God is | |
| 11567 proved to be so much the stronger, as the more difficult are the things we accomplish for its sake, just as the power of fire | |
| 11568 is so much the stronger, as it is able to set fire to a less inflammable matter. | |
| 11569 </p> | |
| 11570 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p9"> Yet just as the same fire acts with greater force on what is near than on what is distant, so too, charity loves with greater | |
| 11571 fervor those who are united to us than those who are far removed; and in this respect the love of friends, considered in itself, | |
| 11572 is more ardent and better than the love of one's enemy. | |
| 11573 </p> | |
| 11574 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p10"> | |
| 11575 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The words of Our Lord must be taken in their strict sense: because the love of one's friends is not meritorious in God's | |
| 11576 sight when we love them merely because they are our friends: and this would seem to be the case when we love our friends in | |
| 11577 such a way that we love not our enemies. On the other hand the love of our friends is meritorious, if we love them for God's | |
| 11578 sake, and not merely because they are our friends. | |
| 11579 </p> | |
| 11580 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p11"> The Reply to the other Objections is evident from what has been said in the article, because the two arguments that follow | |
| 11581 consider the reason for loving, while the last considers the question on the part of those who are loved. | |
| 11582 </p> | |
| 11583 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 11584 <p id="SS_Q27_A7-p13"></p> | |
| 11585 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A6.html"></a> | |
| 11586 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A8.html"></a> | |
| 11587 </div> | |
| 11588 <div id="SS_Q27_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 11589 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A7.html"></a> | |
| 11590 <a href="summa.SS_Q28.html"></a> | |
| 11591 <h4 id="SS_Q27_A8-p0.1">Whether it is more meritorious to love one's neighbor than to love God?</h4> | |
| 11592 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 11593 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p2"> | |
| 11594 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is more meritorious to love one's neighbor than to love God. For the more meritorious thing would seem | |
| 11595 to be what the Apostle preferred. Now the Apostle preferred the love of our neighbor to the love of God, according to | |
| 11596 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.9.3" target="asv"> Rom. 9:3</a>: "I wished myself to be an anathema from Christ for my brethren." Therefore it is more meritorious to love one's neighbor | |
| 11597 than to love God. | |
| 11598 </p> | |
| 11599 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p3"> | |
| 11600 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in a certain sense it seems to be less meritorious to love one's friend, as stated above | |
| 11601 <a id="SS_Q27_A8-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q27_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. Now God is our chief friend, since "He hath first loved us" ( | |
| 11602 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A8-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.10" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:10</a>). Therefore it seems less meritorious to love God. | |
| 11603 </p> | |
| 11604 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p4"> | |
| 11605 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever is more difficult seems to be more virtuous and meritorious since "virtue is about that which is difficult | |
| 11606 and good" (Ethic. ii, 3). Now it is easier to love God than to love one's neighbor, both because all things love God naturally, | |
| 11607 and because there is nothing unlovable in God, and this cannot be said of one's neighbor. Therefore it is more meritorious | |
| 11608 to love one's neighbor than to love God. | |
| 11609 </p> | |
| 11610 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p5"> | |
| 11611 <b>On the contrary,</b> That on account of which a thing is such, is yet more so. Now the love of one's neighbor is not meritorious, except by reason | |
| 11612 of his being loved for God's sake. Therefore the love of God is more meritorious than the love of our neighbor. | |
| 11613 </p> | |
| 11614 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p6"> | |
| 11615 <b>I answer that,</b> This comparison may be taken in two ways. First, by considering both loves separately: and then, without doubt, the love | |
| 11616 of God is the more meritorious, because a reward is due to it for its own sake, since the ultimate reward is the enjoyment | |
| 11617 of God, to Whom the movement of the Divine love tends: hence a reward is promised to him that loves God ( | |
| 11618 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A8-p6.1" href="./asv.html#John.14.21" target="asv">Jn. 14:21</a>): "He that loveth Me, shall be loved of My Father, and I will . . . manifest | |
| 11619 Myself to him." Secondly, the comparison may be understood to be between the love of God alone on the one side, and the love | |
| 11620 of one's neighbor for God's sake, on the other. In this way love of our neighbor includes love of God, while love of God does | |
| 11621 not include love of our neighbor. Hence the comparison will be between perfect love of God, extending also to our neighbor, | |
| 11622 and inadequate and imperfect love of God, for "this commandment we have from God, that he, who loveth God, love also his | |
| 11623 brother" ( | |
| 11624 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q27_A8-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.21" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:21</a>). | |
| 11625 </p> | |
| 11626 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p7"> | |
| 11627 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to one gloss, the Apostle did not desire this, viz. to be severed from Christ for his brethren, when he was in | |
| 11628 a state of grace, but had formerly desired it when he was in a state of unbelief, so that we should not imitate him in this | |
| 11629 respect. | |
| 11630 </p> | |
| 11631 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p8"> We may also reply, with Chrysostom (De Compunct. i, 8) [*Hom. xvi in Ep. ad Rom.] that this does not prove the Apostle to | |
| 11632 have loved his neighbor more than God, but that he loved God more than himself. For he wished to be deprived for a time of | |
| 11633 the Divine fruition which pertains to love of one self, in order that God might be honored in his neighbor, which pertains | |
| 11634 to the love of God. | |
| 11635 </p> | |
| 11636 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p9"> | |
| 11637 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A man's love for his friends is sometimes less meritorious in so far as he loves them for their sake, so as to fall short | |
| 11638 of the true reason for the friendship of charity, which is God. Hence that God be loved for His own sake does not diminish | |
| 11639 the merit, but is the entire reason for merit. | |
| 11640 </p> | |
| 11641 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p10"> | |
| 11642 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The "good" has, more than the "difficult," to do with the reason of merit and virtue. Therefore it does not follow that whatever | |
| 11643 is more difficult is more meritorious, but only what is more difficult, and at the same time better. | |
| 11644 </p> | |
| 11645 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 11646 <p id="SS_Q27_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 11647 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A7.html"></a> | |
| 11648 <a href="summa.SS_Q28.html"></a> | |
| 11649 </div> | |
| 11650 <a href="summa.SS_Q26_A13.html"></a> | |
| 11651 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11652 </div> | |
| 11653 <div id="SS_Q28" class="div3"> | |
| 11654 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A8.html"></a> | |
| 11655 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11656 <h3 id="SS_Q28-p0.1">OF JOY (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 11657 <p id="SS_Q28-p1"></p> | |
| 11658 <p id="SS_Q28-p2"> WE must now consider the effects which result from the principal act of charity which is love, and (1) the interior effects, | |
| 11659 (2) the exterior effects. As to the first, three things have to be considered: (1) Joy, (2) Peace, (3) Mercy. | |
| 11660 </p> | |
| 11661 <p id="SS_Q28-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 11662 <p id="SS_Q28-p4"> (1) Whether joy is an effect of charity?</p> | |
| 11663 <p id="SS_Q28-p5"> (2) Whether this kind of joy is compatible with sorrow?</p> | |
| 11664 <p id="SS_Q28-p6"> (3) Whether this joy can be full?</p> | |
| 11665 <p id="SS_Q28-p7"> (4) Whether it is a virtue?</p> | |
| 11666 <div id="SS_Q28_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 11667 <a href="summa.SS_Q28.html"></a> | |
| 11668 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11669 <h4 id="SS_Q28_A1-p0.1">Whether joy is effected in us by charity?</h4> | |
| 11670 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 11671 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p2"> | |
| 11672 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that joy is not effected in us by charity. For the absence of what we love causes sorrow rather than joy. But | |
| 11673 God, Whom we love by charity, is absent from us, so long as we are in this state of life, since "while we are in the body, | |
| 11674 we are absent from the Lord" ( | |
| 11675 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.5.6" target="asv">2 Cor. 5:6</a>). Therefore charity causes sorrow in us rather than joy. | |
| 11676 </p> | |
| 11677 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p3"> | |
| 11678 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is chiefly through charity that we merit happiness. Now mourning, which pertains to sorrow, is reckoned among | |
| 11679 those things whereby we merit happiness, according to | |
| 11680 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.5" target="asv"> Mat. 5:5</a>: "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." Therefore sorrow, rather than joy, is an effect of charity. | |
| 11681 </p> | |
| 11682 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p4"> | |
| 11683 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is a virtue distinct from hope, as shown above ( | |
| 11684 <a id="SS_Q28_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q17_A6.html">Q[17], A[6]</a>). Now joy is the effect of hope, according to | |
| 11685 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.12" target="asv"> Rom. 12:12</a>: "Rejoicing in hope." Therefore it is not the effect of charity. | |
| 11686 </p> | |
| 11687 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p5"> | |
| 11688 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 11689 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.5" target="asv">Rom. 5:5</a>): "The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Ghost, Who is given to us." But joy is caused in us by the | |
| 11690 Holy Ghost according to | |
| 11691 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.17" target="asv"> Rom. 14:17</a>: "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but justice and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." Therefore charity is a cause | |
| 11692 of joy. | |
| 11693 </p> | |
| 11694 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p6"> | |
| 11695 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 11696 <a id="SS_Q28_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A1.html">FS, Q[25], AA[1]</a>,2,3), when we were treating of the passions, joy and sorrow proceed from love, but in contrary ways. For joy is caused by | |
| 11697 love, either through the presence of the thing loved, or because the proper good of the thing loved exists and endures in | |
| 11698 it; and the latter is the case chiefly in the love of benevolence, whereby a man rejoices in the well-being of his friend, | |
| 11699 though he be absent. On the other | |
| 11700 hand sorrow arises from love, either through the absence of the thing loved, or because the loved object to which we wish | |
| 11701 well, is deprived of its good or afflicted with some evil. Now charity is love of God, Whose good is unchangeable, since He | |
| 11702 is His goodness, and from the very fact that He is loved, He is in those who love Him by His most excellent effect, according | |
| 11703 to | |
| 11704 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.16" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:16</a>: "He that abideth in charity, abideth in God, and God in him." Therefore spiritual joy, | |
| 11705 which is about God, is caused by charity. | |
| 11706 </p> | |
| 11707 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p7"> | |
| 11708 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> So long as we are in the body, we are said to be "absent from the Lord," in comparison with that presence whereby He is present | |
| 11709 to some by the vision of "sight"; wherefore the Apostle goes on to say ( | |
| 11710 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.5.6" target="asv">2 Cor. 5:6</a>): "For we walk by faith and not by sight." Nevertheless, even in this life, He is present to those who love Him, by the indwelling | |
| 11711 of His grace. | |
| 11712 </p> | |
| 11713 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p8"> | |
| 11714 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The mourning that merits happiness, is about those things that are contrary to happiness. Wherefore it amounts to the same | |
| 11715 that charity causes this mourning, and this spiritual joy about God, since to rejoice in a certain good amounts to the same | |
| 11716 as to grieve for things that are contrary to it. | |
| 11717 </p> | |
| 11718 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p9"> | |
| 11719 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There can be spiritual joy about God in two ways. First, when we rejoice in the Divine good considered in itself; secondly, | |
| 11720 when we rejoice in the Divine good as participated by us. The former joy is the better, and proceeds from charity chiefly: | |
| 11721 while the latter joy proceeds from hope also, whereby we look forward to enjoy the Divine good, although this enjoyment itself, | |
| 11722 whether perfect or imperfect, is obtained according to the measure of one's | |
| 11723 charity. | |
| 11724 </p> | |
| 11725 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 11726 <p id="SS_Q28_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 11727 <a href="summa.SS_Q28.html"></a> | |
| 11728 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11729 </div> | |
| 11730 <div id="SS_Q28_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 11731 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11732 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11733 <h4 id="SS_Q28_A2-p0.1">Whether the spiritual joy, which results from charity, is compatible with an admixture of sorrow?</h4> | |
| 11734 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 11735 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p2"> | |
| 11736 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the spiritual joy that results from charity is compatible with an admixture of sorrow. For it belongs | |
| 11737 to charity to rejoice in our neighbor's good, according to | |
| 11738 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.4" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:4</a>, | |
| 11739 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p2.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.6" target="asv">6</a>: "Charity . . . rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth with the truth." But this joy is compatible with an admixture of | |
| 11740 sorrow, according to | |
| 11741 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p2.3" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.15" target="asv"> Rom. 12:15</a>: "Rejoice with them that rejoice, weep with them that weep." Therefore the | |
| 11742 spiritual joy of charity is compatible with an admixture of sorrow. | |
| 11743 </p> | |
| 11744 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p3"> | |
| 11745 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Gregory (Hom. in Evang. xxxiv), "penance consists in deploring past sins, and in not committing again | |
| 11746 those we have deplored." But there is no true penance without charity. Therefore the joy of charity has an admixture of sorrow. | |
| 11747 </p> | |
| 11748 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p4"> | |
| 11749 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is through charity that man desires to be with Christ according to | |
| 11750 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.1.23" target="asv"> Phil. 1:23</a>: "Having a desire to be dissolved and to be with Christ." Now this desire gives rise, in man, to a certain sadness, according | |
| 11751 to | |
| 11752 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.119.5" target="asv"> Ps. 119:5</a>: "Woe is me that my sojourning is prolonged!" Therefore the joy of charity admits of a seasoning of sorrow. | |
| 11753 </p> | |
| 11754 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p5"> | |
| 11755 <b>On the contrary,</b> The joy of charity is joy about the Divine wisdom. Now such like joy has no admixture of sorrow, according to | |
| 11756 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.8.16" target="asv"> Wis. 8:16</a>: "Her conversation hath no bitterness." Therefore the joy of charity is incompatible with an admixture of sorrow. | |
| 11757 </p> | |
| 11758 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p6"> | |
| 11759 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[1], ad 3), a twofold joy in God arises from charity. One, the more excellent, is proper to charity; and | |
| 11760 with this joy we rejoice in the Divine good considered in itself. This joy of charity is incompatible with an admixture of | |
| 11761 sorrow, even as the good which is its object is incompatible with any admixture of evil: hence the Apostle says ( | |
| 11762 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.4.4" target="asv">Phil. 4:4</a>): "Rejoice in the Lord always." | |
| 11763 </p> | |
| 11764 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p7"> The other is the joy of charity whereby we rejoice in the Divine good as participated by us. This participation can be hindered | |
| 11765 by anything contrary to it, wherefore, in this respect, the joy of charity is compatible with an admixture of sorrow, in so | |
| 11766 far as a man grieves for that which hinders the participation of the Divine good, either in us or in our neighbor, whom we | |
| 11767 love as ourselves. | |
| 11768 </p> | |
| 11769 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p8"> | |
| 11770 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Our neighbor does not weep save on account of some evil. Now every evil implies lack of participation in the sovereign good: | |
| 11771 hence charity makes us weep with our neighbor in so far as he is hindered from participating in the Divine good. | |
| 11772 </p> | |
| 11773 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p9"> | |
| 11774 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Our sins divide between us and God, according to | |
| 11775 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.59.2" target="asv"> Is. 59:2</a>; wherefore this is the reason why we grieve for our past sins, or for those of others, in so far as they hinder us from participating | |
| 11776 in the Divine good. | |
| 11777 </p> | |
| 11778 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p10"> | |
| 11779 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although in this unhappy abode we participate, after a fashion, in the Divine good, by knowledge and love, yet the unhappiness | |
| 11780 of this life is an obstacle to a perfect participation in the Divine good: hence this very sorrow, whereby a man grieves for | |
| 11781 the delay of glory, is connected with the hindrance to a participation of the Divine good. | |
| 11782 </p> | |
| 11783 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 11784 <p id="SS_Q28_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 11785 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11786 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11787 </div> | |
| 11788 <div id="SS_Q28_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 11789 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11790 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11791 <h4 id="SS_Q28_A3-p0.1">Whether the spiritual joy which proceeds from charity, can be filled?</h4> | |
| 11792 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 11793 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p2"> | |
| 11794 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the spiritual joy which proceeds from charity cannot be filled. For the more we rejoice in God, the more | |
| 11795 is our joy in Him filled. But we can never rejoice in Him as much as it is meet that we should rejoice in God, since His goodness | |
| 11796 which is infinite, surpasses the creature's joy which is finite. Therefore joy in God can never be filled. | |
| 11797 </p> | |
| 11798 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p3"> | |
| 11799 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is filled cannot be increased. But the joy, even of the blessed, can be increased, since one's joy is | |
| 11800 greater than another's. Therefore joy in God cannot be filled in a creature. | |
| 11801 </p> | |
| 11802 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p4"> | |
| 11803 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, comprehension seems to be nothing else than the fulness of knowledge. Now, just as the cognitive power of a creature | |
| 11804 is finite, so is its appetitive power. Since therefore God cannot be comprehended by any creature, it seems that no creature's | |
| 11805 joy in God can be filled. | |
| 11806 </p> | |
| 11807 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p5"> | |
| 11808 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said to His disciples ( | |
| 11809 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.11" target="asv">Jn. 15:11</a>): "That My joy may be in you, and your joy may be filled." | |
| 11810 </p> | |
| 11811 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p6"> | |
| 11812 <b>I answer that,</b> Fulness of joy can be understood in two ways; first, on the part of the thing rejoiced in, so that one rejoice in it as much | |
| 11813 as it is meet that one should rejoice in it, and thus God's joy alone in Himself is filled, because it is infinite; and this | |
| 11814 is condignly due to the infinite goodness of God: but the joy of any creature must needs be finite. Secondly, fulness of joy | |
| 11815 may be understood on the part of the one who rejoices. Now joy is compared to desire, | |
| 11816 as rest to movement, as stated above ( | |
| 11817 <a id="SS_Q28_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A1.html">FS, Q[25], AA[1]</a>,2), when we were treating of the passions: and rest is full when there is no more movement. Hence joy is full, when there | |
| 11818 remains nothing to be desired. But as long as we are in this world, the movement of desire does not cease in us, because it | |
| 11819 still remains possible for us to approach nearer to God by grace, as was shown above (Q[24], AA[4],7). When once, however, | |
| 11820 perfect happiness has been attained, nothing will | |
| 11821 remain to be desired, because then there will be full enjoyment of God, wherein man will obtain whatever he had desired, even | |
| 11822 with regard to other goods, according to | |
| 11823 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.102.5" target="asv"> Ps. 102:5</a>: "Who satisfieth thy desire with good things." Hence desire will be at rest, not only our desire for God, but all our desires: | |
| 11824 so that the joy of the blessed is full to perfection---indeed over-full, since they will obtain more than they were capable | |
| 11825 of desiring: for "neither hath it entered into the | |
| 11826 heart of man, what things God hath prepared for them that love Him" ( | |
| 11827 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p6.3" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.9" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:9</a>). This is what is meant by the words of | |
| 11828 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p6.4" href="./asv.html#Luke.6.38" target="asv"> Lk. 6:38</a>: "Good measure and pressed down, and shaken together, and running over shall they give into your bosom." Yet, since no creature | |
| 11829 is capable of the joy condignly due to God, it follows that this perfectly full joy is not taken into man, but, on the contrary, | |
| 11830 man enters into it, according to | |
| 11831 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p6.5" href="./asv.html#Matt.25.21" target="asv"> Mat. 25:21</a>: | |
| 11832 "Enter into the joy of thy Lord." | |
| 11833 </p> | |
| 11834 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p7"> | |
| 11835 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument takes the fulness of joy in reference to the thing in which we rejoice. | |
| 11836 </p> | |
| 11837 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p8"> | |
| 11838 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> When each one attains to happiness he will reach the term appointed to him by Divine predestination, and nothing further | |
| 11839 will remain to which he may tend, although by reaching that term, some will approach nearer to God than others. Hence each | |
| 11840 one's joy will be full with regard to himself, because his desire will be fully set at rest; yet one's joy will be greater | |
| 11841 than another's, on account of a fuller participation of the Divine happiness. | |
| 11842 </p> | |
| 11843 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p9"> | |
| 11844 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Comprehension denotes fulness of knowledge in respect of the thing known, so that it is known as much as it can be. There | |
| 11845 is however a fulness of knowledge in respect of the knower, just as we have said of joy. Wherefore the Apostle says ( | |
| 11846 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A3-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Col.1.9" target="asv">Col. 1:9</a>): "That you may be filled with the knowledge of His will, in all wisdom and spiritual understanding." | |
| 11847 </p> | |
| 11848 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 11849 <p id="SS_Q28_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 11850 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11851 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11852 </div> | |
| 11853 <div id="SS_Q28_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 11854 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11855 <a href="summa.SS_Q29.html"></a> | |
| 11856 <h4 id="SS_Q28_A4-p0.1">Whether joy is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 11857 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 11858 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p2"> | |
| 11859 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that joy is a virtue. For vice is contrary to virtue. Now sorrow is set down as a vice, as in the case of sloth | |
| 11860 and envy. Therefore joy also should be accounted a virtue. | |
| 11861 </p> | |
| 11862 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p3"> | |
| 11863 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as love and hope are passions, the object of which is "good," so also is joy. Now love and hope are reckoned to | |
| 11864 be virtues. Therefore joy also should be reckoned a virtue. | |
| 11865 </p> | |
| 11866 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p4"> | |
| 11867 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the precepts of the Law are about acts of virtue. But we are commanded to rejoice in the Lord, according to | |
| 11868 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.4.4" target="asv"> Phil. 4:4</a>: "Rejoice in the Lord always." Therefore joy is a virtue. | |
| 11869 </p> | |
| 11870 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p5"> | |
| 11871 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is not numbered among the theological virtues, nor among the moral, nor among the intellectual virtues, as is evident | |
| 11872 from what has been said above (FS, QQ[57],60,62). | |
| 11873 </p> | |
| 11874 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p6"> | |
| 11875 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 11876 <a id="SS_Q28_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q55_A2.html">FS, Q[55], AA[2]</a>,4), virtue is an operative habit, wherefore by its very nature it has an inclination to a certain act. Now it may happen | |
| 11877 that from the same habit there proceed several ordinate and homogeneous acts, each of which follows from another. And since | |
| 11878 the subsequent acts do not proceed from the virtuous habit except through the preceding act, hence it is that the virtue is | |
| 11879 defined and named in reference to | |
| 11880 that preceding act, although those other acts also proceed from the virtue. Now it is evident from what we have said about | |
| 11881 the passions ( | |
| 11882 <a id="SS_Q28_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A2.html">FS, Q[25], AA[2]</a>,4) that love is the first affection of the appetitive power, and that desire and joy follow from it. Hence the same virtuous | |
| 11883 habit inclines us to love and desire the beloved good, and to rejoice in it. But in as much as love is the first of these | |
| 11884 acts, that virtue takes its name, not from joy, nor from desire, but from | |
| 11885 love, and is called charity. Hence joy is not a virtue distinct from charity, but an act, or effect, of charity: for which | |
| 11886 reason it is numbered among the Fruits ( | |
| 11887 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q28_A4-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.22" target="asv">Gal. 5:22</a>). | |
| 11888 </p> | |
| 11889 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p7"> | |
| 11890 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sorrow which is a vice is caused by inordinate self-love, and this is not a special vice, but a general source of the | |
| 11891 vices, as stated above ( | |
| 11892 <a id="SS_Q28_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q77_A4.html">FS, Q[77], A[4]</a>); so that it was necessary to account certain particular sorrows as special vices, because they do not arise from a special, | |
| 11893 but from a general vice. On the other hand love of God is accounted a special virtue, namely charity, to which joy must be | |
| 11894 referred, as its | |
| 11895 proper act, as stated above (here and A[2]). | |
| 11896 </p> | |
| 11897 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p8"> | |
| 11898 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hope proceeds from love even as joy does, but hope adds, on the part of the object, a special character, viz. "difficult," | |
| 11899 and "possible to obtain"; for which reason it is accounted a special virtue. On the other hand joy does not add to love any | |
| 11900 special aspect, that might cause a special virtue. | |
| 11901 </p> | |
| 11902 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p9"> | |
| 11903 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The Law prescribes joy, as being an act of charity, albeit not its first act. | |
| 11904 </p> | |
| 11905 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 11906 <p id="SS_Q28_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 11907 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11908 <a href="summa.SS_Q29.html"></a> | |
| 11909 </div> | |
| 11910 <a href="summa.SS_Q27_A8.html"></a> | |
| 11911 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11912 </div> | |
| 11913 <div id="SS_Q29" class="div3"> | |
| 11914 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html"></a> | |
| 11915 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11916 <h3 id="SS_Q29-p0.1">OF PEACE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 11917 <p id="SS_Q29-p1"></p> | |
| 11918 <p id="SS_Q29-p2"> We must now consider Peace, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 11919 <p id="SS_Q29-p3"> (1) Whether peace is the same as concord?</p> | |
| 11920 <p id="SS_Q29-p4"> (2) Whether all things desire peace?</p> | |
| 11921 <p id="SS_Q29-p5"> (3) Whether peace is an effect of charity?</p> | |
| 11922 <p id="SS_Q29-p6"> (4) Whether peace is a virtue?</p> | |
| 11923 <div id="SS_Q29_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 11924 <a href="summa.SS_Q29.html"></a> | |
| 11925 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11926 <h4 id="SS_Q29_A1-p0.1">Whether peace is the same as concord?</h4> | |
| 11927 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 11928 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p2"> | |
| 11929 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that peace is the same as concord. For Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, 13): "Peace among men is well ordered | |
| 11930 concord." Now we are speaking here of no other peace than that of men. Therefore peace is the same as concord. | |
| 11931 </p> | |
| 11932 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p3"> | |
| 11933 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, concord is union of wills. Now the nature of peace consists in such like union, for Dionysius says (Div. Nom. xi) | |
| 11934 that peace unites all, and makes them of one mind. Therefore peace is the same as concord. | |
| 11935 </p> | |
| 11936 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p4"> | |
| 11937 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, things whose opposites are identical are themselves identical. Now the one same thing is opposed to concord and | |
| 11938 peace, viz. dissension; hence it is written ( | |
| 11939 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.16.33" target="asv">1 Cor. 16:33</a>): "God is not the God of dissension but of peace." Therefore peace is the same as concord. | |
| 11940 </p> | |
| 11941 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p5"> | |
| 11942 <b>On the contrary,</b> There can be concord in evil between wicked men. But "there is no peace to the wicked" ( | |
| 11943 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.48.22" target="asv">Is. 48:22</a>). Therefore peace is not the same as concord. | |
| 11944 </p> | |
| 11945 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p6"> | |
| 11946 <b>I answer that,</b> Peace includes concord and adds something thereto. Hence wherever peace is, there is concord, but there is not peace, wherever | |
| 11947 there is concord, if we give peace its proper meaning. | |
| 11948 </p> | |
| 11949 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p7"> For concord, properly speaking, is between one man and another, in so far as the wills of various hearts agree together in | |
| 11950 consenting to the same thing. Now the heart of one man may happen to tend to diverse things, and this in two ways. First, | |
| 11951 in respect of the diverse appetitive powers: thus the sensitive appetite tends sometimes to that which is opposed to the rational | |
| 11952 appetite, according to | |
| 11953 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.17" target="asv"> Gal. 5:17</a>: "The flesh lusteth against the spirit." Secondly, in | |
| 11954 so far as one and the same appetitive power tends to diverse objects of appetite, which it cannot obtain all at the same time: | |
| 11955 so that there must needs be a clashing of the movements of the appetite. Now the union of such movements is essential to peace, | |
| 11956 because man's heart is not at peace, so long as he has not what he wants, or if, having what he wants, there still remains | |
| 11957 something for him to want, and which he cannot have at the same time. On the other hand this union is not essential to | |
| 11958 concord: wherefore concord denotes union of appetites among various persons, while peace denotes, in addition to this union, | |
| 11959 the union of the appetites even in one man. | |
| 11960 </p> | |
| 11961 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p8"> | |
| 11962 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking there of that peace which is between one man and another, and he says that this peace is concord, not | |
| 11963 indeed any kind of concord, but that which is well ordered, through one man agreeing with another in respect of something | |
| 11964 befitting to both of them . For if one man concord with another, not of his own accord, but through being forced, as it were, | |
| 11965 by the fear of some evil that besets him, such concord is not really peace, because | |
| 11966 the order of each concordant is not observed, but is disturbed by some fear-inspiring cause. For this reason he premises that | |
| 11967 "peace is tranquillity of order," which tranquillity consists in all the appetitive movements in one man being set at rest | |
| 11968 together. | |
| 11969 </p> | |
| 11970 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p9"> | |
| 11971 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> If one man consent to the same thing together with another man, his consent is nevertheless not perfectly united to himself, | |
| 11972 unless at the same time all his appetitive movements be in agreement. | |
| 11973 </p> | |
| 11974 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p10"> | |
| 11975 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A twofold dissension is opposed to peace, namely dissension between a man and himself, and dissension between one man and | |
| 11976 another. The latter alone is opposed to concord. | |
| 11977 </p> | |
| 11978 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 11979 <p id="SS_Q29_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 11980 <a href="summa.SS_Q29.html"></a> | |
| 11981 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A2.html"></a> | |
| 11982 </div> | |
| 11983 <div id="SS_Q29_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 11984 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html"></a> | |
| 11985 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html"></a> | |
| 11986 <h4 id="SS_Q29_A2-p0.1">Whether all things desire peace?</h4> | |
| 11987 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 11988 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p2"> | |
| 11989 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that not all things desire peace. For, according to Dionysius (Div. Nom. xi), peace "unites consent." But there | |
| 11990 cannot be unity of consent in things which are devoid of knowledge. Therefore such things cannot desire peace. | |
| 11991 </p> | |
| 11992 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p3"> | |
| 11993 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the appetite does not tend to opposite things at the same time. Now many desire war and dissension. Therefore all | |
| 11994 men do not desire peace. | |
| 11995 </p> | |
| 11996 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p4"> | |
| 11997 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, good alone is an object of appetite. But a certain peace is, seemingly, evil, else Our Lord would not have said | |
| 11998 ( | |
| 11999 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.34" target="asv">Mat. 10:34</a>): "I came not to send peace." Therefore all things do not desire peace. | |
| 12000 </p> | |
| 12001 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p5"> | |
| 12002 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, that which all desire is, seemingly, the sovereign good which is the last end. But this is not true of peace, since | |
| 12003 it is attainable even by a wayfarer; else Our Lord would vainly command ( | |
| 12004 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Mark.9.49" target="asv">Mk. 9:49</a>): "Have peace among you." Therefore all things do not desire peace. | |
| 12005 </p> | |
| 12006 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p6"> | |
| 12007 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, 12,14) that "all things desire peace": and Dionysius says the same (Div. Nom. xi). | |
| 12008 </p> | |
| 12009 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p7"> | |
| 12010 <b>I answer that,</b> From the very fact that a man desires a certain thing it follows that he desires to obtain what he desires, and, in consequence, | |
| 12011 to remove whatever may be an obstacle to his obtaining it. Now a man may be hindered from obtaining the good he desires, by | |
| 12012 a contrary desire either of his own or of some other, and both are removed by peace, as stated above. Hence it follows of | |
| 12013 necessity that whoever desires anything desires peace, in so far as he who desires | |
| 12014 anything, desires to attain, with tranquillity and without hindrance, to that which he desires: and this is what is meant | |
| 12015 by peace which Augustine defines (De Civ. Dei xix, 13) "the tranquillity of order." | |
| 12016 </p> | |
| 12017 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p8"> | |
| 12018 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Peace denotes union not only of the intellective or rational appetite, or of the animal appetite, in both of which consent | |
| 12019 may be found, but also of the natural appetite. Hence Dionysius says that "peace is the cause of consent and of connaturalness," | |
| 12020 where "consent" denotes the union of appetites proceeding from knowledge, and "connaturalness," the union of natural appetites. | |
| 12021 </p> | |
| 12022 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p9"> | |
| 12023 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even those who seek war and dissension, desire nothing but peace, which they deem themselves not to have. For as we stated | |
| 12024 above, there is no peace when a man concords with another man counter to what he would prefer. Consequently men seek by means | |
| 12025 of war to break this concord, because it is a defective peace, in order that they may obtain peace, where nothing is contrary | |
| 12026 to their will. Hence all wars are waged that men may find a more perfect peace | |
| 12027 than that which they had heretofore. | |
| 12028 </p> | |
| 12029 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p10"> | |
| 12030 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Peace gives calm and unity to the appetite. Now just as the appetite may tend to what is good simply, or to what is good | |
| 12031 apparently, so too, peace may be either true or apparent. There can be no true peace except where the appetite is directed | |
| 12032 to what is truly good, since every evil, though it may appear good in a way, so as to calm the appetite in some respect, has, | |
| 12033 nevertheless many defects, which cause the appetite to remain restless and disturbed. | |
| 12034 Hence true peace is only in good men and about good things. The peace of the wicked is not a true peace but a semblance thereof, | |
| 12035 wherefore it is written ( | |
| 12036 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.14.22" target="asv">Wis. 14:22</a>): "Whereas they lived in a great war of ignorance, they call so many and so great evils peace." | |
| 12037 </p> | |
| 12038 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p11"> | |
| 12039 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Since true peace is only about good things, as the true good is possessed in two ways, perfectly and imperfectly, so there | |
| 12040 is a twofold true peace. One is perfect peace. It consists in the perfect enjoyment of the sovereign good, and unites all | |
| 12041 one's desires by giving them rest in one object. This is the last end of the rational creature, according to | |
| 12042 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A2-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.147.3" target="asv"> Ps. 147:3</a>: "Who hath placed peace in thy borders." The other is imperfect peace, | |
| 12043 which may be had in this world, for though the chief movement of the soul finds rest in God, yet there are certain things | |
| 12044 within and without which disturb the peace. | |
| 12045 </p> | |
| 12046 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 12047 <p id="SS_Q29_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 12048 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12049 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12050 </div> | |
| 12051 <div id="SS_Q29_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 12052 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12053 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12054 <h4 id="SS_Q29_A3-p0.1">Whether peace is the proper effect of charity?</h4> | |
| 12055 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 12056 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p2"> | |
| 12057 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that peace is not the proper effect of charity. For one cannot have charity without sanctifying grace. But | |
| 12058 some have peace who have not sanctifying grace, thus heathens sometimes have peace. Therefore peace is not the effect of charity. | |
| 12059 </p> | |
| 12060 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p3"> | |
| 12061 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if a certain thing is caused by charity, its contrary is not compatible with charity. But dissension, which is contrary | |
| 12062 to peace, is compatible with charity, for we find that even holy doctors, such as Jerome and Augustine, dissented in some | |
| 12063 of their opinions. We also read that Paul and Barnabas dissented from one another ( | |
| 12064 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.15" target="asv">Acts 15</a>). Therefore it seems that peace is not the effect of charity. | |
| 12065 </p> | |
| 12066 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p4"> | |
| 12067 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the same thing is not the proper effect of different things. Now peace is the effect of justice, according to | |
| 12068 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.32.17" target="asv"> Is. 32:17</a>: "And the work of justice shall be peace." Therefore it is not the effect of charity. | |
| 12069 </p> | |
| 12070 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p5"> | |
| 12071 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 12072 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.165" target="asv">Ps. 118:165</a>): "Much peace have they that love Thy Law." | |
| 12073 </p> | |
| 12074 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p6"> | |
| 12075 <b>I answer that,</b> Peace implies a twofold union, as stated above | |
| 12076 <a id="SS_Q29_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. The first is the result of one's own appetites being directed to one object; while the other results from one's own appetite | |
| 12077 being united with the appetite of another: and each of these unions is effected by charity---the first, in so far as man loves | |
| 12078 God with his whole heart, by referring all things to Him, so that all his desires tend to one object---the second, in so far | |
| 12079 as we | |
| 12080 love our neighbor as ourselves, the result being that we wish to fulfil our neighbor's will as though it were ours: hence | |
| 12081 it is reckoned a sign of friendship if people "make choice of the same things" (Ethic. ix, 4), and Tully says (De Amicitia) | |
| 12082 that friends "like and dislike the same things" (Sallust, Catilin.) | |
| 12083 </p> | |
| 12084 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p7"> | |
| 12085 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Without sin no one falls from a state of sanctifying grace, for it turns man away from his due end by making him place his | |
| 12086 end in something undue: so that his appetite does not cleave chiefly to the true final good, but to some apparent good. Hence, | |
| 12087 without sanctifying grace, peace is not real but merely apparent. | |
| 12088 </p> | |
| 12089 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p8"> | |
| 12090 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As the Philosopher says (Ethic. ix, 6) friends need not agree in opinion, but only upon such goods as conduce to life, and | |
| 12091 especially upon such as are important; because dissension in small matters is scarcely accounted dissension. Hence nothing | |
| 12092 hinders those who have charity from holding different opinions. Nor is this an obstacle to peace, because opinions concern | |
| 12093 the intellect, which precedes the appetite that is united by peace. In like manner if | |
| 12094 there be concord as to goods of importance, dissension with regard to some that are of little account is not contrary to charity: | |
| 12095 for such a dissension proceeds from a difference of opinion, because one man thinks that the particular good, which is the | |
| 12096 object of dissension, belongs to the good about which they agree, while the other thinks that it does not. Accordingly such | |
| 12097 like dissension about very slight matters and about opinions is inconsistent with a state of perfect peace, wherein the | |
| 12098 truth will be known fully, and every desire fulfilled; but it is not inconsistent with the imperfect peace of the wayfarer. | |
| 12099 </p> | |
| 12100 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p9"> | |
| 12101 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Peace is the "work of justice" indirectly, in so far as justice removes the obstacles to peace: but it is the work of charity | |
| 12102 directly, since charity, according to its very nature, causes peace. For love is "a unitive force" as Dionysius says (Div. | |
| 12103 Nom. iv): and peace is the union of the appetite's inclinations. | |
| 12104 </p> | |
| 12105 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 12106 <p id="SS_Q29_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 12107 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12108 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12109 </div> | |
| 12110 <div id="SS_Q29_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 12111 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12112 <a href="summa.SS_Q30.html"></a> | |
| 12113 <h4 id="SS_Q29_A4-p0.1">Whether peace is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 12114 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 12115 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p2"> | |
| 12116 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that peace is a virtue. For nothing is a matter of precept, unless it be an act of virtue. But there are precepts | |
| 12117 about keeping peace, for example: "Have peace among you" ( | |
| 12118 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Mark.9.49" target="asv">Mk. 9:49</a>). Therefore peace is a virtue. | |
| 12119 </p> | |
| 12120 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p3"> | |
| 12121 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, we do not merit except by acts of virtue. Now it is meritorious to keep peace, according to | |
| 12122 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.9" target="asv"> Mat. 5:9</a>: "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God." Therefore peace is a virtue. | |
| 12123 </p> | |
| 12124 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p4"> | |
| 12125 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, vices are opposed to virtues. But dissensions, which are contrary to peace, are numbered among the vices ( | |
| 12126 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q29_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv">Gal. 5:20</a>). Therefore peace is a virtue. | |
| 12127 </p> | |
| 12128 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p5"> | |
| 12129 <b>On the contrary,</b> Virtue is not the last end, but the way thereto. But peace is the last end, in a sense, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, | |
| 12130 11). Therefore peace is not a virtue. | |
| 12131 </p> | |
| 12132 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p6"> | |
| 12133 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 12134 <a id="SS_Q29_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html">Q[28], A[4]</a>), when a number of acts all proceeding uniformly from an agent, follow one from the other, they all arise from the same virtue, | |
| 12135 nor do they each have a virtue from which they proceed, as may be seen in corporeal things. For, though fire by heating, both | |
| 12136 liquefies and rarefies, there are not two powers in fire, one of liquefaction, the other of rarefaction: and fire produces | |
| 12137 all such actions by its own | |
| 12138 power of calefaction. | |
| 12139 </p> | |
| 12140 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p7"> Since then charity causes peace precisely because it is love of God and of our neighbor, as shown above | |
| 12141 <a id="SS_Q29_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, there is no other virtue except charity whose proper act is peace, as we have also said in reference to joy (Q[28], A[4]). | |
| 12142 </p> | |
| 12143 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p8"> | |
| 12144 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We are commanded to keep peace because it is an act of charity; and for this reason too it is a meritorious act. Hence it | |
| 12145 is placed among the beatitudes, which are acts of perfect virtue, as stated above ( | |
| 12146 <a id="SS_Q29_A4-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q69_A1.html">FS, Q[69], AA[1]</a>,3). It is also numbered among the fruits, in so far as it is a final good, having spiritual sweetness. | |
| 12147 </p> | |
| 12148 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p9"> This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.</p> | |
| 12149 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p10"> | |
| 12150 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Several vices are opposed to one virtue in respect of its various acts: so that not only is hatred opposed to charity, in | |
| 12151 respect of its act which is love, but also sloth and envy, in respect of joy, and dissension in respect of peace. | |
| 12152 </p> | |
| 12153 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 12154 <p id="SS_Q29_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 12155 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12156 <a href="summa.SS_Q30.html"></a> | |
| 12157 </div> | |
| 12158 <a href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12159 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12160 </div> | |
| 12161 <div id="SS_Q30" class="div3"> | |
| 12162 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12163 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12164 <h3 id="SS_Q30-p0.1">OF MERCY (FOUR ARTICLES) [*The one Latin word "misericordia" signifies either pity or mercy. The distinction between these | |
| 12165 two is that pity may stand either for the act or for the virtue, whereas mercy stands only for the virtue.] | |
| 12166 </h3> | |
| 12167 <p id="SS_Q30-p1"></p> | |
| 12168 <p id="SS_Q30-p2"> We must now go on to consider Mercy, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 12169 <p id="SS_Q30-p3"> (1) Whether evil is the cause of mercy on the part of the person pitied?</p> | |
| 12170 <p id="SS_Q30-p4"> (2) To whom does it belong to pity?</p> | |
| 12171 <p id="SS_Q30-p5"> (3) Whether mercy is a virtue?</p> | |
| 12172 <p id="SS_Q30-p6"> (4) Whether it is the greatest of virtues?</p> | |
| 12173 <div id="SS_Q30_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 12174 <a href="summa.SS_Q30.html"></a> | |
| 12175 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12176 <h4 id="SS_Q30_A1-p0.1">Whether evil is properly the motive of mercy?</h4> | |
| 12177 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 12178 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p2"> | |
| 12179 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that, properly speaking, evil is not the motive of mercy. For, as shown above (Q[19], A[1]; | |
| 12180 <a id="SS_Q30_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q79_A1.html">FS, Q[79], A[1]</a>, ad 4; | |
| 12181 <a id="SS_Q30_A1-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q48_A6.html">FP, Q[48] , A[6]</a>), fault is an evil rather than punishment. Now fault provokes indignation rather than mercy. Therefore evil does not excite | |
| 12182 mercy. | |
| 12183 </p> | |
| 12184 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p3"> | |
| 12185 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, cruelty and harshness seem to excel other evils. Now the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that "harshness does not | |
| 12186 call for pity but drives it away." Therefore evil, as such, is not the motive of mercy. | |
| 12187 </p> | |
| 12188 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p4"> | |
| 12189 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, signs of evils are not true evils. But signs of evils excite one to mercy, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, | |
| 12190 8). Therefore evil, properly speaking, is not an incentive to mercy. | |
| 12191 </p> | |
| 12192 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p5"> | |
| 12193 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 2) that mercy is a kind of sorrow. Now evil is the motive of sorrow. Therefore it is the | |
| 12194 motive of mercy. | |
| 12195 </p> | |
| 12196 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p6"> | |
| 12197 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei ix, 5), mercy is heartfelt sympathy for another's distress, impelling us to succor him if | |
| 12198 we can. For mercy takes its name "misericordia" from denoting a man's compassionate heart [miserum cor] for another's unhappiness. | |
| 12199 Now unhappiness is opposed to happiness: and it is essential to beatitude or happiness that one should obtain what one wishes; | |
| 12200 for, according to Augustine (De Trin. xiii, 5), "happy is he who has whatever he | |
| 12201 desires, and desires nothing amiss." Hence, on the other hand, it belongs to unhappiness that a man should suffer what he | |
| 12202 wishes not. | |
| 12203 </p> | |
| 12204 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p7"> Now a man wishes a thing in three ways: first, by his natural appetite; thus all men naturally wish to be and to live: secondly, | |
| 12205 a man wishes a thing from deliberate choice: thirdly, a man wishes a thing, not in itself, but in its cause, thus, if a man | |
| 12206 wishes to eat what is bad for him, we say that, in a way, he wishes to be ill. | |
| 12207 </p> | |
| 12208 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p8"> Accordingly the motive of "mercy," being something pertaining to "misery," is, in the first way, anything contrary to the | |
| 12209 will's natural appetite, namely corruptive or distressing evils, the contrary of which man desires naturally, wherefore the | |
| 12210 Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that "pity is sorrow for a visible evil, whether corruptive or distressing." Secondly, such | |
| 12211 like evils are yet more provocative of pity if they are contrary to deliberate choice, wherefore the Philosopher | |
| 12212 says (Rhet. ii, 8) that evil excites our pity "when it is the result of an accident, as when something turns out ill, whereas | |
| 12213 we hoped well of it." Thirdly, they cause yet greater pity, if they are entirely contrary to the will, as when evil befalls | |
| 12214 a man who has always striven to do well: wherefore the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that "we pity most the distress of one | |
| 12215 who suffers undeservedly." | |
| 12216 </p> | |
| 12217 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p9"> | |
| 12218 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is essential to fault that it be voluntary; and in this respect it deserves punishment rather than mercy. Since, however, | |
| 12219 fault may be, in a way, a punishment, through having something connected with it that is against the sinner's will, it may, | |
| 12220 in this respect, call for mercy. It is in this sense that we pity and commiserate sinners. Thus Gregory says in a homily (Hom. | |
| 12221 in Evang. xxxiv) that "true godliness is not disdainful but compassionate," and | |
| 12222 again it is written ( | |
| 12223 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.9.36" target="asv">Mat. 9:36</a>) that Jesus "seeing the multitudes, had compassion on them: because they were distressed, and lying like sheep that have | |
| 12224 no shepherd." | |
| 12225 </p> | |
| 12226 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p10"> | |
| 12227 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since pity is sympathy for another's distress, it is directed, properly speaking, towards another, and not to oneself, except | |
| 12228 figuratively, like justice, according as a man is considered to have various parts (Ethic. v, 11). Thus it is written ( | |
| 12229 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A1-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.30.24" target="asv">Ecclus. 30:24</a>): "Have pity on thy own soul, pleasing God" [*Cf. | |
| 12230 <a id="SS_Q30_A1-p10.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q106_A3.html"> Q[106], A[3]</a>, ad 1]. | |
| 12231 </p> | |
| 12232 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p11"> Accordingly just as, properly speaking, a man does not pity himself, but suffers in himself, as when we suffer cruel treatment | |
| 12233 in ourselves, so too, in the case of those who are so closely united to us, as to be part of ourselves, such as our children | |
| 12234 or our parents, we do not pity their distress, but suffer as for our own sores; in which sense the Philosopher says that "harshness | |
| 12235 drives pity away." | |
| 12236 </p> | |
| 12237 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p12"> | |
| 12238 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as pleasure results from hope and memory of good things, so does sorrow arise from the prospect or the recollection | |
| 12239 of evil things; though not so keenly as when they are present to the senses. Hence the signs of evil move us to pity, in so | |
| 12240 far as they represent as present, the evil that excites our pity. | |
| 12241 </p> | |
| 12242 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 12243 <p id="SS_Q30_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 12244 <a href="summa.SS_Q30.html"></a> | |
| 12245 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12246 </div> | |
| 12247 <div id="SS_Q30_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 12248 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12249 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12250 <h4 id="SS_Q30_A2-p0.1">Whether the reason for taking pity is a defect in the person who pities?</h4> | |
| 12251 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 12252 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p2"> | |
| 12253 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the reason for taking pity is not a defect in the person who takes pity. For it is proper to God to be | |
| 12254 merciful, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 12255 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.144.9" target="asv">Ps. 144:9</a>): "His tender mercies are over all His works." But there is no defect in God. Therefore a defect cannot be the reason for | |
| 12256 taking pity. | |
| 12257 </p> | |
| 12258 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p3"> | |
| 12259 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if a defect is the reason for taking pity, those in whom there is most defect, must needs take most pity. But this | |
| 12260 is false: for the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that "those who are in a desperate state are pitiless." Therefore it seems | |
| 12261 that the reason for taking pity is not a defect in the person who pities. | |
| 12262 </p> | |
| 12263 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p4"> | |
| 12264 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to be treated with contempt is to be defective. But the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that "those who are disposed | |
| 12265 to contumely are pitiless." Therefore the reason for taking pity, is not a defect in the person who pities. | |
| 12266 </p> | |
| 12267 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p5"> | |
| 12268 <b>On the contrary,</b> Pity is a kind of sorrow. But a defect is the reason of sorrow, wherefore those who are in bad health give way to sorrow | |
| 12269 more easily, as we shall say further on ( | |
| 12270 <a id="SS_Q30_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html">Q[35], A[1]</a>, ad 2). Therefore the reason why one takes pity is a defect in oneself. | |
| 12271 </p> | |
| 12272 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p6"> | |
| 12273 <b>I answer that,</b> Since pity is grief for another's distress, as stated above | |
| 12274 <a id="SS_Q30_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, from the very fact that a person takes pity on anyone, it follows that another's distress grieves him. And since sorrow | |
| 12275 or grief is about one's own ills, one grieves or sorrows for another's distress, in so far as one looks upon another's distress | |
| 12276 as one's own. | |
| 12277 </p> | |
| 12278 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p7"> Now this happens in two ways: first, through union of the affections, which is the effect of love. For, since he who loves | |
| 12279 another looks upon his friend as another self, he counts his friend's hurt as his own, so that he grieves for his friend's | |
| 12280 hurt as though he were hurt himself. Hence the Philosopher (Ethic. ix, 4) reckons "grieving with one's friend" as being one | |
| 12281 of the signs of friendship, and the Apostle says ( | |
| 12282 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A2-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.15" target="asv">Rom. 12:15</a>): "Rejoice with them that rejoice, weep with them | |
| 12283 that weep." | |
| 12284 </p> | |
| 12285 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p8"> Secondly, it happens through real union, for instance when another's evil comes near to us, so as to pass to us from him. | |
| 12286 Hence the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 8) that men pity such as are akin to them, and the like, because it makes them realize | |
| 12287 that the same may happen to themselves. This also explains why the old and the wise who consider that they may fall upon evil | |
| 12288 times, as also feeble and timorous persons, are more inclined to pity: whereas those who deem themselves | |
| 12289 happy, and so far powerful as to think themselves in no danger of suffering any hurt, are not so inclined to pity. | |
| 12290 </p> | |
| 12291 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p9"> Accordingly a defect is always the reason for taking pity, either because one looks upon another's defect as one's own, through | |
| 12292 being united to him by love, or on account of the possibility of suffering in the same way. | |
| 12293 </p> | |
| 12294 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p10"> | |
| 12295 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> God takes pity on us through love alone, in as much as He loves us as belonging to Him. | |
| 12296 </p> | |
| 12297 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p11"> | |
| 12298 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Those who are already in infinite distress, do not fear to suffer more, wherefore they are without pity. In like manner this | |
| 12299 applies to those also who are in great fear, for they are so intent on their own passion, that they pay no attention to the | |
| 12300 suffering of others. | |
| 12301 </p> | |
| 12302 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p12"> | |
| 12303 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Those who are disposed to contumely, whether through having been contemned, or because they wish to contemn others, are incited | |
| 12304 to anger and daring, which are manly passions and arouse the human spirit to attempt difficult things. Hence they make a man | |
| 12305 think that he is going to suffer something in the future, so that while they are disposed in that way they are pitiless, according | |
| 12306 to | |
| 12307 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A2-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.27.4" target="asv"> Prov. 27:4</a>: "Anger hath no mercy, nor fury when | |
| 12308 it breaketh forth." For the same reason the proud are without pity, because they despise others, and think them wicked, so | |
| 12309 that they account them as suffering deservedly whatever they suffer. Hence Gregory says (Hom. in Evang. xxxiv) that "false | |
| 12310 godliness," i.e. of the proud, "is not compassionate but disdainful." | |
| 12311 </p> | |
| 12312 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 12313 <p id="SS_Q30_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 12314 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12315 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12316 </div> | |
| 12317 <div id="SS_Q30_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 12318 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12319 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12320 <h4 id="SS_Q30_A3-p0.1">Whether mercy is a virtue?</h4> | |
| 12321 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 12322 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p2"> | |
| 12323 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that mercy is not a virtue. For the chief part of virtue is choice as the Philosopher states (Ethic. ii, 5). | |
| 12324 Now choice is "the desire of what has been already counselled" (Ethic. iii, 2). Therefore whatever hinders counsel cannot | |
| 12325 be called a virtue. But mercy hinders counsel, according to the saying of Sallust (Catilin.): "All those that take counsel | |
| 12326 about matters of doubt, should be free from . . . anger . . . and mercy, because the mind does | |
| 12327 not easily see aright, when these things stand in the way." Therefore mercy is not a virtue. | |
| 12328 </p> | |
| 12329 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p3"> | |
| 12330 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing contrary to virtue is praiseworthy. But nemesis is contrary to mercy, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, | |
| 12331 9), and yet it is a praiseworthy passion (Rhet. ii, 9). Therefore mercy is not a virtue. | |
| 12332 </p> | |
| 12333 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p4"> | |
| 12334 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, joy and peace are not special virtues, because they result from charity, as stated above ( | |
| 12335 <a id="SS_Q30_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html">Q[28], A[4]</a>; | |
| 12336 <a id="SS_Q30_A3-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A4.html"> Q[29], A[4]</a>). Now mercy, also, results from charity; for it is out of charity that we weep with them that weep, as we rejoice with them | |
| 12337 that rejoice. Therefore mercy is not a special virtue. | |
| 12338 </p> | |
| 12339 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p5"> | |
| 12340 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, since mercy belongs to the appetitive power, it is not an intellectual virtue, and, since it has not God for its | |
| 12341 object, neither is it a theological virtue. Moreover it is not a moral virtue, because neither is it about operations, for | |
| 12342 this belongs to justice; nor is it about passions, since it is not reduced to one of the twelve means mentioned by the Philosopher | |
| 12343 (Ethic. ii, 7). Therefore mercy is not a virtue. | |
| 12344 </p> | |
| 12345 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p6"> | |
| 12346 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Civ. Dei ix, 5): "Cicero in praising Caesar expresses himself much better and in a fashion at once more | |
| 12347 humane and more in accordance with religious feeling, when he says: 'Of all thy virtues none is more marvelous or more graceful | |
| 12348 than thy mercy.'" Therefore mercy is a virtue. | |
| 12349 </p> | |
| 12350 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p7"> | |
| 12351 <b>I answer that,</b> Mercy signifies grief for another's distress. Now this grief may denote, in one way, a movement of the sensitive appetite, | |
| 12352 in which case mercy is not a virtue but a passion; whereas, in another way, it may denote a movement of the intellective appetite, | |
| 12353 in as much as one person's evil is displeasing to another. This movement may be ruled in accordance with reason, and in accordance | |
| 12354 with this movement regulated by reason, the movement of the lower appetite | |
| 12355 may be regulated. Hence Augustine says (De Civ. Dei ix, 5) that "this movement of the mind" (viz. mercy) "obeys the reason, | |
| 12356 when mercy is vouchsafed in such a way that justice is safeguarded, whether we give to the needy or forgive the repentant." | |
| 12357 And since it is essential to human virtue that the movements of the soul should be regulated by reason, as was shown above | |
| 12358 ( | |
| 12359 <a id="SS_Q30_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q59_A4.html">FS, Q[59], AA[4]</a>,5), it follows that mercy is a virtue. | |
| 12360 </p> | |
| 12361 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p8"> | |
| 12362 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The words of Sallust are to be understood as applying to the mercy which is a passion unregulated by reason: for thus it | |
| 12363 impedes the counselling of reason, by making it wander from justice. | |
| 12364 </p> | |
| 12365 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p9"> | |
| 12366 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The Philosopher is speaking there of pity and nemesis, considered, both of them, as passions. They are contrary to one another | |
| 12367 on the part of their respective estimation of another's evils, for which pity grieves, in so far as it esteems someone to | |
| 12368 suffer undeservedly, whereas nemesis rejoices, in so far as it esteems someone to suffer deservedly, and grieves, if things | |
| 12369 go well with the undeserving: "both of these are praiseworthy and come from the | |
| 12370 same disposition of character" (Rhet. ii, 9). Properly speaking, however, it is envy which is opposed to pity, as we shall | |
| 12371 state further on ( | |
| 12372 <a id="SS_Q30_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html">Q[36], A[3]</a>). | |
| 12373 </p> | |
| 12374 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p10"> | |
| 12375 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Joy and peace add nothing to the aspect of good which is the object of charity, wherefore they do not require any other virtue | |
| 12376 besides charity. But mercy regards a certain special aspect, namely the misery of the person pitied. | |
| 12377 </p> | |
| 12378 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p11"> | |
| 12379 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Mercy, considered as a virtue, is a moral virtue having relation to the passions, and it is reduced to the mean called nemesis, | |
| 12380 because "they both proceed from the same character" (Rhet. ii, 9). Now the Philosopher proposes these means not as virtues, | |
| 12381 but as passions, because, even as passions, they are praiseworthy. Yet nothing prevents them from proceeding from some elective | |
| 12382 habit, in which case they assume the character of a virtue. | |
| 12383 </p> | |
| 12384 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 12385 <p id="SS_Q30_A3-p13"></p> | |
| 12386 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12387 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12388 </div> | |
| 12389 <div id="SS_Q30_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 12390 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12391 <a href="summa.SS_Q31.html"></a> | |
| 12392 <h4 id="SS_Q30_A4-p0.1">Whether mercy is the greatest of the virtues?</h4> | |
| 12393 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 12394 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p2"> | |
| 12395 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that mercy is the greatest of the virtues. For the worship of God seems a most virtuous act. But mercy is preferred | |
| 12396 before the worship of God, according to | |
| 12397 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Hos.6.6" target="asv"> Osee 6:6 </a>and | |
| 12398 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.7" target="asv"> Mat. 12:7</a>: "I have desired mercy and not sacrifice." Therefore mercy is the greatest virtue. | |
| 12399 </p> | |
| 12400 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p3"> | |
| 12401 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, on the words of | |
| 12402 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.4.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 4:8</a>: "Godliness is profitable to all things," a gloss says: "The sum total of a Christian's rule of life consists in mercy and | |
| 12403 godliness." Now the Christian rule of life embraces every virtue. Therefore the sum total of all virtues is contained in mercy. | |
| 12404 </p> | |
| 12405 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p4"> | |
| 12406 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "Virtue is that which makes its subject good," according to the Philosopher. Therefore the more a virtue makes a | |
| 12407 man like God, the better is that virtue: since man is the better for being more like God. Now this is chiefly the result of | |
| 12408 mercy, since of God is it said ( | |
| 12409 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.144.9" target="asv">Ps. 144:9</a>) that "His tender mercies are over all His works," and ( | |
| 12410 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.6.36" target="asv">Lk. 6:36</a>) Our Lord said: "Be ye . . . merciful, as your Father also is merciful." Therefore mercy | |
| 12411 is the greatest of virtues. | |
| 12412 </p> | |
| 12413 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p5"> | |
| 12414 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle after saying ( | |
| 12415 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Col.3.12" target="asv">Col. 3:12</a>): "Put ye on . . . as the elect of God . . . the bowels of mercy," etc., adds ( | |
| 12416 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Col.3.14" target="asv">Col. 3:14</a>): "Above all things have charity." Therefore mercy is not the greatest of virtues. | |
| 12417 </p> | |
| 12418 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p6"> | |
| 12419 <b>I answer that,</b> A virtue may take precedence of others in two ways: first, in itself; secondly, in comparison with its subject. In itself, | |
| 12420 mercy takes precedence of other virtues, for it belongs to mercy to be bountiful to others, and, what is more, to succor others | |
| 12421 in their wants, which pertains chiefly to one who stands above. Hence mercy is accounted as being proper to God: and therein | |
| 12422 His omnipotence is declared to be chiefly manifested [*Collect, Tenth Sunday after | |
| 12423 Pentecost]. | |
| 12424 </p> | |
| 12425 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p7"> On the other hand, with regard to its subject, mercy is not the greatest virtue, unless that subject be greater than all | |
| 12426 others, surpassed by none and excelling all: since for him that has anyone above him it is better to be united to that which | |
| 12427 is above than to supply the defect of that which is beneath. [*"The quality of mercy is not strained./'Tis mightiest in the | |
| 12428 mightiest: it becomes/The throned monarch better than his crown." Merchant of Venice, Act IV, Scene i.]. Hence, | |
| 12429 as regards man, who has God above him, charity which unites him to God, is greater than mercy, whereby he supplies the defects | |
| 12430 of his neighbor. But of all the virtues which relate to our neighbor, mercy is the greatest, even as its act surpasses all | |
| 12431 others, since it belongs to one who is higher and better to supply the defect of another, in so far as the latter is deficient. | |
| 12432 </p> | |
| 12433 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p8"> | |
| 12434 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We worship God by external sacrifices and gifts, not for His own profit, but for that of ourselves and our neighbor. For | |
| 12435 He needs not our sacrifices, but wishes them to be offered to Him, in order to arouse our devotion and to profit our neighbor. | |
| 12436 Hence mercy, whereby we supply others' defects is a sacrifice more acceptable to Him, as conducing more directly to our neighbor's | |
| 12437 well-being, according to | |
| 12438 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q30_A4-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.13.16" target="asv">Heb. 13:16</a>: "Do not forget to do good and to | |
| 12439 impart, for by such sacrifices God's favor is obtained." | |
| 12440 </p> | |
| 12441 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p9"> | |
| 12442 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The sum total of the Christian religion consists in mercy, as regards external works: but the inward love of charity, whereby | |
| 12443 we are united to God preponderates over both love and mercy for our neighbor. | |
| 12444 </p> | |
| 12445 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p10"> | |
| 12446 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity likens us to God by uniting us to Him in the bond of love: wherefore it surpasses mercy, which likens us to God as | |
| 12447 regards similarity of works. | |
| 12448 </p> | |
| 12449 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 12450 <p id="SS_Q30_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 12451 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12452 <a href="summa.SS_Q31.html"></a> | |
| 12453 </div> | |
| 12454 <a href="summa.SS_Q29_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12455 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12456 </div> | |
| 12457 <div id="SS_Q31" class="div3"> | |
| 12458 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12459 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12460 <h3 id="SS_Q31-p0.1">OF BENEFICENCE (FOUR ARTICLES) </h3> | |
| 12461 <p id="SS_Q31-p1"></p> | |
| 12462 <p id="SS_Q31-p2"> We must now consider the outward acts or effects of charity, (1) Beneficence, (2) Almsdeeds, which are a part of beneficence, | |
| 12463 (3) Fraternal correction, which is a kind of alms. | |
| 12464 </p> | |
| 12465 <p id="SS_Q31-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 12466 <p id="SS_Q31-p4"> (1) Whether beneficence is an act of charity ?</p> | |
| 12467 <p id="SS_Q31-p5"> (2) Whether we ought to be beneficent to all?</p> | |
| 12468 <p id="SS_Q31-p6"> (3) Whether we ought to be more beneficent to those who are more closely united to us?</p> | |
| 12469 <p id="SS_Q31-p7"> (4) Whether beneficence is a special virtue?</p> | |
| 12470 <div id="SS_Q31_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 12471 <a href="summa.SS_Q31.html"></a> | |
| 12472 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12473 <h4 id="SS_Q31_A1-p0.1">Whether beneficence is an act of charity?</h4> | |
| 12474 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 12475 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p2"> | |
| 12476 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that beneficence is not an act of charity. For charity is chiefly directed to God. Now we cannot benefit God, | |
| 12477 according to | |
| 12478 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Job.35.7" target="asv"> Job 35:7</a>: "What shalt thou give Him? or what shall He receive of thy hand?" Therefore beneficence is not an act of charity. | |
| 12479 </p> | |
| 12480 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p3"> | |
| 12481 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, beneficence consists chiefly in making gifts. But this belongs to liberality. Therefore beneficence is an act of | |
| 12482 liberality and not of charity. | |
| 12483 </p> | |
| 12484 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p4"> | |
| 12485 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what a man gives, he gives either as being due, or as not due. But a benefit conferred as being due belongs to justice | |
| 12486 while a benefit conferred as not due, is gratuitous, and in this respect is an act of mercy. Therefore every benefit conferred | |
| 12487 is either an act of justice, or an act of mercy. Therefore it is not an act of charity. | |
| 12488 </p> | |
| 12489 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p5"> | |
| 12490 <b>On the contrary,</b> Charity is a kind of friendship, as stated above ( | |
| 12491 <a id="SS_Q31_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23] , A[1]</a>). Now the Philosopher reckons among the acts of friendship (Ethic. ix, 1) "doing good," i.e. being beneficent, "to one's | |
| 12492 friends." Therefore it is an act of charity to do good to others. | |
| 12493 </p> | |
| 12494 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p6"> | |
| 12495 <b>I answer that,</b> Beneficence simply means doing good to someone. This good may be considered in two ways, first under the general aspect of | |
| 12496 good, and this belongs to beneficence in general, and is an act of friendship, and, consequently, of charity: because the | |
| 12497 act of love includes goodwill whereby a man wishes his friend well, as stated above ( | |
| 12498 <a id="SS_Q31_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>; | |
| 12499 <a id="SS_Q31_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q27_A2.html"> Q[27] , A[2]</a>). Now the will carries into effect if possible, the | |
| 12500 things it wills, so that, consequently, the result of an act of love is that a man is beneficent to his friend. Therefore | |
| 12501 beneficence in its general acceptation is an act of friendship or charity. | |
| 12502 </p> | |
| 12503 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p7"> But if the good which one man does another, be considered under some special aspect of good, then beneficence will assume | |
| 12504 a special character and will belong to some special virtue. | |
| 12505 </p> | |
| 12506 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p8"> | |
| 12507 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to Dionysius (Div. Nom. iv), "love moves those, whom it unites, to a mutual relationship: it turns the inferior | |
| 12508 to the superior to be perfected thereby; it moves the superior to watch over the inferior:" and in this respect beneficence | |
| 12509 is an effect of love. Hence it is not for us to benefit God, but to honor Him by obeying Him, while it is for Him, out of | |
| 12510 His love, to bestow good things on us. | |
| 12511 </p> | |
| 12512 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p9"> | |
| 12513 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Two things must be observed in the bestowal of gifts. One is the thing given outwardly, while the other is the inward passion | |
| 12514 that a man has in the delight of riches. It belongs to liberality to moderate this inward passion so as to avoid excessive | |
| 12515 desire and love for riches; for this makes a man more ready to part with his wealth. Hence, if a man makes some great gift, | |
| 12516 while yet desiring to keep it for himself, his is not a liberal giving. On the | |
| 12517 other hand, as regards the outward gift, the act of beneficence belongs in general to friendship or charity. Hence it does | |
| 12518 not detract from a man's friendship, if, through love, he give his friend something he would like to I keep for himself; rather | |
| 12519 does this prove the perfection of his friendship. | |
| 12520 </p> | |
| 12521 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p10"> | |
| 12522 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as friendship or charity sees, in the benefit bestowed, the general aspect of good, so does justice see therein the | |
| 12523 aspect of debt, while pity considers the relieving of distress or defect. | |
| 12524 </p> | |
| 12525 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 12526 <p id="SS_Q31_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 12527 <a href="summa.SS_Q31.html"></a> | |
| 12528 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12529 </div> | |
| 12530 <div id="SS_Q31_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 12531 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12532 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12533 <h4 id="SS_Q31_A2-p0.1">Whether we ought to do good to all?</h4> | |
| 12534 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 12535 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p2"> | |
| 12536 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we are not bound to do good to all. For Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 28) that we "are unable to | |
| 12537 do good to everyone." Now virtue does not incline one to the impossible. Therefore it is not necessary to do good to all. | |
| 12538 </p> | |
| 12539 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p3"> | |
| 12540 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 12541 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.12.5" target="asv">Ecclus. 12:5</a>) "Give to the good, and receive not a sinner." But many men are sinners. Therefore we need not do good to all. | |
| 12542 </p> | |
| 12543 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p4"> | |
| 12544 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "Charity dealeth not perversely" ( | |
| 12545 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.4" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:4</a>). Now to do good to some is to deal perversely: for instance if one were to do good to an enemy of the common weal, or if | |
| 12546 one were to do good to an excommunicated person, since, by doing so, he would be holding communion with him. Therefore, since | |
| 12547 beneficence is an act of charity, we ought not to do good to all. | |
| 12548 </p> | |
| 12549 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p5"> | |
| 12550 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 12551 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.6.10" target="asv">Gal. 6:10</a>): "Whilst we have time, let us work good to all men." | |
| 12552 </p> | |
| 12553 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p6"> | |
| 12554 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[1], ad 1), beneficence is an effect of love in so far as love moves the superior to watch over the inferior. | |
| 12555 Now degrees among men are not unchangeable as among angels, because men are subject to many failings, so that he who is superior | |
| 12556 in one respect, is or may be inferior in another. Therefore, since the love of charity extends to all, beneficence also should | |
| 12557 extend to all, but according as time and place require: because all acts of | |
| 12558 virtue must be modified with a view to their due circumstances. | |
| 12559 </p> | |
| 12560 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p7"> | |
| 12561 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Absolutely speaking it is impossible to do good to every single one: yet it is true of each individual that one may be bound | |
| 12562 to do good to him in some particular case. Hence charity binds us, though not actually doing good to someone, to be prepared | |
| 12563 in mind to do good to anyone if we have time to spare. There is however a good that we can do to all, if not to each individual, | |
| 12564 at least to all in general, as when we pray for all, for unbelievers as well | |
| 12565 as for the faithful. | |
| 12566 </p> | |
| 12567 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p8"> | |
| 12568 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In a sinner there are two things, his guilt and his nature. Accordingly we are bound to succor the sinner as to the maintenance | |
| 12569 of his nature, but not so as to abet his sin, for this would be to do evil rather than good. | |
| 12570 </p> | |
| 12571 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p9"> | |
| 12572 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The excommunicated and the enemies of the common weal are deprived of all beneficence, in so far as this prevents them from | |
| 12573 doing evil deeds. Yet if their nature be in urgent need of succor lest it fail, we are bound to help them: for instance, if | |
| 12574 they be in danger of death through hunger or thirst, or suffer some like distress, unless this be according to the order of | |
| 12575 justice. | |
| 12576 </p> | |
| 12577 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 12578 <p id="SS_Q31_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 12579 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12580 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12581 </div> | |
| 12582 <div id="SS_Q31_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 12583 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12584 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12585 <h4 id="SS_Q31_A3-p0.1">Whether we ought to do good to those rather who are more closely united to us?</h4> | |
| 12586 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 12587 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p2"> | |
| 12588 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that we are nor bound to do good to those rather who are more closely united to us. For it is written ( | |
| 12589 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.12" target="asv">Lk. 14:12</a>): "When thou makest a dinner or a supper, call not thy friends, nor thy brethren, nor thy kinsmen." Now these are the most | |
| 12590 closely united to us. Therefore we are not bound to do good to those rather who are more closely united to us, but preferably | |
| 12591 to strangers and to those who are in want: hence the text goes on: | |
| 12592 "But, when thou makest a feast, call the poor, the maimed," etc. | |
| 12593 </p> | |
| 12594 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p3"> | |
| 12595 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to help another in the battle is an act of very great goodness. But a soldier on the battlefield is bound to help | |
| 12596 a fellow-soldier who is a stranger rather than a kinsman who is a foe. Therefore in doing acts of kindness we are not bound | |
| 12597 to give the preference to those who are most closely united to us. | |
| 12598 </p> | |
| 12599 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p4"> | |
| 12600 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, we should pay what is due before conferring gratuitous favors. But it is a man's duty to be good to those who have | |
| 12601 been good to him. Therefore we ought to do good to our benefactors rather than to those who are closely united to us. | |
| 12602 </p> | |
| 12603 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p5"> | |
| 12604 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, a man ought to love his parents more than his children, as stated above ( | |
| 12605 <a id="SS_Q31_A3-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A9.html">Q[26], A[9]</a>). Yet a man ought to be more beneficent to his children, since "neither ought the children to lay up for the parents," according | |
| 12606 to | |
| 12607 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A3-p5.2" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.14" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:14.</a> Therefore we are not bound to be more beneficent to those who are more closely united to us. | |
| 12608 </p> | |
| 12609 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p6"> | |
| 12610 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 28): "Since one cannot do good to all, we ought to consider those chiefly who by reason | |
| 12611 of place, time or any other circumstance, by a kind of chance are more closely united to us." | |
| 12612 </p> | |
| 12613 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p7"> | |
| 12614 <b>I answer that,</b> Grace and virtue imitate the order of nature, which is established by Divine wisdom. Now the order of nature is such that | |
| 12615 every natural agent pours forth its activity first and most of all on the things which are nearest to it: thus fire heats | |
| 12616 most what is next to it. In like manner God pours forth the gifts of His goodness first and most plentifully on the substances | |
| 12617 which are nearest to Him, as Dionysius declares (Coel. Hier. vii). But the bestowal of | |
| 12618 benefits is an act of charity towards others. Therefore we ought to be most beneficent towards those who are most closely | |
| 12619 connected with us. | |
| 12620 </p> | |
| 12621 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p8"> Now one man's connection with another may be measured in reference to the various matters in which men are engaged together; | |
| 12622 (thus the intercourse of kinsmen is in natural matters, that of fellow-citizens is in civic matters, that of the faithful | |
| 12623 is in spiritual matters, and so forth): and various benefits should be conferred in various ways according to these various | |
| 12624 connections, because we ought in preference to bestow on each one such benefits as pertain to the matter in | |
| 12625 which, speaking simply, he is most closely connected with us. And yet this may vary according to the various requirements | |
| 12626 of time, place, or matter in hand: because in certain cases one ought, for instance, to succor a stranger, in extreme necessity, | |
| 12627 rather than one's own father, if he is not in such urgent need. | |
| 12628 </p> | |
| 12629 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p9"> | |
| 12630 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Our Lord did not absolutely forbid us to invite our friends and kinsmen to eat with us, but to invite them so that they may | |
| 12631 invite us in return, since that would be an act not of charity but of cupidity. The case may occur, however, that one ought | |
| 12632 rather to invite strangers, on account of their greater want. For it must be understood that, other things being equal, one | |
| 12633 ought to succor those rather who are most closely connected with us. And if of two, | |
| 12634 one be more closely connected, and the other in greater want, it is not possible to decide, by any general rule, which of | |
| 12635 them we ought to help rather than the other, since there are various degrees of want as well as of connection: and the matter | |
| 12636 requires the judgment of a prudent man. | |
| 12637 </p> | |
| 12638 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p10"> | |
| 12639 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The common good of many is more Godlike than the good of an individual. Wherefore it is a virtuous action for a man to endanger | |
| 12640 even his own life, either for the spiritual or for the temporal common good of his country. Since therefore men engage together | |
| 12641 in warlike acts in order to safeguard the common weal, the soldier who with this in view succors his comrade, succors him | |
| 12642 not as a private individual, but with a view to the welfare of his country as | |
| 12643 a whole: wherefore it is not a matter for wonder if a stranger be preferred to one who is a blood relation. | |
| 12644 </p> | |
| 12645 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p11"> | |
| 12646 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A thing may be due in two ways. There is one which should be reckoned, not among the goods of the debtor, but rather as belonging | |
| 12647 to the person to whom it is due: for instance, a man may have another's goods, whether in money or in kind, either because | |
| 12648 he has stolen them, or because he has received them on loan or in deposit or in some other way. In this case a man ought to | |
| 12649 pay what he owes, rather than benefit his connections out of it, unless | |
| 12650 perchance the case be so urgent that it would be lawful for him to take another's property in order to relieve the one who | |
| 12651 is in need. Yet, again, this would not apply if the creditor were in equal distress: in which case, however, the claims on | |
| 12652 either side would have to be weighed with regard to such other conditions as a prudent man would take into consideration, | |
| 12653 because, on account of the different particular cases, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. ix, 2), it is impossible to lay down | |
| 12654 a | |
| 12655 general rule. | |
| 12656 </p> | |
| 12657 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p12"> The other kind of due is one which is reckoned among the goods of the debtor and not of the creditor; for instance, a thing | |
| 12658 may be due, not because justice requires it, but on account of a certain moral equity, as in the case of benefits received | |
| 12659 gratis. Now no benefactor confers a benefit equal to that which a man receives from his parents: wherefore in paying back | |
| 12660 benefits received, we should give the first place to our parents before all others, unless, on the other side, | |
| 12661 there be such weightier motives, as need or some other circumstance, for instance the common good of the Church or state. | |
| 12662 In other cases we must take to account the connection and the benefit received; and here again no general rule can laid down. | |
| 12663 </p> | |
| 12664 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p13"> | |
| 12665 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Parents are like superiors, and so a parent's love tends to conferring benefits, while the children's love tends to honor | |
| 12666 their parents. Nevertheless in a case of extreme urgency it would be lawful to abandon one's children rather than one's parents, | |
| 12667 to abandon whom it is by no means lawful, on account of the obligation we lie under towards them for the benefits we have | |
| 12668 received from them, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. iii, 14). | |
| 12669 </p> | |
| 12670 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p14"></p> | |
| 12671 <p id="SS_Q31_A3-p15"></p> | |
| 12672 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12673 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12674 </div> | |
| 12675 <div id="SS_Q31_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 12676 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12677 <a href="summa.SS_Q32.html"></a> | |
| 12678 <h4 id="SS_Q31_A4-p0.1">Whether beneficence is a special virtue?</h4> | |
| 12679 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 12680 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p2"> | |
| 12681 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that beneficence is a special virtue. For precepts are directed to virtue, since lawgivers purpose to make | |
| 12682 men virtuous (Ethic. i 9,13; ii, 1). Now beneficence and love are prescribed as distinct from one another, for it is written | |
| 12683 ( | |
| 12684 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q31_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.4.44" target="asv">Mat. 4:44</a>): "Love your enemies, do good to them that hate you." Therefore beneficence is a virtue distinct from charity. | |
| 12685 </p> | |
| 12686 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p3"> | |
| 12687 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, vices are opposed to virtues. Now there are opposed to beneficence certain vices whereby a hurt is inflicted on | |
| 12688 our neighbor, for instance, rapine, theft and so forth. Therefore beneficence is a special virtue. | |
| 12689 </p> | |
| 12690 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p4"> | |
| 12691 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is not divided into several species: whereas there would seem to be several kinds of beneficence, according | |
| 12692 to the various kinds of benefits. Therefore beneficence is a distinct virtue from charity. | |
| 12693 </p> | |
| 12694 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p5"> | |
| 12695 <b>On the contrary,</b> The internal and the external act do not require different virtues. Now beneficence and goodwill differ only as external | |
| 12696 and internal act, since beneficence is the execution of goodwill. Therefore as goodwill is not a distinct virtue from charity, | |
| 12697 so neither is beneficence. | |
| 12698 </p> | |
| 12699 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p6"> | |
| 12700 <b>I answer that,</b> Virtues differ according to the different aspects of their objects. Now the formal aspect of the object of charity and of | |
| 12701 beneficence is the same, since both virtues regard the common aspect of good, as explained above | |
| 12702 <a id="SS_Q31_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q31_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Wherefore beneficence is not a distinct virtue from charity, but denotes an act of charity. | |
| 12703 </p> | |
| 12704 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p7"> | |
| 12705 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Precepts are given, not about habits but about acts of virtue: wherefore distinction of precept denotes distinction, not | |
| 12706 of habits, but of acts. | |
| 12707 </p> | |
| 12708 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p8"> | |
| 12709 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even as all benefits conferred on our neighbor, if we consider them under the common aspect of good, are to be traced to | |
| 12710 love, so all hurts considered under the common aspect of evil, are to be traced to hatred. But if we consider these same things | |
| 12711 under certain special aspects of good or of evil, they are to be traced to certain special virtues or vices, and in this way | |
| 12712 also there are various kinds of benefits. | |
| 12713 </p> | |
| 12714 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p9"> Hence the Reply to the Third Objection is evident.</p> | |
| 12715 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 12716 <p id="SS_Q31_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 12717 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12718 <a href="summa.SS_Q32.html"></a> | |
| 12719 </div> | |
| 12720 <a href="summa.SS_Q30_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12721 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12722 </div> | |
| 12723 <div id="SS_Q32" class="div3"> | |
| 12724 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12725 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12726 <h3 id="SS_Q32-p0.1">OF ALMSDEEDS (TEN ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 12727 <p id="SS_Q32-p1"></p> | |
| 12728 <p id="SS_Q32-p2"> We must now consider almsdeeds, under which head there are ten points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 12729 <p id="SS_Q32-p3"> (1) Whether almsgiving is an act of charity?</p> | |
| 12730 <p id="SS_Q32-p4"> (2) Of the different kinds of alms;</p> | |
| 12731 <p id="SS_Q32-p5"> (3) Which alms are of greater account, spiritual or corporal?</p> | |
| 12732 <p id="SS_Q32-p6"> (4) Whether corporal alms have a spiritual effect?</p> | |
| 12733 <p id="SS_Q32-p7"> (5) Whether the giving of alms is a matter of precept?</p> | |
| 12734 <p id="SS_Q32-p8"> (6) Whether corporal alms should be given out of the things we need?</p> | |
| 12735 <p id="SS_Q32-p9"> (7) Whether corporal alms should be given out of ill-gotten goods?</p> | |
| 12736 <p id="SS_Q32-p10"> (8) Who can give alms?</p> | |
| 12737 <p id="SS_Q32-p11"> (9) To whom should we give alms?</p> | |
| 12738 <p id="SS_Q32-p12"> (10) How should alms be given ?</p> | |
| 12739 <div id="SS_Q32_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 12740 <a href="summa.SS_Q32.html"></a> | |
| 12741 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12742 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A1-p0.1">Whether almsgiving is an act of charity?</h4> | |
| 12743 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 12744 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p2"> | |
| 12745 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that almsgiving is not an act of charity. For without charity one cannot do acts of charity. Now it is possible | |
| 12746 to give alms without having charity, according to | |
| 12747 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.3" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:3</a>: "If I should distribute all my goods to feed the poor . . . and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing." Therefore almsgiving | |
| 12748 is not an act of charity. | |
| 12749 </p> | |
| 12750 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p3"> | |
| 12751 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, almsdeeds are reckoned among works of satisfaction, according to | |
| 12752 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Dan.4.24" target="asv"> Dan. 4:24</a>: "Redeem thou thy sins with alms." Now satisfaction is an act of justice. Therefore almsgiving is an act of justice and not | |
| 12753 of charity. | |
| 12754 </p> | |
| 12755 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p4"> | |
| 12756 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the offering of sacrifices to God is an act of religion. But almsgiving is offering a sacrifice to God, according | |
| 12757 to | |
| 12758 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Heb.13.16" target="asv"> Heb. 13:16</a>: "Do not forget to do good and to impart, for by such sacrifices God's favor is obtained." Therefore almsgiving is not an | |
| 12759 act of charity, but of religion. | |
| 12760 </p> | |
| 12761 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p5"> | |
| 12762 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, l) that to give for a good purpose is an act of liberality. Now this is especially | |
| 12763 true of almsgiving. Therefore almsgiving is not an act of charity. | |
| 12764 </p> | |
| 12765 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p6"> | |
| 12766 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written | |
| 12767 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iiJohn.3.17" target="asv">2 Jn. 3:17</a>: "He that hath the substance of this world, and shall see his brother in need, and shall put up his bowels from him, how | |
| 12768 doth the charity of God abide in him?" | |
| 12769 </p> | |
| 12770 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p7"> | |
| 12771 <b>I answer that,</b> External acts belong to that virtue which regards the motive for doing those acts. Now the motive for giving alms is to relieve | |
| 12772 one who is in need. Wherefore some have defined alms as being "a deed whereby something is given to the needy, out of compassion | |
| 12773 and for God's sake," which motive belongs to mercy, as stated above ( | |
| 12774 <a id="SS_Q32_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html">Q[30], AA[1]</a>,2). Hence it is clear that almsgiving is, properly speaking, an act of mercy. This appears in its | |
| 12775 very name, for in Greek {eleemosyne} it is derived from having mercy {eleein} even as the Latin "miseratio" is. And since | |
| 12776 mercy is an effect of charity, as shown above ( | |
| 12777 <a id="SS_Q32_A1-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q30_A2.html">Q[30], A[2]</a>, A[3], OBJ[3] ), it follows that almsgiving is an act of charity through the medium of mercy. | |
| 12778 </p> | |
| 12779 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p8"> | |
| 12780 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> An act of virtue may be taken in two ways: first materially, thus an act of justice is to do what is just; and such an act | |
| 12781 of virtue can be without the virtue, since many, without having the habit of justice, do what is just, led by the natural | |
| 12782 light of reason, or through fear, or in the hope of gain. Secondly, we speak of a thing being an act of justice formally, | |
| 12783 and thus an act of justice is to do what is just, in the same way as a just man, i.e. | |
| 12784 with readiness and delight, and such an act of virtue cannot be without the virtue. | |
| 12785 </p> | |
| 12786 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p9"> Accordingly almsgiving can be materially without charity, but to give alms formally, i.e. for God's sake, with delight and | |
| 12787 readiness, and altogether as one ought, is not possible without charity. | |
| 12788 </p> | |
| 12789 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p10"> | |
| 12790 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Nothing hinders the proper elicited act of one virtue being commanded by another virtue as commanding it and directing it | |
| 12791 to this other virtue's end. It is in this way that almsgiving is reckoned among works of satisfaction in so far as pity for | |
| 12792 the one in distress is directed to the satisfaction for his sin; and in so far as it is directed to placate God, it has the | |
| 12793 character of a sacrifice, and thus it is commanded by religion. | |
| 12794 </p> | |
| 12795 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p11"> Wherefore the Reply to the Third Objection is evident.</p> | |
| 12796 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p12"> | |
| 12797 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Almsgiving belongs to liberality, in so far as liberality removes an obstacle to that act, which might arise from excessive | |
| 12798 love of riches, the result of which is that one clings to them more than one ought. | |
| 12799 </p> | |
| 12800 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 12801 <p id="SS_Q32_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 12802 <a href="summa.SS_Q32.html"></a> | |
| 12803 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12804 </div> | |
| 12805 <div id="SS_Q32_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 12806 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12807 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12808 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A2-p0.1">Whether the different kinds of almsdeeds are suitably enumerated?</h4> | |
| 12809 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 12810 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p2"> | |
| 12811 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the different kinds of almsdeeds are unsuitably enumerated. For we reckon seven corporal almsdeeds, namely, | |
| 12812 to feed the hungry, to give drink to the thirsty, to clothe the naked, to harbor the harborless, to visit the sick, to ransom | |
| 12813 the captive, to bury the dead; all of which are expressed in the following verse: "To visit, to quench, to feed, to ransom, | |
| 12814 clothe, harbor or bury." | |
| 12815 </p> | |
| 12816 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p3"> Again we reckon seven spiritual alms, namely, to instruct the ignorant, to counsel the doubtful, to comfort the sorrowful, | |
| 12817 to reprove the sinner, to forgive injuries, to bear with those who trouble and annoy us, and to pray for all, which are all | |
| 12818 contained in the following verse: "To counsel, reprove, console, to pardon, forbear, and to pray," yet so that counsel includes | |
| 12819 both advice and instruction. | |
| 12820 </p> | |
| 12821 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p4"> And it seems that these various almsdeeds are unsuitably enumerated. For the purpose of almsdeeds is to succor our neighbor. | |
| 12822 But a dead man profits nothing by being buried, else Our Lord would not have spoken truly when He said ( | |
| 12823 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.28" target="asv">Mat. 10:28</a>): "Be not afraid of them who kill the body, and after that have no more that they can do." [*The quotation is from | |
| 12824 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.12.4" target="asv"> Lk. 12:4.</a>] This explains why Our Lord, in enumerating the works of mercy, made no | |
| 12825 mention of the burial of the dead ( | |
| 12826 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p4.3" href="./asv.html#Matt.25.35" target="asv">Mat. 25:35,36</a>). Therefore it seems that these almsdeeds are unsuitably enumerated. | |
| 12827 </p> | |
| 12828 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p5"> | |
| 12829 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as stated above | |
| 12830 <a id="SS_Q32_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, the purpose of giving alms is to relieve our neighbor's need. Now there are many needs of human life other than those mentioned | |
| 12831 above, for instance, a blind man needs a leader, a lame man needs someone to lean on, a poor man needs riches. Therefore these | |
| 12832 almsdeeds are unsuitably enumerated. | |
| 12833 </p> | |
| 12834 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p6"> | |
| 12835 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, almsgiving is a work of mercy. But the reproof of the wrong-doer savors, apparently, of severity rather than of | |
| 12836 mercy. Therefore it ought not to be reckoned among the spiritual almsdeeds. | |
| 12837 </p> | |
| 12838 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p7"> | |
| 12839 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, almsgiving is intended for the supply of a defect. But no man is without the defect of ignorance in some matter | |
| 12840 or other. Therefore, apparently, each one ought to instruct anyone who is ignorant of what he knows himself. | |
| 12841 </p> | |
| 12842 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p8"> | |
| 12843 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Nom. in Evang. ix): "Let him that hath understanding beware lest he withhold his knowledge; let him that hath | |
| 12844 abundance of wealth, watch lest he slacken his merciful bounty; let him who is a servant to art be most solicitous to share | |
| 12845 his skill and profit with his neighbor; let him who has an opportunity of speaking with the wealthy, fear lest he be condemned | |
| 12846 for retaining his talent, if when he has the chance he plead not with him the cause | |
| 12847 of the poor." Therefore the aforesaid almsdeeds are suitably enumerated in respect of those things whereof men have abundance | |
| 12848 or insufficiency. | |
| 12849 </p> | |
| 12850 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p9"> | |
| 12851 <b>I answer that,</b> The aforesaid distinction of almsdeeds is suitably taken from the various needs of our neighbor: some of which affect the | |
| 12852 soul, and are relieved by spiritual almsdeeds, while others affect the body, and are relieved by corporal almsdeeds. For corporal | |
| 12853 need occurs either during this life or afterwards. If it occurs during this life, it is either a common need in respect of | |
| 12854 things needed by all, or it is a special need occurring through some accident | |
| 12855 supervening. In the first case, the need is either internal or external. Internal need is twofold: one which is relieved by | |
| 12856 solid food, viz. hunger, in respect of which we have "to feed the hungry"; while the other is relieved by liquid food, viz. | |
| 12857 thirst, and in respect of this we have "to give drink to the thirsty." The common need with regard to external help is twofold; | |
| 12858 one in respect of clothing, and as to this we have "to clothe the naked": while the other is in respect of a dwelling | |
| 12859 place, and as to this we have "to harbor the harborless." Again if the need be special, it is either the result of an internal | |
| 12860 cause, like sickness, and then we have "to visit the sick," or it results from an external cause, and then we have "to ransom | |
| 12861 the captive." After this life we give "burial to the dead." | |
| 12862 </p> | |
| 12863 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p10"> In like manner spiritual needs are relieved by spiritual acts in two ways, first by asking for help from God, and in this | |
| 12864 respect we have "prayer," whereby one man prays for others; secondly, by giving human assistance, and this in three ways. | |
| 12865 First, in order to relieve a deficiency on the part of the intellect, and if this deficiency be in the speculative intellect, | |
| 12866 the remedy is applied by "instructing," and if in the practical intellect, the remedy is applied by | |
| 12867 "counselling." Secondly, there may be a deficiency on the part of the appetitive power, especially by way of sorrow, which | |
| 12868 is remedied by "comforting." Thirdly, the deficiency may be due to an inordinate act; and this may be the subject of a threefold | |
| 12869 consideration. First, in respect of the sinner, inasmuch as the sin proceeds from his inordinate will, and thus the remedy | |
| 12870 takes the form of "reproof." Secondly, in respect of the person sinned against; and if the sin be committed against | |
| 12871 ourselves, we apply the remedy by "pardoning the injury," while, if it be committed against God or our neighbor, it is not | |
| 12872 in our power to pardon, as Jerome observes (Super Matth. xviii, 15). Thirdly, in respect of the result of the inordinate act, | |
| 12873 on account of which the sinner is an annoyance to those who live with him, even beside his intention; in which case the remedy | |
| 12874 is applied by "bearing with him," especially with regard to those who sin out of weakness, according to | |
| 12875 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.15.1" target="asv"> Rom. | |
| 12876 15:1 | |
| 12877 </a>: "We that are stronger, ought to bear the infirmities of the weak," and not only as regards their being infirm and consequently | |
| 12878 troublesome on account of their unruly actions, but also by bearing any other burdens of theirs with them, according to | |
| 12879 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.6.2" target="asv"> Gal. 6:2</a>: "Bear ye one another's burdens." | |
| 12880 </p> | |
| 12881 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p11"> | |
| 12882 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Burial does not profit a dead man as though his body could be capable of perception after death. In this sense Our Lord said | |
| 12883 that those who kill the body "have no more that they can do"; and for this reason He did not mention the burial of the dead | |
| 12884 with the other works of mercy, but those only which are more clearly necessary. Nevertheless it does concern the deceased | |
| 12885 what is done with his body: both that he may live in the memory of man whose respect | |
| 12886 he forfeits if he remain without burial, and as regards a man's fondness for his own body while he was yet living, a fondness | |
| 12887 which kindly persons should imitate after his death. It is thus that some are praised for burying the dead, as Tobias, and | |
| 12888 those who buried Our Lord; as Augustine says (De Cura pro Mort. iii). | |
| 12889 </p> | |
| 12890 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p12"> | |
| 12891 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> All other needs are reduced to these, for blindness and lameness are kinds of sickness, so that to lead the blind, and to | |
| 12892 support the lame, come to the same as visiting the sick. In like manner to assist a man against any distress that is due to | |
| 12893 an extrinsic cause comes to the same as the ransom of captives. And the wealth with which we relieve the poor is sought merely | |
| 12894 for the purpose of relieving the aforesaid needs: hence there was no reason for | |
| 12895 special mention of this particular need. | |
| 12896 </p> | |
| 12897 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p13"> | |
| 12898 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The reproof of the sinner, as to the exercise of the act of reproving, seems to imply the severity of justice, but, as to | |
| 12899 the intention of the reprover, who wishes to free a man from the evil of sin, it is an act of mercy and lovingkindness, according | |
| 12900 to | |
| 12901 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A2-p13.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.27.6" target="asv"> Prov. 27:6</a>: "Better are the wounds of a friend, than the deceitful kisses of an enemy." | |
| 12902 </p> | |
| 12903 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p14"> | |
| 12904 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Nescience is not always a defect, but only when it is about what one ought to know, and it is a part of almsgiving to supply | |
| 12905 this defect by instruction. In doing this however we should observe the due circumstances of persons, place and time, even | |
| 12906 as in other virtuous acts. | |
| 12907 </p> | |
| 12908 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 12909 <p id="SS_Q32_A2-p16"></p> | |
| 12910 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html"></a> | |
| 12911 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12912 </div> | |
| 12913 <div id="SS_Q32_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 12914 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12915 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12916 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A3-p0.1">Whether corporal alms are of more account than spiritual alms?</h4> | |
| 12917 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 12918 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p2"> | |
| 12919 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that corporal alms are of more account than spiritual alms. For it is more praiseworthy to give an alms to | |
| 12920 one who is in greater want, since an almsdeed is to be praised because it relieves one who is in need. Now the body which | |
| 12921 is relieved by corporal alms, is by nature more needy than the spirit which is relieved by spiritual alms. Therefore corporal | |
| 12922 alms are of more account. | |
| 12923 </p> | |
| 12924 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p3"> | |
| 12925 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an alms is less praiseworthy and meritorious if the kindness is compensated, wherefore Our Lord says ( | |
| 12926 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.12" target="asv">Lk. 14:12</a>): "When thou makest a dinner or a supper, call not thy neighbors who are rich, lest perhaps they also invite thee again. | |
| 12927 Now there is always compensation in spiritual almsdeeds, since he who prays for another, profits thereby, according to | |
| 12928 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A3-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.34.13" target="asv"> Ps. 34:13</a>: "My prayer shall be turned into my bosom: and he | |
| 12929 who teaches another, makes progress in knowledge, which cannot be said of corporal almsdeeds. Therefore corporal almsdeeds | |
| 12930 are of more account than spiritual almsdeeds. | |
| 12931 </p> | |
| 12932 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p4"> | |
| 12933 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an alms is to be commended if the needy one is comforted by it: wherefore it is written ( | |
| 12934 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Job.31.20" target="asv">Job 31:20</a>): "If his sides have not blessed me," and the Apostle says to Philemon (verse 7): "The bowels of the saints have been refreshed | |
| 12935 by thee, brother." Now a corporal alms is sometimes more welcome to a needy man than a spiritual alms. Therefore bodily almsdeeds | |
| 12936 are of more account than spiritual almsdeeds. | |
| 12937 </p> | |
| 12938 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p5"> | |
| 12939 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 20) on the words, "Give to him that asketh of thee" ( | |
| 12940 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.42" target="asv">Mat. 5:42</a>): "You should give so as to injure neither yourself nor another, and when you refuse what another asks you must not lose | |
| 12941 sight of the claims of justice, and send him away empty; at times indeed you will give what is better than what is asked for, | |
| 12942 if you reprove him that asks unjustly." Now reproof is a spiritual alms. Therefore | |
| 12943 spiritual almsdeeds are preferable to corporal almsdeeds. | |
| 12944 </p> | |
| 12945 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p6"> | |
| 12946 <b>I answer that,</b> There are two ways of comparing these almsdeeds. First, simply; and in this respect, spiritual almsdeeds hold the first place, | |
| 12947 for three reasons. First, because the offering is more excellent, since it is a spiritual gift, which surpasses a corporal | |
| 12948 gift, according to | |
| 12949 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A3-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.4.2" target="asv"> Prov. 4:2</a>: "I will give you a good gift, forsake not My Law." Secondly, on account of the object succored, because the spirit is more | |
| 12950 excellent than the body, wherefore, | |
| 12951 even as a man in looking after himself, ought to look to his soul more than to his body, so ought he in looking after his | |
| 12952 neighbor, whom he ought to love as himself. Thirdly, as regards the acts themselves by which our neighbor is succored, because | |
| 12953 spiritual acts are more excellent than corporal acts, which are, in a fashion, servile. | |
| 12954 </p> | |
| 12955 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p7"> Secondly, we may compare them with regard to some particular case, when some corporal alms excels some spiritual alms: for | |
| 12956 instance, a man in hunger is to be fed rather than instructed, and as the Philosopher observes (Topic. iii, 2), for a needy | |
| 12957 man "money is better than philosophy," although the latter is better simply. | |
| 12958 </p> | |
| 12959 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p8"> | |
| 12960 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is better to give to one who is in greater want, other things being equal, but if he who is less needy is better, and | |
| 12961 is in want of better things, it is better to give to him: and it is thus in the case in point. | |
| 12962 </p> | |
| 12963 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p9"> | |
| 12964 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Compensation does not detract from merit and praise if it be not intended, even as human glory, if not intended, does not | |
| 12965 detract from virtue. Thus Sallust says of Cato (Catilin.), that "the less he sought fame, the more he became famous": and | |
| 12966 thus it is with spiritual almsdeeds. | |
| 12967 </p> | |
| 12968 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p10"> Nevertheless the intention of gaining spiritual goods does not detract from merit, as the intention of gaining corporal goods.</p> | |
| 12969 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p11"> | |
| 12970 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The merit of an almsgiver depends on that in which the will of the recipient rests reasonably, and not on that in which it | |
| 12971 rests when it is inordinate. | |
| 12972 </p> | |
| 12973 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 12974 <p id="SS_Q32_A3-p13"></p> | |
| 12975 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A2.html"></a> | |
| 12976 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A4.html"></a> | |
| 12977 </div> | |
| 12978 <div id="SS_Q32_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 12979 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A3.html"></a> | |
| 12980 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A5.html"></a> | |
| 12981 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A4-p0.1">Whether corporal almsdeeds have a spiritual effect?</h4> | |
| 12982 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 12983 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p2"> | |
| 12984 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that corporal almsdeeds have not a spiritual effect. For no effect exceeds its cause. But spiritual goods exceed | |
| 12985 corporal goods. Therefore corporal almsdeeds have no spiritual effect. | |
| 12986 </p> | |
| 12987 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p3"> | |
| 12988 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the sin of simony consists in giving the corporal for the spiritual, and it is to be utterly avoided. Therefore | |
| 12989 one ought not to give alms in order to receive a spiritual effect. | |
| 12990 </p> | |
| 12991 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p4"> | |
| 12992 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to multiply the cause is to multiply the effect. If therefore corporal almsdeeds cause a spiritual effect, the greater | |
| 12993 the alms, the greater the spiritual profit, which is contrary to what we read ( | |
| 12994 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.21.3" target="asv">Lk. 21:3</a>) of the widow who cast two brass mites into the treasury, and in Our Lord's own words "cast in more than . . . all." Therefore | |
| 12995 bodily almsdeeds have no spiritual effect. | |
| 12996 </p> | |
| 12997 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p5"> | |
| 12998 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 12999 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.17.18" target="asv">Ecclus. 17:18</a>): "The alms of a man . . . shall preserve the grace of a man as the apple of the eye." | |
| 13000 </p> | |
| 13001 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p6"> | |
| 13002 <b>I answer that,</b> Corporal almsdeeds may be considered in three ways. First, with regard to their substance, and in this way they have merely | |
| 13003 a corporal effect, inasmuch as they supply our neighbor's corporal needs. Secondly, they may be considered with regard to | |
| 13004 their cause, in so far as a man gives a corporal alms out of love for God and his neighbor, and in this respect they bring | |
| 13005 forth a spiritual fruit, according to | |
| 13006 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.29.13" target="asv">Ecclus. 29:13, 14</a>: "Lose thy money for thy brother . . | |
| 13007 . place thy treasure in the commandments of the Most High, and it shall bring thee more profit than gold." | |
| 13008 </p> | |
| 13009 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p7"> Thirdly, with regard to the effect, and in this way again, they have a spiritual fruit, inasmuch as our neighbor, who is | |
| 13010 succored by a corporal alms, is moved to pray for his benefactor; wherefore the above text goes on ( | |
| 13011 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.29.15" target="asv">Ecclus. 29:15</a>): "Shut up alms in the heart of the poor, and it shall obtain help for thee from all evil." | |
| 13012 </p> | |
| 13013 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p8"> | |
| 13014 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument considers corporal almsdeeds as to their substance. | |
| 13015 </p> | |
| 13016 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p9"> | |
| 13017 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> He who gives an alms does rot intend to buy a spiritual thing with a corporal thing, for he knows that spiritual things infinitely | |
| 13018 surpass corporal things, but he intends to merit a spiritual fruit through the love of charity. | |
| 13019 </p> | |
| 13020 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p10"> | |
| 13021 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The widow who gave less in quantity, gave more in proportion; and thus we gather that the fervor of her charity, whence corporal | |
| 13022 almsdeeds derive their spiritual efficacy, was greater. | |
| 13023 </p> | |
| 13024 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 13025 <p id="SS_Q32_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 13026 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A3.html"></a> | |
| 13027 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13028 </div> | |
| 13029 <div id="SS_Q32_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 13030 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13031 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13032 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A5-p0.1">Whether almsgiving is a matter of precept?</h4> | |
| 13033 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 13034 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p2"> | |
| 13035 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that almsgiving is not a matter of precept. For the counsels are distinct from the precepts. Now almsgiving | |
| 13036 is a matter of counsel, according to | |
| 13037 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Dan.4.24" target="asv"> Dan. 4:24</a>: "Let my counsel be acceptable to the King; [Vulg.: 'to thee, and'] redeem thou thy sins with alms." Therefore almsgiving | |
| 13038 is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13039 </p> | |
| 13040 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p3"> | |
| 13041 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is lawful for everyone to use and to keep what is his own. Yet by keeping it he will not give alms. Therefore | |
| 13042 it is lawful not to give alms: and consequently almsgiving is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13043 </p> | |
| 13044 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p4"> | |
| 13045 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever is a matter of precept binds the transgressor at some time or other under pain of mortal sin, because positive | |
| 13046 precepts are binding for some fixed time. Therefore, if almsgiving were a matter of precept, it would be possible to point | |
| 13047 to some fixed time when a man would commit a mortal sin unless he gave an alms. But it does not appear how this can be so, | |
| 13048 because it can always be deemed probable that the person in need can be relieved in some | |
| 13049 other way, and that what we would spend in almsgiving might be needful to ourselves either now or in some future time. Therefore | |
| 13050 it seems that almsgiving is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13051 </p> | |
| 13052 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p5"> | |
| 13053 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, every commandment is reducible to the precepts of the Decalogue. But these precepts contain no reference to almsgiving. | |
| 13054 Therefore almsgiving is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13055 </p> | |
| 13056 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p6"> | |
| 13057 <b>On the contrary,</b> No man is punished eternally for omitting to do what is not a matter of precept. But some are punished eternally for omitting | |
| 13058 to give alms, as is clear from | |
| 13059 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.25.41" target="asv"> Mat. 25:41-43.</a> Therefore almsgiving is a matter of precept. | |
| 13060 </p> | |
| 13061 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p7"> | |
| 13062 <b>I answer that,</b> As love of our neighbor is a matter of precept, whatever is a necessary condition to the love of our neighbor is a matter | |
| 13063 of precept also. Now the love of our neighbor requires that not only should we be our neighbor's well-wishers, but also his | |
| 13064 well-doers, according to | |
| 13065 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.18" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:18</a>: "Let us not love in word, nor in tongue, but in deed, and in truth." And in order to be a person's well-wisher and well-doer, | |
| 13066 we ought to succor his needs: | |
| 13067 this is done by almsgiving. Therefore almsgiving is a matter of precept. | |
| 13068 </p> | |
| 13069 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p8"> Since, however, precepts are about acts of virtue, it follows that all almsgiving must be a matter of precept, in so far | |
| 13070 as it is necessary to virtue, namely, in so far as it is demanded by right reason. Now right reason demands that we should | |
| 13071 take into consideration something on the part of the giver, and something on the part of the recipient. On the part of the | |
| 13072 giver, it must be noted that he should give of his surplus, according to | |
| 13073 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.11.41" target="asv"> Lk. 11:41</a>: "That which | |
| 13074 remaineth, give alms." This surplus is to be taken in reference not only to himself, so as to denote what is unnecessary to | |
| 13075 the individual, but also in reference to those of whom he has charge (in which case we have the expression "necessary to the | |
| 13076 person" [*The official necessities of a person in position] taking the word "person" as expressive of dignity). Because each | |
| 13077 one must first of all look after himself and then after those over whom he has charge, and afterwards with what remains | |
| 13078 relieve the needs of others. Thus nature first, by its nutritive power, takes what it requires for the upkeep of one's own | |
| 13079 body, and afterwards yields the residue for the formation of another by the power of generation. | |
| 13080 </p> | |
| 13081 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p9"> On the part of the recipient it is requisite that he should be in need, else there would be no reason for giving him alms: | |
| 13082 yet since it is not possible for one individual to relieve the needs of all, we are not bound to relieve all who are in need, | |
| 13083 but only those who could not be succored if we not did succor them. For in such cases the words of Ambrose apply, "Feed him | |
| 13084 that dies of hunger: if thou hast not fed him, thou hast slain him" [*Cf. Canon Pasce, dist. lxxxvi, whence | |
| 13085 the words, as quoted, are taken]. Accordingly we are bound to give alms of our surplus, as also to give alms to one whose | |
| 13086 need is extreme: otherwise almsgiving, like any other greater good, is a matter of counsel. | |
| 13087 </p> | |
| 13088 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p10"> | |
| 13089 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Daniel spoke to a king who was not subject to God's Law, wherefore such things as were prescribed by the Law which he did | |
| 13090 not profess, had to be counselled to him. Or he may have been speaking in reference to a case in which almsgiving was not | |
| 13091 a matter of precept. | |
| 13092 </p> | |
| 13093 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p11"> | |
| 13094 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The temporal goods which God grants us, are ours as to the ownership, but as to the use of them, they belong not to us alone | |
| 13095 but also to such others as we are able to succor out of what we have over and above our needs. Hence Basil says [*Hom. super | |
| 13096 Luc. xii, 18]: "If you acknowledge them," viz. your temporal goods, "as coming from God, is He unjust because He apportions | |
| 13097 them unequally? Why are you rich while another is poor, unless it be that you may | |
| 13098 have the merit of a good stewardship, and he the reward of patience? It is the hungry man's bread that you withhold, the naked | |
| 13099 man's cloak that you have stored away, the shoe of the barefoot that you have left to rot, the money of the needy that you | |
| 13100 have buried underground: and so you injure as many as you might help." Ambrose expresses himself in the same way. | |
| 13101 </p> | |
| 13102 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p12"> | |
| 13103 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There is a time when we sin mortally if we omit to give alms; on the part of the recipient when we see that his need is evident | |
| 13104 and urgent, and that he is not likely to be succored otherwise---on the part of the giver, when he has superfluous goods, | |
| 13105 which he does not need for the time being, as far as he can judge with probability. Nor need he consider every case that may | |
| 13106 possibly occur in the future, for this would be to think about the morrow, which | |
| 13107 Our Lord forbade us to do ( | |
| 13108 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.6.34" target="asv">Mat. 6:34</a>), but he should judge what is superfluous and what necessary, according as things probably and generally occur. | |
| 13109 </p> | |
| 13110 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p13"> | |
| 13111 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> All succor given to our neighbor is reduced to the precept about honoring our parents. For thus does the Apostle interpret | |
| 13112 it ( | |
| 13113 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p13.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.4.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 4:8</a>) where he says: "Dutifulness* [Douay: 'Godliness'] is profitable to all things, having promise of the life that now is, and | |
| 13114 of that which is to come," and he says this because the precept about honoring our parents contains the promise, "that thou | |
| 13115 mayest be longlived upon the land" | |
| 13116 ( | |
| 13117 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A5-p13.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.12" target="asv">Ex. 20:12</a>): and dutifulness comprises all kinds of almsgiving. [*"Pietas," whence our English word "Piety." Cf. also inf. | |
| 13118 <a id="SS_Q32_A5-p13.3" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q101_A2.html"> Q[101], A[2]</a>.] | |
| 13119 </p> | |
| 13120 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p14"></p> | |
| 13121 <p id="SS_Q32_A5-p15"></p> | |
| 13122 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13123 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13124 </div> | |
| 13125 <div id="SS_Q32_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 13126 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13127 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13128 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A6-p0.1">Whether one ought to give alms out of what one needs?</h4> | |
| 13129 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 13130 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p2"> | |
| 13131 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one ought not to give alms out of what one needs. For the order of charity should be observed not only | |
| 13132 as regards the effect of our benefactions but also as regards our interior affections. Now it is a sin to contravene the order | |
| 13133 of charity, because this order is a matter of precept. Since, then, the order of charity requires that a man should love himself | |
| 13134 more than his neighbor, it seems that he would sin if he deprived himself of what he | |
| 13135 needed, in order to succor his neighbor. | |
| 13136 </p> | |
| 13137 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p3"> | |
| 13138 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whoever gives away what he needs himself, squanders his own substance, and that is to be a prodigal, according to | |
| 13139 the Philosopher (Ethic. iv, 1). But no sinful deed should be done. Therefore we should not give alms out of what we need. | |
| 13140 </p> | |
| 13141 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p4"> | |
| 13142 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 13143 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:8</a>): "If any man have not care of his own, and especially of those of his house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than | |
| 13144 an infidel." Now if a man gives of what he needs for himself or for his charge, he seems to detract from the care he should | |
| 13145 have for himself or his charge. Therefore it seems that whoever gives alms from what he needs, sins gravely. | |
| 13146 </p> | |
| 13147 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p5"> | |
| 13148 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 13149 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.19.21" target="asv">Mat. 19:21</a>): "If thou wilt be perfect, go, sell what thou hast, and give to the poor." Now he that gives all he has to the poor, gives | |
| 13150 not only what he needs not, but also what he needs. Therefore a man may give alms out of what he needs. | |
| 13151 </p> | |
| 13152 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p6"> | |
| 13153 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing is necessary in two ways: first, because without it something is impossible, and it is altogether wrong to give alms | |
| 13154 out of what is necessary to us in this sense; for instance, if a man found himself in the presence of a case of urgency, and | |
| 13155 had merely sufficient to support himself and his children, or others under his charge, he would be throwing away his life | |
| 13156 and that of others if he were to give away in alms, what was then necessary to him. Yet I | |
| 13157 say this without prejudice to such a case as might happen, supposing that by depriving himself of necessaries a man might | |
| 13158 help a great personage, and a support of the Church or State, since it would be a praiseworthy act to endanger one's life | |
| 13159 and the lives of those who are under our charge for the delivery of such a person, since the common good is to be preferred | |
| 13160 to one's own. | |
| 13161 </p> | |
| 13162 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p7"> Secondly, a thing is said to be necessary, if a man cannot without it live in keeping with his social station, as regards | |
| 13163 either himself or those of whom he has charge. The "necessary" considered thus is not an invariable quantity, for one might | |
| 13164 add much more to a man's property, and yet not go beyond what he needs in this way, or one might take much from him, and he | |
| 13165 would still have sufficient for the decencies of life in keeping with his own position. Accordingly it is good to | |
| 13166 give alms of this kind of "necessary"; and it is a matter not of precept but of counsel. Yet it would be inordinate to deprive | |
| 13167 oneself of one's own, in order to give to others to such an extent that the residue would be insufficient for one to live | |
| 13168 in keeping with one's station and the ordinary occurrences of life: for no man ought to live unbecomingly. There are, however, | |
| 13169 three exceptions to the above rule. The first is when a man changes his state of life, for instance, by entering religion, | |
| 13170 for then he gives away all his possessions for Christ's sake, and does the deed of perfection by transferring himself to another | |
| 13171 state. Secondly, when that which he deprives himself of, though it be required for the decencies of life, can nevertheless | |
| 13172 easily be recovered, so that he does not suffer extreme inconvenience. Thirdly, when he is in presence of extreme indigence | |
| 13173 in an individual, or great need on the part of the common weal. For in such cases it would seem praiseworthy to forego the | |
| 13174 requirements of one's station, in order to provide for a greater need. | |
| 13175 </p> | |
| 13176 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p8"> The objections may be easily solved from what has been said.</p> | |
| 13177 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p9"></p> | |
| 13178 <p id="SS_Q32_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 13179 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13180 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13181 </div> | |
| 13182 <div id="SS_Q32_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 13183 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13184 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A8.html"></a> | |
| 13185 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A7-p0.1">Whether one may give alms out of ill-gotten goods?</h4> | |
| 13186 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 13187 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p2"> | |
| 13188 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one may give alms out of ill-gotten goods. For it is written ( | |
| 13189 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.9" target="asv">Lk. 16:9</a>): "Make unto you friends of the mammon of iniquity." Now mammon signifies riches. Therefore it is lawful to make unto oneself | |
| 13190 spiritual friends by giving alms out of ill-gotten riches. | |
| 13191 </p> | |
| 13192 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p3"> | |
| 13193 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, all filthy lucre seems to be ill-gotten. But the profits from whoredom are filthy lucre; wherefore it was forbidden | |
| 13194 ( | |
| 13195 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.23.18" target="asv">Dt. 23:18</a>) to offer therefrom sacrifices or oblations to God: "Thou shalt not offer the hire of a strumpet . . . in the house of . | |
| 13196 . . thy God." In like manner gains from games of chance are ill-gotten, for, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 1), "we take | |
| 13197 such like gains from our friends to whom we ought rather to | |
| 13198 give." And most of all are the profits from simony ill-gotten, since thereby the Holy Ghost is wronged. Nevertheless out of | |
| 13199 such gains it is lawful to give alms. Therefore one may give alms out of ill-gotten goods. | |
| 13200 </p> | |
| 13201 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p4"> | |
| 13202 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, greater evils should be avoided more than lesser evils. Now it is less sinful to keep back another's property than | |
| 13203 to commit murder, of which a man is guilty if he fails to succor one who is in extreme need, as appears from the words of | |
| 13204 Ambrose who says (Cf. Canon Pasce dist. lxxxvi, whence the words, as quoted, are taken): "Feed him that dies of hunger, if | |
| 13205 thou hast not fed him, thou hast slain him". Therefore, in certain cases, it is lawful to give | |
| 13206 alms of ill-gotten goods. | |
| 13207 </p> | |
| 13208 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p5"> | |
| 13209 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. xxxv, 2): "Give alms from your just labors. For you will not bribe Christ your judge, not to | |
| 13210 hear you with the poor whom you rob . . . Give not alms from interest and usury: I speak to the faithful to whom we dispense | |
| 13211 the Body of Christ." | |
| 13212 </p> | |
| 13213 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p6"> | |
| 13214 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing may be ill-gotten in three ways. In the first place a thing is ill-gotten if it be due to the person from whom it | |
| 13215 is gotten, and may not be kept by the person who has obtained possession of it; as in the case of rapine, theft and usury, | |
| 13216 and of such things a man may not give alms since he is bound to restore them. | |
| 13217 </p> | |
| 13218 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p7"> Secondly, a thing is ill-gotten, when he that has it may not keep it, and yet he may not return it to the person from whom | |
| 13219 he received it, because he received it unjustly, while the latter gave it unjustly. This happens in simony, wherein both giver | |
| 13220 and receiver contravene the justice of the Divine Law, so that restitution is to be made not to the giver, but by giving alms. | |
| 13221 The same applies to all similar cases of illegal giving and receiving. | |
| 13222 </p> | |
| 13223 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p8"> Thirdly, a thing is ill-gotten, not because the taking was unlawful, but because it is the outcome of something unlawful, | |
| 13224 as in the case of a woman's profits from whoredom. This is filthy lucre properly so called, because the practice of whoredom | |
| 13225 is filthy and against the Law of God, yet the woman does not act unjustly or unlawfully in taking the money. Consequently | |
| 13226 it is lawful to keep and to give in alms what is thus acquired by an unlawful action. | |
| 13227 </p> | |
| 13228 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p9"> | |
| 13229 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. 2), "Some have misunderstood this saying of Our Lord, so as to take another's property and | |
| 13230 give thereof to the poor, thinking that they are fulfilling the commandment by so doing. This interpretation must be amended. | |
| 13231 Yet all riches are called riches of iniquity, as stated in De Quaest. Ev. ii, 34, because "riches are not unjust save for | |
| 13232 those who are themselves unjust, and put all their trust in them. Or, according to | |
| 13233 Ambrose in his commentary on | |
| 13234 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.9" target="asv"> Lk. 16:9, </a> "Make unto yourselves friends," etc., "He calls mammon unjust, because it draws our affections by the various allurements | |
| 13235 of wealth." Or, because "among the many ancestors whose property you inherit, there is one who took the property of others | |
| 13236 unjustly, although you know nothing about it," as Basil says in a homily (Hom. super Luc. A, 5). Or, all riches are styled | |
| 13237 riches "of iniquity," i.e., of "inequality," because they are not | |
| 13238 distributed equally among all, one being in need, and another in affluence. | |
| 13239 </p> | |
| 13240 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p10"> | |
| 13241 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> We have already explained how alms may be given out of the profits of whoredom. Yet sacrifices and oblations were not made | |
| 13242 therefrom at the altar, both on account of the scandal, and through reverence for sacred things. It is also lawful to give | |
| 13243 alms out of the profits of simony, because they are not due to him who paid, indeed he deserves to lose them. But as to the | |
| 13244 profits from games of chance, there would seem to be something unlawful as being | |
| 13245 contrary to the Divine Law, when a man wins from one who cannot alienate his property, such as minors, lunatics and so forth, | |
| 13246 or when a man, with the desire of making money out of another man, entices him to play, and wins from him by cheating. In | |
| 13247 these cases he is bound to restitution, and consequently cannot give away his gains in alms. Then again there would seem to | |
| 13248 be something unlawful as being against the positive civil law, which altogether forbids any such profits. Since, however, | |
| 13249 a | |
| 13250 civil law does not bind all, but only those who are subject to that law, and moreover may be abrogated through desuetude, | |
| 13251 it follows that all such as are bound by these laws are bound to make restitution of such gains, unless perchance the contrary | |
| 13252 custom prevail, or unless a man win from one who enticed him to play, in which case he is not bound to restitution, because | |
| 13253 the loser does not deserve to be paid back: and yet he cannot lawfully keep what he has won, so long as that positive law | |
| 13254 is | |
| 13255 in force, wherefore in this case he ought to give it away in alms. | |
| 13256 </p> | |
| 13257 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p11"> | |
| 13258 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> All things are common property in a case of extreme necessity. Hence one who is in such dire straits may take another's goods | |
| 13259 in order to succor himself, if he can find no one who is willing to give him something. For the same reason a man may retain | |
| 13260 what belongs to another, and give alms thereof; or even take something if there be no other way of succoring the one who is | |
| 13261 in need. If however this be possible without danger, he must ask the owner's | |
| 13262 consent, and then succor the poor man who is in extreme necessity. | |
| 13263 </p> | |
| 13264 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p12"></p> | |
| 13265 <p id="SS_Q32_A7-p13"></p> | |
| 13266 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13267 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A8.html"></a> | |
| 13268 </div> | |
| 13269 <div id="SS_Q32_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 13270 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13271 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A9.html"></a> | |
| 13272 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A8-p0.1">Whether one who is under another's power can give alms?</h4> | |
| 13273 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 13274 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p2"> | |
| 13275 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one who is under another's power can give alms. For religious are under the power of their prelates to | |
| 13276 whom they have vowed obedience. Now if it were unlawful for them to give alms, they would lose by entering the state of religion, | |
| 13277 for as Ambrose [*The quotation is from the works of Ambrosiaster. Cf. Index to ecclesiastical authorities quoted by St. Thomas] | |
| 13278 says on | |
| 13279 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.4.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 4:8</a>: "'Dutifulness [Douay: 'godliness'] is | |
| 13280 profitable to all things': The sum total of the Christian religion consists in doing one's duty by all," and the most creditable | |
| 13281 way of doing this is to give alms. Therefore those who are in another's power can give alms. | |
| 13282 </p> | |
| 13283 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p3"> | |
| 13284 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a wife is under her husband's power ( | |
| 13285 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.3.16" target="asv">Gn. 3:16</a>). But a wife can give alms since she is her husband's partner; hence it is related of the Blessed Lucy that she gave alms | |
| 13286 without the knowledge of her betrothed [*"Sponsus" The matrimonial institutions of the Romans were so entirely different from | |
| 13287 ours that "sponsus" is no longer accurately rendered either "husband" or "betrothed."] Therefore a person is not prevented | |
| 13288 from giving alms, | |
| 13289 by being under another's power. | |
| 13290 </p> | |
| 13291 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p4"> | |
| 13292 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the subjection of children to their parents is founded on nature, wherefore the Apostle says ( | |
| 13293 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A8-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.6.1" target="asv">Eph. 6:1</a>): "Children, obey your parents in the Lord." But, apparently, children may give alms out of their parents' property. For | |
| 13294 it is their own, since they are the heirs; wherefore, since they can employ it for some bodily use, it seems that much more | |
| 13295 can they use it in giving alms so as to profit their souls. Therefore those who are | |
| 13296 under another's power can give alms. | |
| 13297 </p> | |
| 13298 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p5"> | |
| 13299 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, servants are under their master's power, according to | |
| 13300 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Titus.2.9" target="asv"> Titus 2:9</a>: "Exhort servants to be obedient to their masters." Now they may lawfully do anything that will profit their masters: and | |
| 13301 this would be especially the case if they gave alms for them. Therefore those who are under another's power can give alms. | |
| 13302 </p> | |
| 13303 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p6"> | |
| 13304 <b>On the contrary,</b> Alms should not be given out of another's property; and each one should give alms out of the just profit of his own labor | |
| 13305 as Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. xxxv, 2). Now if those who are subject to anyone were to give alms, this would be out of | |
| 13306 another's property. Therefore those who are under another's power cannot give alms. | |
| 13307 </p> | |
| 13308 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p7"> | |
| 13309 <b>I answer that,</b> Anyone who is under another's power must, as such, be ruled in accordance with the power of his superior: for the natural | |
| 13310 order demands that the inferior should be ruled according to its superior. Therefore in those matters in which the inferior | |
| 13311 is subject to his superior, his ministrations must be subject to the superior's permission. | |
| 13312 </p> | |
| 13313 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p8"> Accordingly he that is under another's power must not give alms of anything in respect of which he is subject to that other, | |
| 13314 except in so far as he has been commissioned by his superior. But if he has something in respect of which he is not under | |
| 13315 the power of his superior, he is no longer subject to another in its regard, being independent in respect of that particular | |
| 13316 thing, and he can give alms therefrom. | |
| 13317 </p> | |
| 13318 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p9"> | |
| 13319 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If a monk be dispensed through being commissioned by his superior, he can give alms from the property of his monaster, in | |
| 13320 accordance with the terms of his commission; but if he has no such dispensation, since he has nothing of his own, he cannot | |
| 13321 give alms without his abbot's permission either express or presumed for some probable reason: except in a case of extreme | |
| 13322 necessity, when it would be lawful for him to commit a theft in order to give an alms. | |
| 13323 Nor does it follow that he is worse off than before, because, as stated in De Eccles. Dogm. lxxi, "it is a good thing to give | |
| 13324 one's property to the poor little by little, but it is better still to give all at once in order to follow Christ, and being | |
| 13325 freed from care, to be needy with Christ." | |
| 13326 </p> | |
| 13327 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p10"> | |
| 13328 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A wife, who has other property besides her dowry which is for the support of the burdens of marriage, whether that property | |
| 13329 be gained by her own industry or by any other lawful means, can give alms, out of that property, without asking her husband's | |
| 13330 permission: yet such alms should be moderate, lest through giving too much she impoverish her husband. Otherwise she ought | |
| 13331 not to give alms without the express or presumed consent of her husband, except in | |
| 13332 cases of necessity as stated, in the case of a monk, in the preceding Reply. For though the wife be her husband's equal in | |
| 13333 the marriage act, yet in matters of housekeeping, the head of the woman is the man, as the Apostle says ( | |
| 13334 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A8-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.3" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:3</a>). As regards Blessed Lucy, she had a betrothed, not a husband, wherefore she could give alms with her mother's consent. | |
| 13335 </p> | |
| 13336 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p11"> | |
| 13337 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> What belongs to the children belongs also to the father: wherefore the child cannot give alms, except in such small quantity | |
| 13338 that one may presume the father to be willing: unless, perchance, the father authorize his child to dispose of any particular | |
| 13339 property. The same applies to servants. Hence the Reply to the Fourth Objection is clear. | |
| 13340 </p> | |
| 13341 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 13342 <p id="SS_Q32_A8-p13"></p> | |
| 13343 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13344 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A9.html"></a> | |
| 13345 </div> | |
| 13346 <div id="SS_Q32_A9" class="div4"> | |
| 13347 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A8.html"></a> | |
| 13348 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A10.html"></a> | |
| 13349 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A9-p0.1">Whether one ought to give alms to those rather who are more closely united to us?</h4> | |
| 13350 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p1"></p> | |
| 13351 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p2"> | |
| 13352 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one ought not to give alms to those rather who are more closely united to us. For it is written ( | |
| 13353 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.12.4" target="asv">Ecclus. 12:4</a>, | |
| 13354 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A9-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Sir.12.6" target="asv">6</a>): "Give to the merciful and uphold not the sinner . . . Do good to the humble and give not to the ungodly." Now it happens | |
| 13355 sometimes that those who are closely united to us are sinful and ungodly. Therefore we ought not to give alms to them in preference | |
| 13356 to others. | |
| 13357 </p> | |
| 13358 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p3"> | |
| 13359 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, alms should be given that we may receive an eternal reward in return, according to | |
| 13360 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A9-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.6.18" target="asv"> Mat. 6:18</a>: "And thy Father Who seeth in secret, will repay thee." Now the eternal reward is gained chiefly by the alms which are given | |
| 13361 to the saints, according to | |
| 13362 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A9-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.16.9" target="asv"> Lk. 16:9</a>: "Make unto you friends of the mammon of iniquity, that when you shall fail, they may receive you into everlasting dwellings, | |
| 13363 which passage Augustine expounds | |
| 13364 (De Verb. Dom. xxxv, 1): "Who shall have everlasting dwellings unless the saints of God? And who are they that shall be received | |
| 13365 by them into their dwellings, if not those who succor them in their needs? Therefore alms should be given to the more holy | |
| 13366 persons rather than to those who are more closely united to us. | |
| 13367 </p> | |
| 13368 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p4"> | |
| 13369 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man is more closely united to himself. But a man cannot give himself an alms. Therefore it seems that we are not | |
| 13370 bound to give alms to those who are most closely united to us. | |
| 13371 </p> | |
| 13372 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p5"> | |
| 13373 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle says ( | |
| 13374 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:8</a>): "If any man have not care of his own, and especially of those of his house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than | |
| 13375 an infidel." | |
| 13376 </p> | |
| 13377 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p6"> | |
| 13378 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 28), "it falls to us by lot, as it were, to have to look to the welfare of those | |
| 13379 who are more closely united to us." Nevertheless in this matter we must employ discretion, according to the various degrees | |
| 13380 of connection, holiness and utility. For we ought to give alms to one who is much holier and in greater want, and to one who | |
| 13381 is more useful to the common weal, rather than to one who is more closely united to us, | |
| 13382 especially if the latter be not very closely united, and has no special claim on our care then and there, and who is not in | |
| 13383 very urgent need. | |
| 13384 </p> | |
| 13385 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p7"> | |
| 13386 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We ought not to help a sinner as such, that is by encouraging him to sin, but as man, that is by supporting his nature. | |
| 13387 </p> | |
| 13388 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p8"> | |
| 13389 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Almsdeeds deserve on two counts to receive an eternal reward. First because they are rooted in charity, and in this respect | |
| 13390 an almsdeed is meritorious in so far as it observes the order of charity, which requires that, other things being equal, we | |
| 13391 should, in preference, help those who are more closely connected with us. Wherefore Ambrose says (De Officiis i, 30): "It | |
| 13392 is with commendable liberality that you forget not your kindred, if you know them to | |
| 13393 be in need, for it is better that you should yourself help your own family, who would be ashamed to beg help from others." | |
| 13394 Secondly, almsdeeds deserve to be rewarded eternally, through the merit of the recipient, who prays for the giver, and it | |
| 13395 is in this sense that Augustine is speaking. | |
| 13396 </p> | |
| 13397 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p9"> | |
| 13398 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since almsdeeds are works of mercy, just as a man does not, properly speaking, pity himself, but only by a kind of comparison, | |
| 13399 as stated above ( | |
| 13400 <a id="SS_Q32_A9-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q30_A1.html">Q[30], AA[1]</a>,2), so too, properly speaking, no man gives himself an alms, unless he act in another's person; thus when a man is appointed | |
| 13401 to distribute alms, he can take something for himself, if he be in want, on the same ground as when he gives to others. | |
| 13402 </p> | |
| 13403 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p10"></p> | |
| 13404 <p id="SS_Q32_A9-p11"></p> | |
| 13405 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A8.html"></a> | |
| 13406 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A10.html"></a> | |
| 13407 </div> | |
| 13408 <div id="SS_Q32_A10" class="div4"> | |
| 13409 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A9.html"></a> | |
| 13410 <a href="summa.SS_Q33.html"></a> | |
| 13411 <h4 id="SS_Q32_A10-p0.1">Whether alms should be given in abundance?</h4> | |
| 13412 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p1"></p> | |
| 13413 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p2"> | |
| 13414 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that alms should not be given in abundance. For we ought to give alms to those chiefly who are most closely | |
| 13415 connected with us. But we ought not to give to them in such a way that they are likely to become richer thereby, as Ambrose | |
| 13416 says (De Officiis i, 30). Therefore neither should we give abundantly to others. | |
| 13417 </p> | |
| 13418 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p3"> | |
| 13419 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Ambrose says (De Officiis i, 30): "We should not lavish our wealth on others all at once, we should dole it out | |
| 13420 by degrees." But to give abundantly is to give lavishly. Therefore alms should not be given in abundance. | |
| 13421 </p> | |
| 13422 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p4"> | |
| 13423 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 13424 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A10-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.8.13" target="asv">2 Cor. 8:13</a>): "Not that others should be eased," i.e. should live on you without working themselves, "and you burthened," i.e. impoverished. | |
| 13425 But this would be the result if alms were given in abundance. Therefore we ought not to give alms abundantly. | |
| 13426 </p> | |
| 13427 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p5"> | |
| 13428 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 13429 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Tob.4.93" target="asv">Tob. 4:93</a>): "If thou have much, give abundantly." | |
| 13430 </p> | |
| 13431 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p6"> | |
| 13432 <b>I answer that,</b> Alms may be considered abundant in relation either to the giver, or to the recipient: in relation to the giver, when that | |
| 13433 which a man gives is great as compared with his means. To give thus is praiseworthy, wherefore Our Lord ( | |
| 13434 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A10-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.21.3" target="asv">Lk. 21:3,4</a>) commended the widow because "of her want, she cast in all the living that she had." Nevertheless those conditions must be | |
| 13435 observed which were laid down when we spoke of giving alms out of one's | |
| 13436 necessary goods | |
| 13437 <a id="SS_Q32_A10-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q32_A9.html">(A[9])</a>. | |
| 13438 </p> | |
| 13439 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p7"> On the part of the recipient, an alms may be abundant in two ways; first, by relieving his need sufficiently, and in this | |
| 13440 sense it is praiseworthy to give alms: secondly, by relieving his need more than sufficiently; this is not praiseworthy, and | |
| 13441 it would be better to give to several that are in need, wherefore the Apostle says ( | |
| 13442 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A10-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.13.3" target="asv">1 Cor. 13:3</a>): "If I should distribute . . . to feed the poor," on which words a gloss comments: "Thus we are warned to be careful | |
| 13443 in giving alms, and to give, not to one only, but to many, that we may profit many." | |
| 13444 </p> | |
| 13445 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p8"> | |
| 13446 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument considers abundance of alms as exceeding the needs of the recipient. | |
| 13447 </p> | |
| 13448 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p9"> | |
| 13449 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The passage quoted considers abundance of alms on the part of the giver; but the sense is that God does not wish a man to | |
| 13450 lavish all his wealth at once, except when he changes his state of life, wherefore he goes on to say: "Except we imitate Eliseus | |
| 13451 who slew his oxen and fed the poor with what he had, so that no household cares might keep him back" ( | |
| 13452 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q32_A10-p9.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">3 Kings 19:21</a>). | |
| 13453 </p> | |
| 13454 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p10"> | |
| 13455 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In the passage quoted the words, "not that others should be eased or refreshed," refer to that abundance of alms which surpasses | |
| 13456 the need of the recipient, to whom one should give alms not that he may have an easy life, but that he may have relief. Nevertheless | |
| 13457 we must bring discretion to bear on the matter, on account of the various conditions of men, some of whom are more daintily | |
| 13458 nurtured, and need finer food and clothing. Hence Ambrose says (De | |
| 13459 Officiis i, 30): "When you give an alms to a man, you should take into consideration his age and his weakness; and sometimes | |
| 13460 the shame which proclaims his good birth; and again that perhaps he has fallen from riches to indigence through no fault of | |
| 13461 his own." | |
| 13462 </p> | |
| 13463 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p11"> With regard to the words that follow, "and you burdened," they refer to abundance on the part of the giver. Yet, as a gloss | |
| 13464 says on the same passage, "he says this, not because it would be better to give in abundance, but because he fears for the | |
| 13465 weak, and he admonishes them so to give that they lack not for themselves." | |
| 13466 </p> | |
| 13467 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p12"></p> | |
| 13468 <p id="SS_Q32_A10-p13"></p> | |
| 13469 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A9.html"></a> | |
| 13470 <a href="summa.SS_Q33.html"></a> | |
| 13471 </div> | |
| 13472 <a href="summa.SS_Q31_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13473 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html"></a> | |
| 13474 </div> | |
| 13475 <div id="SS_Q33" class="div3"> | |
| 13476 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A10.html"></a> | |
| 13477 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html"></a> | |
| 13478 <h3 id="SS_Q33-p0.1">OF FRATERNAL CORRECTION (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 13479 <p id="SS_Q33-p1"></p> | |
| 13480 <p id="SS_Q33-p2"> We must now consider Fraternal Correction, under which head there are eight points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 13481 <p id="SS_Q33-p3"> (1) Whether fraternal correction is an act of charity?</p> | |
| 13482 <p id="SS_Q33-p4"> (2) Whether it is a matter of precept?</p> | |
| 13483 <p id="SS_Q33-p5"> (3) Whether this precept binds all, or only superiors?</p> | |
| 13484 <p id="SS_Q33-p6"> (4) Whether this precept binds the subject to correct his superior?</p> | |
| 13485 <p id="SS_Q33-p7"> (5) Whether a sinner may correct anyone?</p> | |
| 13486 <p id="SS_Q33-p8"> (6) Whether one ought to correct a person who becomes worse through being corrected?</p> | |
| 13487 <p id="SS_Q33-p9"> (7) Whether secret correction should precede denouncement?</p> | |
| 13488 <p id="SS_Q33-p10"> (8) Whether witnesses should be called before denouncement?</p> | |
| 13489 <div id="SS_Q33_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 13490 <a href="summa.SS_Q33.html"></a> | |
| 13491 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html"></a> | |
| 13492 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A1-p0.1">Whether fraternal correction is an act of charity?</h4> | |
| 13493 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 13494 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p2"> | |
| 13495 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fraternal correction is not an act of charity. For a gloss on | |
| 13496 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.15" target="asv"> Mat. 18:15, </a> "If thy brother shall offend against thee," says that "a man should reprove his brother out of zeal for justice." But justice | |
| 13497 is a distinct virtue from charity. Therefore fraternal correction is an act, not of charity, but of justice. | |
| 13498 </p> | |
| 13499 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p3"> | |
| 13500 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, fraternal correction is given by secret admonition. Now admonition is a kind of counsel, which is an act of prudence, | |
| 13501 for a prudent man is one who is of good counsel (Ethic. vi, 5). Therefore fraternal correction is an act, not of charity, | |
| 13502 but of prudence. | |
| 13503 </p> | |
| 13504 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p4"> | |
| 13505 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, contrary acts do not belong to the same virtue. Now it is an act of charity to bear with a sinner, according to | |
| 13506 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.6.2" target="asv"> Gal. 6:2</a>: "Bear ye one another's burdens, and so you shall fulfil the law of Christ," which is the law of charity. Therefore it seems | |
| 13507 that the correction of a sinning brother, which is contrary to bearing with him, is not an act of charity. | |
| 13508 </p> | |
| 13509 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p5"> | |
| 13510 <b>On the contrary,</b> To correct the wrongdoer is a spiritual almsdeed. But almsdeeds are works of charity, as stated above ( | |
| 13511 <a id="SS_Q33_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q32_A1.html">Q[32], A[1]</a>). Therefore fraternal correction is an act of charity. | |
| 13512 </p> | |
| 13513 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p6"> | |
| 13514 <b>I answer that,</b> The correction of the wrongdoer is a remedy which should be employed against a man's sin. Now a man's sin may be considered | |
| 13515 in two ways, first as being harmful to the sinner, secondly as conducing to the harm of others, by hurting or scandalizing | |
| 13516 them, or by being detrimental to the common good, the justice of which is disturbed by that man's sin. | |
| 13517 </p> | |
| 13518 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p7"> Consequently the correction of a wrongdoer is twofold, one which applies a remedy to the sin considered as an evil of the | |
| 13519 sinner himself. This is fraternal correction properly so called, which is directed to the amendment of the sinner. Now to | |
| 13520 do away with anyone's evil is the same as to procure his good: and to procure a person's good is an act of charity, whereby | |
| 13521 we wish and do our friend well. Consequently fraternal correction also is an act of charity, because thereby we | |
| 13522 drive out our brother's evil, viz. sin, the removal of which pertains to charity rather than the removal of an external loss, | |
| 13523 or of a bodily injury, in so much as the contrary good of virtue is more akin to charity than the good of the body or of external | |
| 13524 things. Therefore fraternal correction is an act of charity rather than the healing of a bodily infirmity, or the relieving | |
| 13525 of an external bodily need. There is another correction which applies a remedy to the sin of the wrongdoer, considered | |
| 13526 as hurtful to others, and especially to the common good. This correction is an act of justice, whose concern it is to safeguard | |
| 13527 the rectitude of justice between one man and another. | |
| 13528 </p> | |
| 13529 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p8"> | |
| 13530 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This gloss speaks of the second correction which is an act of justice. Or if it speaks of the first correction, then it takes | |
| 13531 justice as denoting a general virtue, as we shall state further on ( | |
| 13532 <a id="SS_Q33_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q58_A5.html">Q[58] , A[5]</a>), in which sense again all "sin is iniquity" ( | |
| 13533 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A1-p8.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.4" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:4</a>), through being contrary to justice. | |
| 13534 </p> | |
| 13535 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p9"> | |
| 13536 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 12), prudence regulates whatever is directed to the end, about which things counsel | |
| 13537 and choice are concerned. Nevertheless when, guided by prudence, we perform some action aright which is directed to the end | |
| 13538 of some virtue, such as temperance or fortitude, that action belongs chiefly to the virtue to whose end it is directed. Since, | |
| 13539 then, the admonition which is given in fraternal correction is directed to the | |
| 13540 removal of a brother's sin, which removal pertains to charity, it is evident that this admonition is chiefly an act of charity, | |
| 13541 which virtue commands it, so to speak, but secondarily an act of prudence, which executes and directs the action. | |
| 13542 </p> | |
| 13543 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p10"> | |
| 13544 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Fraternal correction is not opposed to forbearance with the weak, on the contrary it results from it. For a man bears with | |
| 13545 a sinner, in so far as he is not disturbed against him, and retains his goodwill towards him: the result being that he strives | |
| 13546 to make him do better. | |
| 13547 </p> | |
| 13548 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 13549 <p id="SS_Q33_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 13550 <a href="summa.SS_Q33.html"></a> | |
| 13551 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html"></a> | |
| 13552 </div> | |
| 13553 <div id="SS_Q33_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 13554 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html"></a> | |
| 13555 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A3.html"></a> | |
| 13556 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A2-p0.1">Whether fraternal correction is a matter of precept?</h4> | |
| 13557 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 13558 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p2"> | |
| 13559 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fraternal correction is not a matter of precept. For nothing impossible is a matter of precept, according | |
| 13560 to the saying of Jerome [*Pelagius, Expos. Symb. ad Damas]: "Accursed be he who says that God has commanded any. thing impossible." | |
| 13561 Now it is written ( | |
| 13562 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.7.14" target="asv">Eccles. 7:14</a>): "Consider the works of God, that no man can correct whom He hath despised." Therefore fraternal correction is not a matter | |
| 13563 of precept. | |
| 13564 </p> | |
| 13565 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p3"> | |
| 13566 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, all the precepts of the Divine Law are reduced to the precepts of the Decalogue. But fraternal correction does not | |
| 13567 come under any precept of the Decalogue. Therefore it is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13568 </p> | |
| 13569 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p4"> | |
| 13570 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the omission of a Divine precept is a mortal sin, which has no place in a holy man. Yet holy and spiritual men are | |
| 13571 found to omit fraternal correction: since Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i, 9): "Not only those of low degree, but also those | |
| 13572 of high position, refrain from reproving others, moved by a guilty cupidity, not by the claims of charity." Therefore fraternal | |
| 13573 correction is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13574 </p> | |
| 13575 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p5"> | |
| 13576 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, whatever is a matter of precept is something due. If, therefore, fraternal correction is a matter of precept, it | |
| 13577 is due to our brethren that we correct them when they sin. Now when a man owes anyone a material due, such as the payment | |
| 13578 of a sum of money, he must not be content that his creditor come to him, but he should seek him out, that he may pay him his | |
| 13579 due. Hence we should have to go seeking for those who need correction, in order that we might | |
| 13580 correct them; which appears to be inconvenient, both on account of the great number of sinners, for whose correction one man | |
| 13581 could not suffice, and because religious would have to leave the cloister in order to reprove men, which would be unbecoming. | |
| 13582 Therefore fraternal correction is not a matter of precept. | |
| 13583 </p> | |
| 13584 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p6"> | |
| 13585 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. xvi, 4): "You become worse than the sinner if you fail to correct him." But this would not | |
| 13586 be so unless, by this neglect, one omitted to observe some precept. Therefore fraternal correction is a matter of precept. | |
| 13587 </p> | |
| 13588 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p7"> | |
| 13589 <b>I answer that,</b> Fraternal correction is a matter of precept. We must observe, however, that while the negative precepts of the Law forbid | |
| 13590 sinful acts, the positive precepts inculcate acts of virtue. Now sinful acts are evil in themselves, and cannot become good, | |
| 13591 no matter how, or when, or where, they are done, because of their very nature they are connected with an evil end, as stated | |
| 13592 in Ethic. ii, 6: wherefore negative precepts bind always and for all times. On the other | |
| 13593 hand, acts of virtue must not be done anyhow, but by observing the due circumstances, which are requisite in order that an | |
| 13594 act be virtuous; namely, that it be done where, when, and how it ought to be done. And since the disposition of whatever is | |
| 13595 directed to the end depends on the formal aspect of the end, the chief of these circumstances of a virtuous act is this aspect | |
| 13596 of the end, which in this case is the good of virtue. If therefore such a circumstance be omitted from a virtuous act, as | |
| 13597 entirely takes away the good of virtue, such an act is contrary to a precept. If, however, the circumstance omitted from a | |
| 13598 virtuous act be such as not to destroy the virtue altogether, though it does not perfectly attain the good of virtue, it is | |
| 13599 not against a precept. Hence the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 9) says that if we depart but little from the mean, it is not contrary | |
| 13600 to the virtue, whereas if we depart much from the mean virtue is destroyed in its act. Now fraternal correction is directed | |
| 13601 to a brother's amendment: so that it is a matter of precept, in so far as it is necessary for that end, but not so as we have | |
| 13602 to correct our erring brother at all places and times. | |
| 13603 </p> | |
| 13604 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p8"> | |
| 13605 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In all good deeds man's action is not efficacious without the Divine assistance: and yet man must do what is in his power. | |
| 13606 Hence Augustine says (De Correp. et Gratia xv): "Since we ignore who is predestined and who is not, charity should so guide | |
| 13607 our feelings, that we wish all to be saved." Consequently we ought to do our brethren the kindness of correcting them, with | |
| 13608 the hope of God's help. | |
| 13609 </p> | |
| 13610 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p9"> | |
| 13611 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 13612 <a id="SS_Q33_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q32_A5.html">Q[32], A[5]</a>, ad 4), all the precepts about rendering service to our neighbor are reduced to the precept about the honor due to parents. | |
| 13613 </p> | |
| 13614 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p10"> | |
| 13615 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Fraternal correction may be omitted in three ways. | |
| 13616 </p> | |
| 13617 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p11"> First, meritoriously, when out of charity one omits to correct someone. For Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i, 9): "If a man | |
| 13618 refrains from chiding and reproving wrongdoers, because he awaits a suitable time for so doing, or because he fears lest, | |
| 13619 if he does so, they may become worse, or hinder, oppress, or turn away from the faith, others who are weak and need to be | |
| 13620 instructed in a life of goodness and virtue, this does not seem to result from covetousness, but to be counselled by | |
| 13621 charity." | |
| 13622 </p> | |
| 13623 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p12"> Secondly, fraternal correction may be omitted in such a way that one commits a mortal sin, namely, "when" (as he says in | |
| 13624 the same passage) "one fears what people may think, or lest one may suffer grievous pain or death; provided, however, that | |
| 13625 the mind is so dominated by such things, that it gives them the preference to fraternal charity." This would seem to be the | |
| 13626 case when a man reckons that he might probably withdraw some wrongdoer from sin, and yet omits to do so, through | |
| 13627 fear or covetousness. | |
| 13628 </p> | |
| 13629 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p13"> Thirdly, such an omission is a venial sin, when through fear or covetousness, a man is loth to correct his brother's faults, | |
| 13630 and yet not to such a degree, that if he saw clearly that he could withdraw him from sin, he would still forbear from so doing, | |
| 13631 through fear or covetousness, because in his own mind he prefers fraternal charity to these things. It is in this way that | |
| 13632 holy men sometimes omit to correct wrongdoers. | |
| 13633 </p> | |
| 13634 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p14"> | |
| 13635 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> We are bound to pay that which is due to some fixed and certain person, whether it be a material or a spiritual good, without | |
| 13636 waiting for him to come to us, but by taking proper steps to find him. Wherefore just as he that owes money to a creditor | |
| 13637 should seek him, when the time comes, so as to pay him what he owes, so he that has spiritual charge of some person is bound | |
| 13638 to seek him out, in order to reprove him for a sin. On the other hand, we are not | |
| 13639 bound to seek someone on whom to bestow such favors as are due, not to any certain person, but to all our neighbors in general, | |
| 13640 whether those favors be material or spiritual goods, but it suffices that we bestow them when the opportunity occurs; because, | |
| 13641 as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 28), we must look upon this as a matter of chance. For this reason he says (De Verb. | |
| 13642 Dom. xvi, 1) that "Our Lord warns us not to be listless in regard of one another's sins: not indeed by being on the | |
| 13643 lookout for something to denounce, but by correcting what we see": else we should become spies on the lives of others, which | |
| 13644 is against the saying of | |
| 13645 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A2-p14.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.24.19" target="asv"> Prov. 24:19</a>: "Lie not in wait, nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just, nor spoil his rest." It is evident from this that | |
| 13646 there is no need for religious to leave their cloister in order to rebuke evil-doers. | |
| 13647 </p> | |
| 13648 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 13649 <p id="SS_Q33_A2-p16"></p> | |
| 13650 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html"></a> | |
| 13651 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A3.html"></a> | |
| 13652 </div> | |
| 13653 <div id="SS_Q33_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 13654 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html"></a> | |
| 13655 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13656 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A3-p0.1">Whether fraternal correction belongs only to prelates?</h4> | |
| 13657 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 13658 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p2"> | |
| 13659 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fraternal correction belongs to prelates alone. For Jerome [*Origen, Hom. vii in Joan.] says: "Let priests | |
| 13660 endeavor to fulfil this saying of the Gospel: 'If thy brother sin against thee,'" etc. Now prelates having charge of others | |
| 13661 were usually designated under the name of priests. Therefore it seems that fraternal correction belongs to prelates alone. | |
| 13662 </p> | |
| 13663 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p3"> | |
| 13664 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, fraternal correction is a spiritual alms. Now corporal almsgiving belongs to those who are placed above others in | |
| 13665 temporal matters, i.e. to the rich. Therefore fraternal correction belongs to those who are placed above others in spiritual | |
| 13666 matters, i.e. to prelates. | |
| 13667 </p> | |
| 13668 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p4"> | |
| 13669 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, when one man reproves another he moves him by his rebuke to something better. Now in the physical order the inferior | |
| 13670 is moved by the superior. Therefore in the order of virtue also, which follows the order of nature, it belongs to prelates | |
| 13671 alone to correct inferiors. | |
| 13672 </p> | |
| 13673 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p5"> | |
| 13674 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (Dist. xxiv, qu. 3, Can. Tam Sacerdotes): "Both priests and all the rest of the faithful should be most solicitous | |
| 13675 for those who perish, so that their reproof may either correct their sinful ways. or, if they be incorrigible, cut them off | |
| 13676 from the Church." | |
| 13677 </p> | |
| 13678 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p6"> | |
| 13679 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 13680 <a id="SS_Q33_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, correction is twofold. One is an act of charity, which seeks in a special way the recovery of an erring brother by means | |
| 13681 of a simple warning: such like correction belongs to anyone who has charity, be he subject or prelate. | |
| 13682 </p> | |
| 13683 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p7"> But there is another correction which is an act of justice purposing the common good, which is procured not only by warning | |
| 13684 one's brother, but also, sometimes, by punishing him, that others may, through fear, desist from sin. Such a correction belongs | |
| 13685 only to prelates, whose business it is not only to admonish, but also to correct by means of punishments. | |
| 13686 </p> | |
| 13687 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p8"> | |
| 13688 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Even as regards that fraternal correction which is common to all, prelates have a grave responsibility, as Augustine says | |
| 13689 (De Civ. Dei i, 9): "for just as a man ought to bestow temporal favors on those especially of whom he has temporal care, so | |
| 13690 too ought he to confer spiritual favors, such as correction, teaching and the like, on those who are entrusted to his spiritual | |
| 13691 care." Therefore Jerome does not mean that the precept of fraternal correction | |
| 13692 concerns priests only, but that it concerns them chiefly. | |
| 13693 </p> | |
| 13694 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p9"> | |
| 13695 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as he who has the means wherewith to give corporal assistance is rich in this respect, so he whose reason is gifted | |
| 13696 with a sane judgment, so as to be able to correct another's wrong-doing, is, in this respect, to be looked on as a superior. | |
| 13697 </p> | |
| 13698 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p10"> | |
| 13699 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Even in the physical order certain things act mutually on one another, through being in some respect higher than one another, | |
| 13700 in so far as each is somewhat in act, and somewhat in potentiality with regard to another. In like manner one man can correct | |
| 13701 another in so far as he has a sane judgment in a matter wherein the other sins, though he is not his superior simply. | |
| 13702 </p> | |
| 13703 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 13704 <p id="SS_Q33_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 13705 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html"></a> | |
| 13706 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13707 </div> | |
| 13708 <div id="SS_Q33_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 13709 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A3.html"></a> | |
| 13710 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13711 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A4-p0.1">Whether a mann is bound to correct his prelate?</h4> | |
| 13712 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 13713 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p2"> | |
| 13714 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that no man is bound to correct his prelate. For it is written ( | |
| 13715 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.19.12" target="asv">Ex. 19:12</a>): "The beast that shall touch the mount shall be stoned," [*Vulg.: 'Everyone that shall touch the mount, dying he shall die.'] | |
| 13716 and ( | |
| 13717 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p2.2" href="./asv.html#iiKgdms.6.7" target="asv">2 Kings 6:7</a>) it is related that the Lord struck Oza for touching the ark. Now the mount and the ark signify our prelates. Therefore prelates | |
| 13718 should not be corrected by their subjects. | |
| 13719 </p> | |
| 13720 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p3"> | |
| 13721 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a gloss on | |
| 13722 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.2.11" target="asv"> Gal. 2:11, </a> "I withstood him to the face," adds: "as an equal." Therefore, since a subject is not equal to his prelate, he ought not | |
| 13723 to correct him. | |
| 13724 </p> | |
| 13725 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p4"> | |
| 13726 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Gregory says (Moral. xxiii, 8) that "one ought not to presume to reprove the conduct of holy men, unless one thinks | |
| 13727 better of oneself." But one ought not to think better of oneself than of one's prelate. Therefore one ought not to correct | |
| 13728 one's prelate. | |
| 13729 </p> | |
| 13730 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p5"> | |
| 13731 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says in his Rule: "Show mercy not only to yourselves, but also to him who, being in the higher position among you, | |
| 13732 is therefore in greater danger." But fraternal correction is a work of mercy. Therefore even prelates ought to be corrected. | |
| 13733 </p> | |
| 13734 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p6"> | |
| 13735 <b>I answer that,</b> A subject is not competent to administer to his prelate the correction which is an act of justice through the coercive nature | |
| 13736 of punishment: but the fraternal correction which is an act of charity is within the competency of everyone in respect of | |
| 13737 any person towards whom he is bound by charity, provided there be something in that person which requires correction. | |
| 13738 </p> | |
| 13739 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p7"> Now an act which proceeds from a habit or power extends to whatever is contained under the object of that power or habit: | |
| 13740 thus vision extends to all things comprised in the object of sight. Since, however, a virtuous act needs to be moderated by | |
| 13741 due circumstances, it follows that when a subject corrects his prelate, he ought to do so in a becoming manner, not with impudence | |
| 13742 and harshness, but with gentleness and respect. Hence the Apostle says ( | |
| 13743 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.1" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:1</a>): | |
| 13744 "An ancient man rebuke not, but entreat him as a father." Wherefore Dionysius finds fault with the monk Demophilus (Ep. viii), | |
| 13745 for rebuking a priest with insolence, by striking and turning him out of the church. | |
| 13746 </p> | |
| 13747 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p8"> | |
| 13748 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a subject touches his prelate inordinately when he upbraids him with insolence, as also when he speaks | |
| 13749 ill of him: and this is signified by God's condemnation of those who touched the mount and the ark. | |
| 13750 </p> | |
| 13751 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p9"> | |
| 13752 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> To withstand anyone in public exceeds the mode of fraternal correction, and so Paul would not have withstood Peter then, | |
| 13753 unless he were in some way his equal as regards the defense of the faith. But one who is not an equal can reprove privately | |
| 13754 and respectfully. Hence the Apostle in writing to the Colossians (4:17) tells them to admonish their prelate: "Say to Archippus: | |
| 13755 Fulfil thy ministry [*Vulg.: 'Take heed to the ministry which thou hast received | |
| 13756 in the Lord, that thou fulfil it.' Cf. | |
| 13757 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.4.5" target="asv">2 Tim. 4:5</a>]." It must be observed, however, that if the faith were endangered, a subject ought to rebuke his prelate even publicly. | |
| 13758 Hence Paul, who was Peter's subject, rebuked him in public, on account of the imminent danger of scandal concerning faith, | |
| 13759 and, as the gloss of Augustine says on | |
| 13760 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A4-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.2.11" target="asv"> Gal. 2:11, </a> "Peter gave an example to superiors, that if at any time they should happen to stray from the straight path, they | |
| 13761 should not disdain to be reproved by their subjects." | |
| 13762 </p> | |
| 13763 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p10"> | |
| 13764 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To presume oneself to be simply better than one's prelate, would seem to savor of presumptuous pride; but there is no presumption | |
| 13765 in thinking oneself better in some respect, because, in this life, no man is without some fault. We must also remember that | |
| 13766 when a man reproves his prelate charitably, it does not follow that he thinks himself any better, but merely that he offers | |
| 13767 his help to one who, "being in the higher position among you, is therefore in | |
| 13768 greater danger," as Augustine observes in his Rule quoted above. | |
| 13769 </p> | |
| 13770 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 13771 <p id="SS_Q33_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 13772 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A3.html"></a> | |
| 13773 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13774 </div> | |
| 13775 <div id="SS_Q33_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 13776 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13777 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13778 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A5-p0.1">Whether a sinner ought to reprove a wrongdoer?</h4> | |
| 13779 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 13780 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p2"> | |
| 13781 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a sinner ought to reprove a wrongdoer. For no man is excused from obeying a precept by having committed | |
| 13782 a sin. But fraternal correction is a matter of precept, as stated above | |
| 13783 <a id="SS_Q33_A5-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Therefore it seems that a man ought not to forbear from such like correction for the reason that he has committed a sin. | |
| 13784 </p> | |
| 13785 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p3"> | |
| 13786 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, spiritual almsdeeds are of more account than corporal almsdeeds. Now one who is in sin ought not to abstain from | |
| 13787 administering corporal alms. Much less therefore ought he, on account of a previous sin, to refrain from correcting wrongdoers. | |
| 13788 </p> | |
| 13789 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p4"> | |
| 13790 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 13791 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.1.8" target="asv">1 Jn. 1:8</a>): "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves." Therefore if, on account of a sin, a man is hindered from reproving | |
| 13792 his brother, there will be none to reprove the wrongdoer. But the latter proposition is unreasonable: therefore the former | |
| 13793 is also. | |
| 13794 </p> | |
| 13795 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p5"> | |
| 13796 <b>On the contrary,</b> Isidore says (De Summo Bono iii, 32): "He that is subject to vice should not correct the vices of others." Again it is written | |
| 13797 ( | |
| 13798 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.2.1" target="asv">Rom. 2:1</a>): "Wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself. For thou dost the same things which thou judgest." | |
| 13799 </p> | |
| 13800 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p6"> | |
| 13801 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[3], ad 2), to correct a wrongdoer belongs to a man, in so far as his reason is gifted with right judgment. | |
| 13802 Now sin, as stated above ( | |
| 13803 <a id="SS_Q33_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q85_A1.html">FS, Q[85], AA[1]</a>,2), does not destroy the good of nature so as to deprive the sinner's reason of all right judgment, and in this respect he | |
| 13804 may be competent to find fault with others for committing sin. Nevertheless a previous sin proves somewhat of a hindrance | |
| 13805 to this correction, for | |
| 13806 three reasons. First because this previous sin renders a man unworthy to rebuke another; and especially is he unworthy to | |
| 13807 correct another for a lesser sin, if he himself has committed a greater. Hence Jerome says on the words, "Why seest thou the | |
| 13808 mote?" etc. ( | |
| 13809 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A5-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.3" target="asv">Mat. 7:3</a>): "He is speaking of those who, while they are themselves guilty of mortal sin, have no patience with the lesser sins of | |
| 13810 their brethren." | |
| 13811 </p> | |
| 13812 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p7"> Secondly, such like correction becomes unseemly, on account of the scandal which ensues therefrom, if the corrector's sin | |
| 13813 be well known, because it would seem that he corrects, not out of charity, but more for the sake of ostentation. Hence the | |
| 13814 words of | |
| 13815 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.4" target="asv"> Mat. 7:4, </a> "How sayest thou to thy brother?" etc. are expounded by Chrysostom [*Hom. xvii in the Opus Imperfectum falsely ascribed to | |
| 13816 St. John Chrysostom] thus: "That is---'With what object?' Out of charity, | |
| 13817 think you, that you may save your neighbor?" No, "because you would look after your own salvation first. What you want is, | |
| 13818 not to save others, but to hide your evil deeds with good teaching, and to seek to be praised by men for your knowledge." | |
| 13819 </p> | |
| 13820 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p8"> Thirdly, on account of the rebuker's pride; when, for instance, a man thinks lightly of his own sins, and, in his own heart, | |
| 13821 sets himself above his neighbor, judging the latter's sins with harsh severity, as though he himself were just man. Hence | |
| 13822 Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 19): "To reprove the faults of others is the duty of good and kindly men: when | |
| 13823 a wicked man rebukes anyone, his rebuke is the latter's acquittal." And so, as Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in | |
| 13824 Monte ii, 19): "When we have to find fault with anyone, we should think whether we were never guilty of his sin; and then | |
| 13825 we must remember that we are men, and might have been guilty of it; or that we once had it on our conscience, but have it | |
| 13826 no longer: and then we should bethink ourselves that we are all weak, in order that our reproof may be the outcome, not of | |
| 13827 hatred, but of pity. But if we find that we are guilty of the same sin, we must not rebuke him, but groan with him, and invite | |
| 13828 him | |
| 13829 to repent with us." It follows from this that, if a sinner reprove a wrongdoer with humility, he does not sin, nor does he | |
| 13830 bring a further condemnation on himself, although thereby he proves himself deserving of condemnation, either in his brother's | |
| 13831 or in his own conscience, on account of his previous sin. | |
| 13832 </p> | |
| 13833 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p9"> Hence the Replies to the Objections are clear.</p> | |
| 13834 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 13835 <p id="SS_Q33_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 13836 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A4.html"></a> | |
| 13837 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13838 </div> | |
| 13839 <div id="SS_Q33_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 13840 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13841 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13842 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A6-p0.1">Whether one ought to forbear from correcting someone, through fear lest he become worse?</h4> | |
| 13843 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 13844 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p2"> | |
| 13845 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one ought not to forbear from correcting someone through fear lest he become worse. For sin is weakness | |
| 13846 of the soul, according to | |
| 13847 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.6.3" target="asv"> Ps. 6:3</a>: "Have mercy on me, O Lord, for I am weak." Now he that has charge of a sick person, must not cease to take care of him, | |
| 13848 even if he be fractious or contemptuous, because then the danger is greater, as in the case of madmen. Much more, therefore | |
| 13849 should one correct a sinner, no matter | |
| 13850 how badly he takes it. | |
| 13851 </p> | |
| 13852 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p3"> | |
| 13853 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Jerome vital truths are not to be foregone on account of scandal. Now God's commandments are vital | |
| 13854 truths. Since, therefore, fraternal correction is a matter of precept, as stated above | |
| 13855 <a id="SS_Q33_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, it seems that it should not be foregone for fear of scandalizing the person to be corrected. | |
| 13856 </p> | |
| 13857 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p4"> | |
| 13858 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to the Apostle ( | |
| 13859 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.3.8" target="asv">Rom. 3:8</a>) we should not do evil that good may come of it. Therefore, in like manner, good should not be omitted lest evil befall. | |
| 13860 Now fraternal correction is a good thing. Therefore it should not be omitted for fear lest the person corrected become worse. | |
| 13861 </p> | |
| 13862 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p5"> | |
| 13863 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 13864 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.9.8" target="asv">Prov. 9:8</a>): "Rebuke not a scorner lest he hate thee," where a gloss remarks: "You must not fear lest the scorner insult you when you | |
| 13865 rebuke him: rather should you bear in mind that by making him hate you, you may make him worse." Therefore one ought to forego | |
| 13866 fraternal correction, when we fear lest we may make a man worse. | |
| 13867 </p> | |
| 13868 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p6"> | |
| 13869 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 13870 <a id="SS_Q33_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A3.html">(A[3])</a> the correction of the wrongdoer is twofold. One, which belongs to prelates, and is directed to the common good, has coercive | |
| 13871 force. Such correction should not be omitted lest the person corrected be disturbed, both because if he is unwilling to amend | |
| 13872 his ways of his own accord, he should be made to cease sinning by being punished, and because, if he be incorrigible, the | |
| 13873 common good is safeguarded in this way, | |
| 13874 since the order of justice is observed, and others are deterred by one being made an example of. Hence a judge does not desist | |
| 13875 from pronouncing sentence of condemnation against a sinner, for fear of disturbing him or his friends. | |
| 13876 </p> | |
| 13877 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p7"> The other fraternal correction is directed to the amendment of the wrongdoer, whom it does not coerce, but merely admonishes. | |
| 13878 Consequently when it is deemed probable that the sinner will not take the warning, and will become worse, such fraternal correction | |
| 13879 should be foregone, because the means should be regulated according to the requirements of the end. | |
| 13880 </p> | |
| 13881 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p8"> | |
| 13882 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The doctor uses force towards a madman, who is unwilling to submit to his treatment; and this may be compared with the correction | |
| 13883 administered by prelates, which has coercive power, but not with simple fraternal correction. | |
| 13884 </p> | |
| 13885 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p9"> | |
| 13886 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Fraternal correction is a matter of precept, in so far as it is an act of virtue, and it will be a virtuous act in so far | |
| 13887 as it is proportionate to the end. Consequently whenever it is a hindrance to the end, for instance when a man becomes worse | |
| 13888 through it, it is longer a vital truth, nor is it a matter precept. | |
| 13889 </p> | |
| 13890 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p10"> | |
| 13891 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whatever is directed to end, becomes good through being directed to the end. Hence whenever fraternal correction hinders | |
| 13892 the end, namely the amendment of our brother, it is no longer good, so that when such a correction is omitted, good is not | |
| 13893 omitted lest evil should befall. | |
| 13894 </p> | |
| 13895 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 13896 <p id="SS_Q33_A6-p12"></p> | |
| 13897 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A5.html"></a> | |
| 13898 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A7.html"></a> | |
| 13899 </div> | |
| 13900 <div id="SS_Q33_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 13901 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A6.html"></a> | |
| 13902 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A8.html"></a> | |
| 13903 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A7-p0.1">Whether the precept of fraternal correction demands that a private admonition should precede denunciation?</h4> | |
| 13904 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 13905 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p2"> | |
| 13906 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the precept of fraternal correction does not demand that a private admonition should precede denunciation. | |
| 13907 For, in works of charity, we should above all follow the example of God, according to | |
| 13908 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Eph.5.1" target="asv"> Eph. 5:1,2</a>: "Be ye followers of God, as most dear children, and walk in love." Now God sometimes punishes a man for a sin, without previously | |
| 13909 warning him in secret. Therefore it seems that there is no need for a private admonition | |
| 13910 to precede denunciation. | |
| 13911 </p> | |
| 13912 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p3"> | |
| 13913 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Augustine (De Mendacio xv), we learn from the deeds of holy men how we ought to understand the commandments | |
| 13914 of Holy Writ. Now among the deeds of holy men we find that a hidden sin is publicly denounced, without any previous admonition | |
| 13915 in private. Thus we read ( | |
| 13916 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.37.2" target="asv">Gn. 37:2</a>) that "Joseph accused his brethren to his father of a most wicked crime": and ( | |
| 13917 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Acts.5.4" target="asv">Acts 5:4</a>, | |
| 13918 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p3.3" href="./asv.html#Acts.5.9" target="asv">9</a>) that Peter publicly denounced Ananias | |
| 13919 and Saphira who had secretly "by fraud kept back the price of the land," without beforehand admonishing them in private: nor | |
| 13920 do we read that Our Lord admonished Judas in secret before denouncing him. Therefore the precept does not require that secret | |
| 13921 admonition should precede public denunciation. | |
| 13922 </p> | |
| 13923 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p4"> | |
| 13924 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is a graver matter to accuse than to denounce. Now one may go to the length of accusing a person publicly, without | |
| 13925 previously admonishing him in secret: for it is decided in the Decretal (Cap. Qualiter, xiv, De Accusationibus) that "nothing | |
| 13926 else need precede accusation except inscription." [*The accuser was bound by Roman Law to endorse (se inscribere) the writ | |
| 13927 of accusation. The effect of this endorsement or inscription was that the accuser bound | |
| 13928 himself, if he failed to prove the accusation, to suffer the same punishment as the accused would have to suffer if proved | |
| 13929 guilty.] Therefore it seems that the precept does not require that a secret admonition should precede public denunciation. | |
| 13930 </p> | |
| 13931 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p5"> | |
| 13932 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it does not seem probable that the customs observed by religious in general are contrary to the precepts of Christ. | |
| 13933 Now it is customary among religious orders to proclaim this or that one for a fault, without any previous secret admonition. | |
| 13934 Therefore it seems that this admonition is not required by the precept. | |
| 13935 </p> | |
| 13936 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p6"> | |
| 13937 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, religious are bound to obey their prelates. Now a prelate sometimes commands either all in general, or someone in | |
| 13938 particular, to tell him if they know of anything that requires correction. Therefore it would seem that they are bound to | |
| 13939 tell them this, even before any secret admonition. Therefore the precept does not require secret admonition before public | |
| 13940 denunciation. | |
| 13941 </p> | |
| 13942 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p7"> | |
| 13943 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. xvi, 4) on the words, "Rebuke him between thee and him alone" ( | |
| 13944 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.15" target="asv">Mat. 18:15</a>): "Aiming at his amendment, while avoiding his disgrace: since perhaps from shame he might begin to defend his sin; and him | |
| 13945 whom you thought to make a better man, you make worse." Now we are bound by the precept of charity to beware lest our brother | |
| 13946 become worse. Therefore the order of fraternal correction comes under the precept. | |
| 13947 </p> | |
| 13948 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p8"> | |
| 13949 <b>I answer that,</b> With regard to the public denunciation of sins it is necessary to make a distinction: because sins may be either public or | |
| 13950 secret. In the case of public sins, a remedy is required not only for the sinner, that he may become better, but also for | |
| 13951 others, who know of his sin, lest they be scandalized. Wherefore such like sins should be denounced in public, according to | |
| 13952 the saying of the Apostle ( | |
| 13953 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.20" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:20</a>): "Them that sin reprove before all, that the rest | |
| 13954 also may have fear," which is to be understood as referring to public sins, as Augustine states (De Verb. Dom. xvi, 7). | |
| 13955 </p> | |
| 13956 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p9"> On the other hand, in the case of secret sins, the words of Our Lord seem to apply ( | |
| 13957 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.15" target="asv">Mat. 18:15</a>): "If thy brother shall offend against thee," etc. For if he offend thee publicly in the presence of others, he no longer | |
| 13958 sins against thee alone, but also against others whom he 'disturbs. Since, however, a man's neighbor may take offense even | |
| 13959 at his secret sins, it seems that we must make yet a further distinction. For certain secret sins are hurtful to our | |
| 13960 neighbor either in his body or in his soul, as, for instance, when a man plots secretly to betray his country to its enemies, | |
| 13961 or when a heretic secretly turns other men away from the faith. And since he that sins thus in secret, sins not only against | |
| 13962 you in particular, but also against others, it is necessary to take steps to denounce him at once, in order to prevent him | |
| 13963 doing such harm, unless by chance you were firmly persuaded that this evil result would be prevented by admonishing him | |
| 13964 secretly. On the other hand there are other sins which injure none but the sinner, and the person sinned against, either because | |
| 13965 he alone is hurt by the sinner, or at least because he alone knows about his sin, and then our one purpose should be to succor | |
| 13966 our sinning brother: and just as the physician of the body restores the sick man to health, if possible, without cutting off | |
| 13967 a limb, but, if this be unavoidable, cuts off a limb which is least indispensable, in order to preserve the life of | |
| 13968 the whole body, so too he who desires his brother's amendment should, if possible, so amend him as regards his conscience, | |
| 13969 that he keep his good name. | |
| 13970 </p> | |
| 13971 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p10"> For a good name is useful, first of all to the sinner himself, not only in temporal matters wherein a man suffers many losses, | |
| 13972 if he lose his good name, but also in spiritual matters, because many are restrained from sinning, through fear of dishonor, | |
| 13973 so that when a man finds his honor lost, he puts no curb on his sinning. Hence Jerome says on | |
| 13974 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.15" target="asv">Mat. 18:15</a>: "If he sin against thee, thou shouldst rebuke him in private, lest he persist in his sin if he should once become shameless | |
| 13975 or | |
| 13976 unabashed." Secondly, we ought to safeguard our sinning brother's good name, both because the dishonor of one leads to the | |
| 13977 dishonor of others, according to the saying of Augustine (Ep. ad pleb. Hipponens. lxxviii): "When a few of those who bear | |
| 13978 a name for holiness are reported falsely or proved in truth to have done anything wrong, people will seek by busily repeating | |
| 13979 it to make it believed of all": and also because when one man's sin is made public others are incited to sin likewise. | |
| 13980 </p> | |
| 13981 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p11"> Since, however, one's conscience should be preferred to a good name, Our Lord wished that we should publicly denounce our | |
| 13982 brother and so deliver his conscience from sin, even though he should forfeit his good name. Therefore it is evident that | |
| 13983 the precept requires a secret admonition to precede public denunciation. | |
| 13984 </p> | |
| 13985 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p12"> | |
| 13986 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Whatever is hidden, is known to God, wherefore hidden sins are to the judgment of God, just what public sins are to the judgment | |
| 13987 of man. Nevertheless God does rebuke sinners sometimes by secretly admonishing them, so to speak, with an inward inspiration, | |
| 13988 either while they wake or while they sleep, according to | |
| 13989 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Job.33.15" target="asv"> Job 33:15-17</a>: "By a dream in a vision by night, when deep sleep falleth upon men . . . then He openeth the ears of men, | |
| 13990 and teaching instructeth them in what they are to learn, that He may withdraw a man from the things he is doing." | |
| 13991 </p> | |
| 13992 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p13"> | |
| 13993 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Our Lord as God knew the sin of Judas as though it were public, wherefore He could have made it known at once. Yet He did | |
| 13994 not, but warned Judas of his sin in words that were obscure. The sin of Ananias and Saphira was denounced by Peter acting | |
| 13995 as God's executor, by Whose revelation he knew of their sin. With regard to Joseph it is probable that he warned his brethren, | |
| 13996 though Scripture does not say so. Or we may say that the sin was public with regard | |
| 13997 to his brethren, wherefore it is stated in the plural that he accused "his brethren." | |
| 13998 </p> | |
| 13999 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p14"> | |
| 14000 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When there is danger to a great number of people, those words of Our Lord do not apply, because then thy brother does not | |
| 14001 sin against thee alone. | |
| 14002 </p> | |
| 14003 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p15"> | |
| 14004 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Proclamations made in the chapter of religious are about little faults which do not affect a man's good name, wherefore they | |
| 14005 are reminders of forgotten faults rather than accusations or denunciations. If, however, they should be of such a nature as | |
| 14006 to injure our brother's good name, it would be contrary to Our Lord's precept, to denounce a brother's fault in this manner. | |
| 14007 </p> | |
| 14008 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p16"> | |
| 14009 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> A prelate is not to be obeyed contrary to a Divine precept, according to | |
| 14010 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A7-p16.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.5.29" target="asv"> Acts 5:29</a>: "We ought to obey God rather then men." Therefore when a prelate commands anyone to tell him anything that he knows to need | |
| 14011 correction, the command rightly understood supports the safeguarding of the order of fraternal correction, whether the command | |
| 14012 be addressed to all in general, or to some particular individual. If, on the other hand, a prelate | |
| 14013 were to issue a command in express opposition to this order instituted by Our Lord, both would sin, the one commanding, and | |
| 14014 the one obeying him, as disobeying Our Lord's command. Consequently he ought not to be obeyed, because a prelate is not the | |
| 14015 judge of secret things, but God alone is, wherefore he has no power to command anything in respect of hidden matters, except | |
| 14016 in so far as they are made known through certain signs, as by ill-repute or suspicion; in which cases a prelate can command | |
| 14017 just as a judge, whether secular or ecclesiastical, can bind a man under oath to tell the truth. | |
| 14018 </p> | |
| 14019 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p17"></p> | |
| 14020 <p id="SS_Q33_A7-p18"></p> | |
| 14021 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A6.html"></a> | |
| 14022 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A8.html"></a> | |
| 14023 </div> | |
| 14024 <div id="SS_Q33_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 14025 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A7.html"></a> | |
| 14026 <a href="summa.SS_Q34.html"></a> | |
| 14027 <h4 id="SS_Q33_A8-p0.1">Whether before the public denunciation witnesses ought to be brought forward?</h4> | |
| 14028 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 14029 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p2"> | |
| 14030 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that before the public denunciation witnesses ought not to be brought forward. For secret sins ought not to | |
| 14031 be made known to others, because by so doing "a man would betray his brother's sins instead of correcting them," as Augustine | |
| 14032 says (De Verb. Dom. xvi, 7). Now by bringing forward witnesses one makes known a brother's sin to others. Therefore in the | |
| 14033 case of secret sins one ought not to bring witnesses forward before the public | |
| 14034 denunciation. | |
| 14035 </p> | |
| 14036 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p3"> | |
| 14037 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, man should love his neighbor as himself. Now no man brings in witnesses to prove his own secret sin. Neither therefore | |
| 14038 ought one to bring forward witnesses to prove the secret sin of our brother. | |
| 14039 </p> | |
| 14040 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p4"> | |
| 14041 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, witnesses are brought forward to prove something. But witnesses afford no proof in secret matters. Therefore it | |
| 14042 is useless to bring witnesses forward in such cases. | |
| 14043 </p> | |
| 14044 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p5"> | |
| 14045 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Augustine says in his Rule that "before bringing it to the notice of witnesses . . . it should be put before the | |
| 14046 superior." Now to bring a matter before a superior or a prelate is to tell the Church. Therefore witnesses should not be brought | |
| 14047 forward before the public denunciation. | |
| 14048 </p> | |
| 14049 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p6"> | |
| 14050 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 14051 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q33_A8-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.16" target="asv">Mat. 18:16</a>): "Take with thee one or two more, that in the mouth of two," etc. | |
| 14052 </p> | |
| 14053 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p7"> | |
| 14054 <b>I answer that,</b> The right way to go from one extreme to another is to pass through the middle space. Now Our Lord wished the beginning of | |
| 14055 fraternal correction to be hidden, when one brother corrects another between this one and himself alone, while He wished the | |
| 14056 end to be public, when such a one would be denounced to the Church. Consequently it is befitting that a citation of witnesses | |
| 14057 should be placed between the two extremes, so that at first the brother's sin be | |
| 14058 indicated to a few, who will be of use without being a hindrance, and thus his sin be amended without dishonoring him before | |
| 14059 the public. | |
| 14060 </p> | |
| 14061 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p8"> | |
| 14062 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Some have understood the order of fraternal correction to demand that we should first of all rebuke our brother secretly, | |
| 14063 and that if he listens, it is well; but if he listen not, and his sin be altogether hidden, they say that we should go no | |
| 14064 further in the matter, whereas if it has already begun to reach the ears of several by various signs, we ought to prosecute | |
| 14065 the matter, according to Our Lord's command. But this is contrary to what Augustine | |
| 14066 says in his Rule that "we are bound to reveal" a brother's sin, if it "will cause a worse corruption in the heart." Wherefore | |
| 14067 we must say otherwise that when the secret admonition has been given once or several times, as long as there is probable hope | |
| 14068 of his amendment, we must continue to admonish him in private, but as soon as we are able to judge with any probability that | |
| 14069 the secret admonition is of no avail, we must take further steps, however secret the sin may be, and call witnesses, | |
| 14070 unless perhaps it were thought probable that this would not conduce to our brother's amendment, and that he would become worse: | |
| 14071 because on that account one ought to abstain altogether from correcting him, as stated above | |
| 14072 <a id="SS_Q33_A8-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A6.html">(A[6])</a>. | |
| 14073 </p> | |
| 14074 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p9"> | |
| 14075 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A man needs no witnesses that he may amend his own sin: yet they may be necessary that we may amend a brother's sin. Hence | |
| 14076 the comparison fails. | |
| 14077 </p> | |
| 14078 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p10"> | |
| 14079 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> There may be three reasons for citing witnesses. First, to show that the deed in question is a sin, as Jerome says: secondly, | |
| 14080 to prove that the deed was done, if repeated, as Augustine says (in his Rule): thirdly, "to prove that the man who rebuked | |
| 14081 his brother, has done what he could," as Chrysostom says (Hom. in Matth. lx). | |
| 14082 </p> | |
| 14083 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p11"> | |
| 14084 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Augustine means that the matter ought to be made known to the prelate before it is stated to the witnesses, in so far as | |
| 14085 the prelate is a private individual who is able to be of more use than others, but not that it is to be told him as to the | |
| 14086 Church, i.e. as holding the position of judge. | |
| 14087 </p> | |
| 14088 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p12"></p> | |
| 14089 <p id="SS_Q33_A8-p13"></p> | |
| 14090 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A7.html"></a> | |
| 14091 <a href="summa.SS_Q34.html"></a> | |
| 14092 </div> | |
| 14093 <a href="summa.SS_Q32_A10.html"></a> | |
| 14094 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14095 </div> | |
| 14096 <div id="SS_Q34" class="div3"> | |
| 14097 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A8.html"></a> | |
| 14098 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14099 <h3 id="SS_Q34-p0.1">OF HATRED (SIX ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 14100 <p id="SS_Q34-p1"></p> | |
| 14101 <p id="SS_Q34-p2"> We must how consider the vices opposed to charity: (1) hatred, which is opposed to love; (2) sloth and envy, which are opposed | |
| 14102 to the joy of charity; (3) discord and schism, which are contrary to peace; (4) offense and scandal, which are contrary to | |
| 14103 beneficence and fraternal correction. | |
| 14104 </p> | |
| 14105 <p id="SS_Q34-p3"> Under the first head there are six points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 14106 <p id="SS_Q34-p4"> (1) Whether it is possible to hate God?</p> | |
| 14107 <p id="SS_Q34-p5"> (2) Whether hatred of God is the greatest of sins?</p> | |
| 14108 <p id="SS_Q34-p6"> (3) Whether hatred of one's neighbor is always a sin?</p> | |
| 14109 <p id="SS_Q34-p7"> (4) Whether it is the greatest of all sins against our neighbor?</p> | |
| 14110 <p id="SS_Q34-p8"> (5) Whether it is a capital sin?</p> | |
| 14111 <p id="SS_Q34-p9"> (6) From what capital sin does it arise?</p> | |
| 14112 <div id="SS_Q34_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 14113 <a href="summa.SS_Q34.html"></a> | |
| 14114 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14115 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A1-p0.1">Whether it is possible for anyone to hate God?</h4> | |
| 14116 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 14117 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p2"> | |
| 14118 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that no man can hate God. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that "the first good and beautiful is an object | |
| 14119 of love and dilection to all." But God is goodness and beauty itself. Therefore He is hated by none. | |
| 14120 </p> | |
| 14121 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p3"> | |
| 14122 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in the Apocryphal books of | |
| 14123 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">3 Esdras 4:36</a>, | |
| 14124 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">39</a> it is written that "all things call upon truth . . . and (all men) do well like of her works." Now God is the very truth | |
| 14125 according to | |
| 14126 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p3.3" href="./asv.html#John.14.6" target="asv"> Jn. 14:6.</a> Therefore all love God, and none can hate Him. | |
| 14127 </p> | |
| 14128 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p4"> | |
| 14129 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, hatred is a kind of aversion. But according to Dionysius (Div. Nom. i) God draws all things to Himself. Therefore | |
| 14130 none can hate Him. | |
| 14131 </p> | |
| 14132 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p5"> | |
| 14133 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 14134 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.73.23" target="asv">Ps. 73:23</a>): "The pride of them that hate Thee ascendeth continually," and ( | |
| 14135 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#John.15.24" target="asv">Jn. 15:24</a>): "But now they have both seen and hated both Me and My Father." | |
| 14136 </p> | |
| 14137 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p6"> | |
| 14138 <b>I answer that,</b> As shown above ( | |
| 14139 <a id="SS_Q34_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q29_A1.html">FS, Q[29], A[1]</a>), hatred is a movement of the appetitive power, which power is not set in motion save by something apprehended. Now God can | |
| 14140 be apprehended by man in two ways; first, in Himself, as when He is seen in His Essence; secondly, in His effects, when, to | |
| 14141 wit, "the invisible things" of God . . . "are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" ( | |
| 14142 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.20" target="asv">Rom. 1:20</a>). Now God in His | |
| 14143 Essence is goodness itself, which no man can hate---for it is natural to good to be loved. Hence it is impossible for one | |
| 14144 who sees God in His Essence, to hate Him. | |
| 14145 </p> | |
| 14146 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p7"> Moreover some of His effects are such that they can nowise be contrary to the human will, since "to be, to live, to understand," | |
| 14147 which are effects of God, are desirable and lovable to all. Wherefore again God cannot be an object of hatred if we consider | |
| 14148 Him as the Author of such like effects. Some of God's effects, however, are contrary to an inordinate will, such as the infliction | |
| 14149 of punishment, and the prohibition of sin by the Divine Law. Such like effects are repugnant to a | |
| 14150 will debased by sin, and as regards the consideration of them, God may be an object of hatred to some, in so far as they look | |
| 14151 upon Him as forbidding sin, and inflicting punishment. | |
| 14152 </p> | |
| 14153 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p8"> | |
| 14154 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument is true of those who see God's Essence, which is the very essence of goodness. | |
| 14155 </p> | |
| 14156 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p9"> | |
| 14157 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument is true in so far as God is apprehended as the cause of such effects as are naturally beloved of all, among | |
| 14158 which are the works of Truth who reveals herself to men. | |
| 14159 </p> | |
| 14160 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p10"> | |
| 14161 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God draws all things to Himself, in so far as He is the source of being, since all things, in as much as they are, tend to | |
| 14162 be like God, Who is Being itself. | |
| 14163 </p> | |
| 14164 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 14165 <p id="SS_Q34_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 14166 <a href="summa.SS_Q34.html"></a> | |
| 14167 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14168 </div> | |
| 14169 <div id="SS_Q34_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 14170 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14171 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14172 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A2-p0.1">Whether hatred of God is the greatest of sins?</h4> | |
| 14173 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 14174 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p2"> | |
| 14175 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hatred of God is not the greatest of sins. For the most grievous sin is the sin against the Holy Ghost, | |
| 14176 since it cannot be forgiven, according to | |
| 14177 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.32" target="asv"> Mat. 12:32.</a> Now hatred of God is not reckoned among the various kinds of sin against the Holy Ghost, as may be seen from what has been | |
| 14178 said above ( | |
| 14179 <a id="SS_Q34_A2-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q14_A2.html">Q[14], A[2]</a>). Therefore hatred of God is not the most grievous sin. | |
| 14180 </p> | |
| 14181 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p3"> | |
| 14182 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sin consists in withdrawing oneself from God. Now an unbeliever who has not even knowledge of God seems to be further | |
| 14183 away from Him than a believer, who though he hate God, nevertheless knows Him. Therefore it seems that the sin of unbelief | |
| 14184 is graver than the sin of hatred against God. | |
| 14185 </p> | |
| 14186 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p4"> | |
| 14187 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, God is an object of hatred, only by reason of those of His effects that are contrary to the will: the chief of which | |
| 14188 is punishment. But hatred of punishment is not the most grievous sin. Therefore hatred of God is not the most grievous sin. | |
| 14189 </p> | |
| 14190 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p5"> | |
| 14191 <b>On the contrary,</b> The best is opposite to the worst, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 10). But hatred of God is contrary to the love | |
| 14192 of God, wherein man's best consists. Therefore hatred of God is man's worst sin. | |
| 14193 </p> | |
| 14194 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p6"> | |
| 14195 <b>I answer that,</b> The defect in sin consists in its aversion from God, as stated above ( | |
| 14196 <a id="SS_Q34_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A3.html">Q[10], A[3]</a>): and this aversion would not have the character of guilt, were it not voluntary. Hence the nature of guilt consists in a | |
| 14197 voluntary aversion from God. | |
| 14198 </p> | |
| 14199 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p7"> Now this voluntary aversion from God is directly implied in the hatred of God, but in other sins, by participation and indirectly. | |
| 14200 For just as the will cleaves directly to what it loves, so does it directly shun what it hates. Hence when a man hates God, | |
| 14201 his will is directly averted from God, whereas in other sins, fornication for instance, a man turns away from God, not directly, | |
| 14202 but indirectly, in so far, namely, as he desires an inordinate pleasure, to which aversion from God | |
| 14203 is connected. Now that which is so by itself, always takes precedence of that which is so by another. Wherefore hatred of | |
| 14204 God is more grievous than other sins. | |
| 14205 </p> | |
| 14206 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p8"> | |
| 14207 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to Gregory (Moral. xxv, 11), "it is one thing not to do good things, end another to hate the giver of good things, | |
| 14208 even as it is one thing to sin indeliberately, and another to sin deliberately." This implies that to hate God, the giver | |
| 14209 of all good things, is to sin deliberately, and this is a sin against the Holy Ghost. Hence it is evident that hatred of God | |
| 14210 is chiefly a sin against the Holy Ghost, in so far as the sin against the Holy | |
| 14211 Ghost denotes a special kind of sin: and yet it is not reckoned among the kinds of sin against the Holy Ghost, because it | |
| 14212 is universally found in every kind of that sin. | |
| 14213 </p> | |
| 14214 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p9"> | |
| 14215 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even unbelief is not sinful unless it be voluntary: wherefore the more voluntary it is, the more it is sinful. Now it becomes | |
| 14216 voluntary by the fact that a man hates the truth that is proposed to him. Wherefore it is evident that unbelief derives its | |
| 14217 sinfulness from hatred of God, Whose truth is the object of faith; and hence just as a cause is greater than its effect, so | |
| 14218 hatred of God is a greater sin than unbelief. | |
| 14219 </p> | |
| 14220 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p10"> | |
| 14221 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Not everyone who hates his punishment, hates God the author of punishments. For many hate the punishments inflicted on them, | |
| 14222 and yet they bear them patiently out of reverence for the Divine justice. Wherefore Augustine says (Confess. x) that God commands | |
| 14223 us to bear with penal evils, not to love them. On the other hand, to break out into hatred of God when He inflicts those punishments, | |
| 14224 is to hate God's very justice, and that is a most grievous sin. | |
| 14225 Hence Gregory says (Moral. xxv, 11): "Even as sometimes it is more grievous to love sin than to do it, so is it more wicked | |
| 14226 to hate justice than, not to have done it." | |
| 14227 </p> | |
| 14228 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 14229 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 14230 <p id="SS_Q34_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 14231 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14232 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14233 </div> | |
| 14234 <div id="SS_Q34_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 14235 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14236 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14237 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A3-p0.1">Whether hatred of one's neighbor is always a sin?</h4> | |
| 14238 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 14239 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p2"> | |
| 14240 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hatred of one's neighbor is not always a sin. For no sin is commanded or counselled by God, according | |
| 14241 to | |
| 14242 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.8.8" target="asv"> Prov. 8:8</a>: "All My words are just, there is nothing wicked nor perverse in them." Now, it is written ( | |
| 14243 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A3-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Luke.14.26" target="asv">Lk. 14:26</a>): "If any man come to Me, and hate not his father and mother . . . he cannot be My disciple." Therefore hatred of one's neighbor | |
| 14244 is not always a sin. | |
| 14245 </p> | |
| 14246 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p3"> | |
| 14247 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing wherein we imitate God can be a sin. But it is in imitation of God that we hate certain people: for it is | |
| 14248 written ( | |
| 14249 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.30" target="asv">Rom. 1:30</a>): "Detractors, hateful to God." Therefore it is possible to hate certain people without committing a sin. | |
| 14250 </p> | |
| 14251 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p4"> | |
| 14252 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing that is natural is a sin, for sin is a "wandering away from what is according to nature," according to Damascene | |
| 14253 (De Fide Orth. ii, 4,30; iv, 20). Now it is natural to a thing to hate whatever is contrary to it, and to aim at its undoing. | |
| 14254 Therefore it seems that it is not a sin to hate one's I enemy. | |
| 14255 </p> | |
| 14256 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p5"> | |
| 14257 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 14258 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.2.9" target="asv">1 Jn. 2:9</a>): "He that . . . hateth his brother, is in darkness." Now spiritual darkness is sin. Therefore there cannot be hatred of | |
| 14259 one's neighbor without sin. | |
| 14260 </p> | |
| 14261 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p6"> | |
| 14262 <b>I answer that,</b> Hatred is opposed to love, as stated above ( | |
| 14263 <a id="SS_Q34_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q29_A2.html">FS, Q[29], A[2]</a>); so that hatred of a thing is evil according as the love of that thing is good. Now love is due to our neighbor in respect | |
| 14264 of what he holds from God, i.e. in respect of nature and grace, but not in respect of what he has of himself and from the | |
| 14265 devil, i.e. in respect of sin and lack of justice. | |
| 14266 </p> | |
| 14267 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p7"> Consequently it is lawful to hate the sin in one's brother, and whatever pertains to the defect of Divine justice, but we | |
| 14268 cannot hate our brother's nature and grace without sin. Now it is part of our love for our brother that we hate the fault | |
| 14269 and the lack of good in him, since desire for another's good is equivalent to hatred of his evil. Consequently the hatred | |
| 14270 of one's brother, if we consider it simply, is always sinful. | |
| 14271 </p> | |
| 14272 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p8"> | |
| 14273 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By the commandment of God ( | |
| 14274 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A3-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.12" target="asv">Ex. 20:12</a>) we must honor our parents---as united to us in nature and kinship. But we must hate them in so far as they prove an obstacle | |
| 14275 to our attaining the perfection of Divine justice. | |
| 14276 </p> | |
| 14277 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p9"> | |
| 14278 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> God hates the sin which is in the detractor, not his nature: so that we can hate detractors without committing a sin. | |
| 14279 </p> | |
| 14280 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p10"> | |
| 14281 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Men are not opposed to us in respect of the goods which they have received from God: wherefore, in this respect, we should | |
| 14282 love them. But they are opposed to us, in so far as they show hostility towards us, and this is sinful in them. In this respect | |
| 14283 we should hate them, for we should hate in them the fact that they are hostile to us. | |
| 14284 </p> | |
| 14285 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 14286 <p id="SS_Q34_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 14287 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14288 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14289 </div> | |
| 14290 <div id="SS_Q34_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 14291 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14292 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html"></a> | |
| 14293 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A4-p0.1">Whether hatred of our neighbor is the most grievous sin against our neighbor?</h4> | |
| 14294 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 14295 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p2"> | |
| 14296 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hatred of our neighbor is the most grievous sin against our neighbor. For it is written ( | |
| 14297 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.15" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:15</a>): "Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer." Now murder is the most grievous of sins against our neighbor. Therefore hatred | |
| 14298 is also. | |
| 14299 </p> | |
| 14300 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p3"> | |
| 14301 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, worst is opposed to best. Now the best thing we give our neighbor is love, since all other things are referable | |
| 14302 to love. Therefore hatred is the worst. | |
| 14303 </p> | |
| 14304 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p4"> | |
| 14305 <b>On the contrary,</b> A thing is said to be evil, because it hurts, as Augustine observes (Enchiridion xii). Now there are sins by which a man | |
| 14306 hurts his neighbor more than by hatred, e.g. theft, murder and adultery. Therefore hatred is not the most grievous sin. | |
| 14307 </p> | |
| 14308 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p5"> Moreover, Chrysostom [*Hom. x in the Opus Imperfectum, falsely ascribed to St. John Chrysostom] commenting on | |
| 14309 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.19" target="asv"> Mat. 5:19, </a> "He that shall break one of these least commandments," says: "The commandments of Moses, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt | |
| 14310 not commit adultery, count for little in their reward, but they count for much if they be disobeyed. On the other hand the | |
| 14311 commandments of Christ such as, Thou shalt not be angry, Thou shalt not desire, are reckoned great | |
| 14312 in their reward, but little in the transgression." Now hatred is an internal movement like anger and desire. Therefore hatred | |
| 14313 of one's brother is a less grievous sin than murder. | |
| 14314 </p> | |
| 14315 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p6"> | |
| 14316 <b>I answer that,</b> Sins committed against our neighbor are evil on two counts; first by reason of the disorder in the person who sins, secondly | |
| 14317 by reason of the hurt inflicted on the person sinned against. On the first count, hatred is a more grievous sin than external | |
| 14318 actions that hurt our neighbor, because hatred is a disorder of man's will, which is the chief part of man, and wherein is | |
| 14319 the root of sin, so that if a man's outward actions were to be inordinate, without any | |
| 14320 disorder in his will, they would not be sinful, for instance, if he were to kill a man, through ignorance or out of zeal for | |
| 14321 justice: and if there be anything sinful in a man's outward sins against his neighbor, it is all to be traced to his inward | |
| 14322 hatred. | |
| 14323 </p> | |
| 14324 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p7"> On the other hand, as regards the hurt inflicted on his neighbor, a man's outward sins are worse than his inward hatred. | |
| 14325 This suffices for the Replies to the Objections. | |
| 14326 </p> | |
| 14327 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p8"></p> | |
| 14328 <p id="SS_Q34_A4-p9"></p> | |
| 14329 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14330 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html"></a> | |
| 14331 </div> | |
| 14332 <div id="SS_Q34_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 14333 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14334 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html"></a> | |
| 14335 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A5-p0.1">Whether hatred is a capital sin?</h4> | |
| 14336 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 14337 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p2"> | |
| 14338 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that hatred is a capital sin. For hatred is directly opposed to charity. Now charity is the foremost among | |
| 14339 the virtues, and the mother of all others. Therefore hatred is the chief of the capital sins, and the origin of all others. | |
| 14340 </p> | |
| 14341 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p3"> | |
| 14342 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sins arise in us on account of the inclinations of our passions, according to | |
| 14343 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q34_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.5" target="asv"> Rom. 7:5</a>: "The passions of sins . . . did work in our members to bring forth fruit unto death." Now all other passions of the soul | |
| 14344 seem to arise from love and hatred, as was shown above ( | |
| 14345 <a id="SS_Q34_A5-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A1.html">FS, Q[25], AA[1]</a>,2). Therefore hatred should be reckoned one of the capital sins. | |
| 14346 </p> | |
| 14347 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p4"> | |
| 14348 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, vice is a moral evil. Now hatred regards evil more than any other passion does. Therefore it seems that hatred should | |
| 14349 be reckoned a capital sin. | |
| 14350 </p> | |
| 14351 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p5"> | |
| 14352 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory (Moral. xxxi) does not reckon hatred among the seven capital sins. | |
| 14353 </p> | |
| 14354 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p6"> | |
| 14355 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 14356 <a id="SS_Q34_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q84_A3.html">FS, Q[84], AA[3]</a>,4), a capital vice is one from which other vices arise most frequently. Now vice is contrary to man's nature, in as much | |
| 14357 as he is a rational animal: and when a thing acts contrary to its nature, that which is natural to it is corrupted little | |
| 14358 by little. Consequently it must first of all fail in that which is less in accordance with its nature, and last of all in | |
| 14359 that which is most in accordance with | |
| 14360 its nature, since what is first in construction is last in destruction. Now that which, first and foremost, is most natural | |
| 14361 to man, is the love of what is good, and especially love of the Divine good, and of his neighbor's good. Wherefore hatred, | |
| 14362 which is opposed to this love, is not the first but the last thing in the downfall of virtue resulting from vice: and therefore | |
| 14363 it is not a capital vice. | |
| 14364 </p> | |
| 14365 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p7"> | |
| 14366 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated in Phys. vii, text. 18, "the virtue of a thing consists in its being well disposed in accordance with its nature." | |
| 14367 Hence what is first and foremost in the virtues must be first and foremost in the natural order. Hence charity is reckoned | |
| 14368 the foremost of the virtues, and for the same reason hatred cannot be first among the vices, as stated above. | |
| 14369 </p> | |
| 14370 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p8"> | |
| 14371 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Hatred of the evil that is contrary to one's natural good, is the first of the soul's passions, even as love of one's natural | |
| 14372 good is. But hatred of one's connatural good cannot be first, but is something last, because such like hatred is a proof of | |
| 14373 an already corrupted nature, even as love of an extraneous good. | |
| 14374 </p> | |
| 14375 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p9"> | |
| 14376 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Evil is twofold. One is a true evil, for the reason that it is incompatible with one's natural good, and the hatred of such | |
| 14377 an evil may have priority over the other passions. There is, however, another which is not a true, but an apparent evil, which, | |
| 14378 namely, is a true and connatural good, and yet is reckoned evil on account of the corruption of nature: and the hatred of | |
| 14379 such an evil must needs come last. This hatred is vicious, but the former is | |
| 14380 not. | |
| 14381 </p> | |
| 14382 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 14383 <p id="SS_Q34_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 14384 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14385 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html"></a> | |
| 14386 </div> | |
| 14387 <div id="SS_Q34_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 14388 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html"></a> | |
| 14389 <a href="summa.SS_Q35.html"></a> | |
| 14390 <h4 id="SS_Q34_A6-p0.1">Whether hatred arises from envy?</h4> | |
| 14391 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 14392 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p2"> | |
| 14393 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that hatred does not arise from envy. For envy is sorrow for another's good. Now hatred does not arise from sorrow, | |
| 14394 for, on the contrary, we grieve for the presence of the evil we hate. Therefore hatred does not arise from envy. | |
| 14395 </p> | |
| 14396 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p3"> | |
| 14397 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, hatred is opposed to love. Now love of our neighbor is referred to our love of God, as stated above ( | |
| 14398 <a id="SS_Q34_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A1.html">Q[25], A[1]</a>; | |
| 14399 <a id="SS_Q34_A6-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A2.html"> Q[26], A[2]</a>). Therefore hatred of our neighbor is referred to our hatred of God. But hatred of God does not arise from envy, for we do | |
| 14400 not envy those who are very far removed from us, but rather those who seem to be near us, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. | |
| 14401 ii). Therefore hatred does not | |
| 14402 arise from envy. | |
| 14403 </p> | |
| 14404 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p4"> | |
| 14405 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to one effect there is one cause. Now hatred is caused by anger, for Augustine says in his Rule that "anger grows | |
| 14406 into hatred." Therefore hatred does not arise from envy. | |
| 14407 </p> | |
| 14408 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p5"> | |
| 14409 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45) that "out of envy cometh hatred." | |
| 14410 </p> | |
| 14411 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p6"> | |
| 14412 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 14413 <a id="SS_Q34_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html">(A[5])</a>, hatred of his neighbor is a man's last step in the path of sin, because it is opposed to the love which he naturally has | |
| 14414 for his neighbor. Now if a man declines from that which is natural, it is because he intends to avoid that which is naturally | |
| 14415 an object to be shunned. Now every animal naturally avoids sorrow, just as it desires pleasure, as the Philosopher states | |
| 14416 (Ethic. vii, x). Accordingly just as love | |
| 14417 arises from pleasure, so does hatred arise from sorrow. For just as we are moved to love whatever gives us pleasure, in as | |
| 14418 much as for that very reason it assumes the aspect of good; so we are moved to hate whatever displeases us, in so far as for | |
| 14419 this very reason it assumes the aspect of evil. Wherefore, since envy is sorrow for our neighbor's good, it follows that our | |
| 14420 neighbor's good becomes hateful to us, so that "out of envy cometh hatred." | |
| 14421 </p> | |
| 14422 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p7"> | |
| 14423 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Since the appetitive power, like the apprehensive power, reflects on its own acts, it follows that there is a kind of circular | |
| 14424 movement in the actions of the appetitive power. And so according to the first forward course of the appetitive movement, | |
| 14425 love gives rise to desire, whence follows pleasure when one has obtained what one desired. And since the very fact of taking | |
| 14426 pleasure in the good one loves is a kind of good, it follows that pleasure causes | |
| 14427 love. And in the same way sorrow causes hatred. | |
| 14428 </p> | |
| 14429 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p8"> | |
| 14430 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Love and hatred are essentially different, for the object of love is good, which flows from God to creatures, wherefore love | |
| 14431 is due to God in the first place, and to our neighbor afterwards. On the other hand, hatred is of evil, which has no place | |
| 14432 in God Himself, but only in His effects, for which reason it has been stated above | |
| 14433 <a id="SS_Q34_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, that God is not an object of hatred, except in so far as He is considered in relation to | |
| 14434 His effects, and consequently hatred is directed to our neighbor before being directed to God. Therefore, since envy of our | |
| 14435 neighbor is the mother of hatred of our neighbor, it becomes, in consequence, the cause of hatred towards God. | |
| 14436 </p> | |
| 14437 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p9"> | |
| 14438 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Nothing prevents a thing arising from various causes in various respects, and accordingly hatred may arise both from anger | |
| 14439 and from envy. However it arises more directly from envy, which looks upon the very good of our neighbor as displeasing and | |
| 14440 therefore hateful, whereas hatred arises from anger by way of increase. For at first, through anger, we desire our neighbor's | |
| 14441 evil according to a certain measure, that is in so far as that evil has the aspect | |
| 14442 of vengeance: but afterwards, through the continuance of anger, man goes so far as absolutely to desire his neighbor's evil, | |
| 14443 which desire is part of hatred. Wherefore it is evident that hatred is caused by envy formally as regards the aspect of the | |
| 14444 object, but dispositively by anger. | |
| 14445 </p> | |
| 14446 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 14447 <p id="SS_Q34_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 14448 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html"></a> | |
| 14449 <a href="summa.SS_Q35.html"></a> | |
| 14450 </div> | |
| 14451 <a href="summa.SS_Q33_A8.html"></a> | |
| 14452 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14453 </div> | |
| 14454 <div id="SS_Q35" class="div3"> | |
| 14455 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html"></a> | |
| 14456 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14457 <h3 id="SS_Q35-p0.1">OF SLOTH (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 14458 <p id="SS_Q35-p1"></p> | |
| 14459 <p id="SS_Q35-p2"> We must now consider the vices opposed to the joy of charity. This joy is either about the Divine good, and then its contrary | |
| 14460 is sloth, or about our neighbor's good, and then its contrary is envy. Wherefore we must consider (1) Sloth and (2) Envy. | |
| 14461 </p> | |
| 14462 <p id="SS_Q35-p3"> Under the first head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 14463 <p id="SS_Q35-p4"> (1) Whether sloth is a sin?</p> | |
| 14464 <p id="SS_Q35-p5"> (2) Whether it is a special vice?</p> | |
| 14465 <p id="SS_Q35-p6"> (3) Whether it is a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 14466 <p id="SS_Q35-p7"> (4) Whether it is a capital sin?</p> | |
| 14467 <div id="SS_Q35_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 14468 <a href="summa.SS_Q35.html"></a> | |
| 14469 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14470 <h4 id="SS_Q35_A1-p0.1">Whether sloth is a sin?</h4> | |
| 14471 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 14472 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p2"> | |
| 14473 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sloth is not a sin. For we are neither praised nor blamed for our passions, according to the Philosopher | |
| 14474 (Ethic. ii, 5). Now sloth is a passion, since it is a kind of sorrow, according to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 14), and as | |
| 14475 we stated above ( | |
| 14476 <a id="SS_Q35_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q35_A8.html">FS, Q[35], A[8]</a> ). Therefore sloth is not a sin. | |
| 14477 </p> | |
| 14478 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p3"> | |
| 14479 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no bodily failing that occurs at fixed times is a sin. But sloth is like this, for Cassian says (De Instit. Monast. | |
| 14480 x, [*De Institutione Caeobiorum]): "The monk is troubled with sloth chiefly about the sixth hour: it is like an intermittent | |
| 14481 fever, and inflicts the soul of the one it lays low with burning fires at regular and fixed intervals." Therefore sloth is | |
| 14482 not a sin. | |
| 14483 </p> | |
| 14484 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p4"> | |
| 14485 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which proceeds from a good root is, seemingly, no sin. Now sloth proceeds from a good root, for Cassian says | |
| 14486 (De Instit. Monast. x) that "sloth arises from the fact that we sigh at being deprived of spiritual fruit, and think that | |
| 14487 other monasteries and those which are a long way off are much better than the one we dwell in": all of which seems to point | |
| 14488 to humility. Therefore sloth is not a sin. | |
| 14489 </p> | |
| 14490 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p5"> | |
| 14491 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, all sin is to be avoided, according to | |
| 14492 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.21.2" target="asv"> Ecclus. 21:2</a>: "Flee from sins as from the face of a serpent." Now Cassian says (De Instit. Monast. x): "Experience shows that the onslaught | |
| 14493 of sloth is not to be evaded by flight but to be conquered by resistance." Therefore sloth is not a sin. | |
| 14494 </p> | |
| 14495 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p6"> | |
| 14496 <b>On the contrary,</b> Whatever is forbidden in Holy Writ is a sin. Now such is sloth [acedia]: for it is written ( | |
| 14497 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.6.26" target="asv">Ecclus. 6:26</a>): "Bow down thy shoulder, and bear her," namely spiritual wisdom, "and be not grieved [acedieris] with her bands." Therefore | |
| 14498 sloth is a sin. | |
| 14499 </p> | |
| 14500 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p7"> | |
| 14501 <b>I answer that,</b> Sloth, according to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 14) is an oppressive sorrow, which, to wit, so weighs upon man's mind, that | |
| 14502 he wants to do nothing; thus acid things are also cold. Hence sloth implies a certain weariness of work, as appears from a | |
| 14503 gloss on | |
| 14504 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.106.18" target="asv"> Ps. 106:18, </a> "Their soul abhorred all manner of meat," and from the definition of some who say that sloth is a "sluggishness of the mind | |
| 14505 which neglects to begin good." | |
| 14506 </p> | |
| 14507 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p8"> Now this sorrow is always evil, sometimes in itself, sometimes in its effect. For sorrow is evil in itself when it is about | |
| 14508 that which is apparently evil but good in reality, even as, on the other hand, pleasure is evil if it is about that which | |
| 14509 seems to be good but is, in truth, evil. Since, then, spiritual good is a good in very truth, sorrow about spiritual good | |
| 14510 is evil in itself. And yet that sorrow also which is about a real evil, is evil in its effect, if it so oppresses | |
| 14511 man as to draw him away entirely from good deeds. Hence the Apostle ( | |
| 14512 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.2.7" target="asv">2 Cor. 2:7</a>) did not wish those who repented to be "swallowed up with overmuch sorrow." | |
| 14513 </p> | |
| 14514 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p9"> Accordingly, since sloth, as we understand it here, denotes sorrow for spiritual good, it is evil on two counts, both in | |
| 14515 itself and in point of its effect. Consequently it is a sin, for by sin we mean an evil movement of the appetite, as appears | |
| 14516 from what has been said above (Q[10], A[2]; | |
| 14517 <a id="SS_Q35_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A4.html">FS, Q[74], A[4]</a>). | |
| 14518 </p> | |
| 14519 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p10"> | |
| 14520 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Passions are not sinful in themselves; but they are blameworthy in so far as they are applied to something evil, just as | |
| 14521 they deserve praise in so far as they are applied to something good. Wherefore sorrow, in itself, calls neither for praise | |
| 14522 nor for blame: whereas moderate sorrow for evil calls for praise, while sorrow for good, and again immoderate sorrow for evil, | |
| 14523 call for blame. It is in this sense that sloth is said to be a sin. | |
| 14524 </p> | |
| 14525 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p11"> | |
| 14526 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The passions of the sensitive appetite may either be venial sins in themselves, or incline the soul to mortal sin. And since | |
| 14527 the sensitive appetite has a bodily organ, it follows that on account of some bodily transmutation a man becomes apt to commit | |
| 14528 some particular sin. Hence it may happen that certain sins may become more insistent, through certain bodily transmutations | |
| 14529 occurring at certain fixed times. Now all bodily effects, of themselves, | |
| 14530 dispose one to sorrow; and thus it is that those who fast are harassed by sloth towards mid-day, when they begin to feel the | |
| 14531 want of food, and to be parched by the sun's heat. | |
| 14532 </p> | |
| 14533 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p12"> | |
| 14534 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is a sign of humility if a man does not think too much of himself, through observing his own faults; but if a man contemns | |
| 14535 the good things he has received from God, this, far from being a proof of humility, shows him to be ungrateful: and from such | |
| 14536 like contempt results sloth, because we sorrow for things that we reckon evil and worthless. Accordingly we ought to think | |
| 14537 much of the goods of others, in such a way as not to disparage those we have | |
| 14538 received ourselves, because if we did they would give us sorrow. | |
| 14539 </p> | |
| 14540 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p13"> | |
| 14541 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Sin is ever to be shunned, but the assaults of sin should be overcome, sometimes by flight, sometimes by resistance; by flight | |
| 14542 when a continued thought increases the incentive to sin, as in lust; for which reason it is written ( | |
| 14543 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A1-p13.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.6.18" target="asv">1 Cor. 6:18</a>): "Fly fornication"; by resistance, when perseverance in the thought diminishes the incentive to sin, which incentive arises | |
| 14544 from some trivial consideration. This is the case with sloth, because | |
| 14545 the more we think about spiritual goods, the more pleasing they become to us, and forthwith sloth dies away. | |
| 14546 </p> | |
| 14547 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 14548 <p id="SS_Q35_A1-p15"></p> | |
| 14549 <a href="summa.SS_Q35.html"></a> | |
| 14550 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14551 </div> | |
| 14552 <div id="SS_Q35_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 14553 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14554 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14555 <h4 id="SS_Q35_A2-p0.1">Whether sloth is a special vice?</h4> | |
| 14556 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 14557 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p2"> | |
| 14558 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sloth is not a special vice. For that which is common to all vices does not constitute a special kind | |
| 14559 of vice. But every vice makes a man sorrowful about the opposite spiritual good: for the lustful man is sorrowful about the | |
| 14560 good of continence, and the glutton about the good of abstinence. Since then sloth is sorrow for spiritual good, as stated | |
| 14561 above | |
| 14562 <a id="SS_Q35_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it seems that sloth is not a special sin. | |
| 14563 </p> | |
| 14564 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p3"> | |
| 14565 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sloth, through being a kind of sorrow, is opposed to joy. Now joy is not accounted one special virtue. Therefore | |
| 14566 sloth should not be reckoned a special vice. | |
| 14567 </p> | |
| 14568 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p4"> | |
| 14569 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since spiritual good is a general kind of object, which virtue seeks, and vice shuns, it does not constitute a special | |
| 14570 virtue or vice, unless it be determined by some addition. Now nothing, seemingly, except toil, can determine it to sloth, | |
| 14571 if this be a special vice; because the reason why a man shuns spiritual goods, is that they are toilsome, wherefore sloth | |
| 14572 is a kind of weariness: while dislike of toil, and love of bodily repose seem to be due to | |
| 14573 the same cause, viz. idleness. Hence sloth would be nothing but laziness, which seems untrue, for idleness is opposed to carefulness, | |
| 14574 whereas sloth is opposed to joy. Therefore sloth is not a special vice. | |
| 14575 </p> | |
| 14576 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p5"> | |
| 14577 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) distinguishes sloth from the other vices. Therefore it is a special vice. | |
| 14578 </p> | |
| 14579 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p6"> | |
| 14580 <b>I answer that,</b> Since sloth is sorrow for spiritual good, if we take spiritual good in a general way, sloth will not be a special vice, because, | |
| 14581 as stated above ( | |
| 14582 <a id="SS_Q35_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q71_A1.html">FS, Q[71], A[1]</a>), every vice shuns the spiritual good of its opposite virtue. Again it cannot be said that sloth is a special vice, in so | |
| 14583 far as it shuns spiritual good, as toilsome, or troublesome to the body, or as a hindrance to the body's pleasure, for this | |
| 14584 again would not sever sloth | |
| 14585 from carnal vices, whereby a man seeks bodily comfort and pleasure. | |
| 14586 </p> | |
| 14587 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p7"> Wherefore we must say that a certain order exists among spiritual goods, since all the spiritual goods that are in the acts | |
| 14588 of each virtue are directed to one spiritual good, which is the Divine good, about which there is a special virtue, viz. charity. | |
| 14589 Hence it is proper to each virtue to rejoice in its own spiritual good, which consists in its own act, while it belongs specially | |
| 14590 to charity to have that spiritual joy whereby one rejoices in the Divine good. In like manner the | |
| 14591 sorrow whereby one is displeased at the spiritual good which is in each act of virtue, belongs, not to any special vice, but | |
| 14592 to every vice, but sorrow in the Divine good about which charity rejoices, belongs to a special vice, which is called sloth. | |
| 14593 This suffices for the Replies to the Objections. | |
| 14594 </p> | |
| 14595 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p8"></p> | |
| 14596 <p id="SS_Q35_A2-p9"></p> | |
| 14597 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14598 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14599 </div> | |
| 14600 <div id="SS_Q35_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 14601 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14602 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14603 <h4 id="SS_Q35_A3-p0.1">Whether sloth is a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 14604 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 14605 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p2"> | |
| 14606 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sloth is not a mortal sin. For every mortal sin is contrary to a precept of the Divine Law. But sloth | |
| 14607 seems contrary to no precept, as one may see by going through the precepts of the Decalogue. Therefore sloth is not a mortal | |
| 14608 sin. | |
| 14609 </p> | |
| 14610 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p3"> | |
| 14611 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, in the same genus, a sin of deed is no less grievous than a sin of thought. Now it is not a mortal sin to refrain | |
| 14612 in deed from some spiritual good which leads to God, else it would be a mortal sin not to observe the counsels. Therefore | |
| 14613 it is not a mortal sin to refrain in thought from such like spiritual works. Therefore sloth is not a mortal sin. | |
| 14614 </p> | |
| 14615 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p4"> | |
| 14616 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no mortal sin is to be found in a perfect man. But sloth is to be found in a perfect man: for Cassian says (De Instit. | |
| 14617 Caenob. x, l) that "sloth is well known to the solitary, and is a most vexatious and persistent foe to the hermit." Therefore | |
| 14618 sloth is not always a mortal sin. | |
| 14619 </p> | |
| 14620 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p5"> | |
| 14621 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 14622 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q35_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.7.20" target="asv">2 Cor. 7:20</a>): "The sorrow of the world worketh death." But such is sloth; for it is not sorrow "according to God," which is contrasted | |
| 14623 with sorrow of the world. Therefore it is a mortal sin. | |
| 14624 </p> | |
| 14625 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p6"> | |
| 14626 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 14627 <a id="SS_Q35_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q88_A1.html">FS, Q[88], AA[1]</a>,2), mortal sin is so called because it destroys the spiritual life which is the effect of charity, whereby God dwells in | |
| 14628 us. Wherefore any sin which by its very nature is contrary to charity is a mortal sin by reason of its genus. And such is | |
| 14629 sloth, because the proper effect of charity is joy in God, as stated above (Q[28], A[1]), while sloth is sorrow about spiritual | |
| 14630 good in as much as it is a | |
| 14631 Divine good. Therefore sloth is a mortal sin in respect of its genus. But it must be observed with regard to all sins that | |
| 14632 are mortal in respect of their genus, that they are not mortal, save when they attain to their perfection. Because the consummation | |
| 14633 of sin is in the consent of reason: for we are speaking now of human sins consisting in human acts, the principle of which | |
| 14634 is the reason. Wherefore if the sin be a mere beginning of sin in the sensuality alone, without attaining to the consent | |
| 14635 of reason, it is a venial sin on account of the imperfection of the act. Thus in the genus of adultery, the concupiscence | |
| 14636 that goes no further than the sensuality is a venial sin, whereas if it reach to the consent of reason, it is a mortal sin. | |
| 14637 So too, the movement of sloth is sometimes in the sensuality alone, by reason of the opposition of the flesh to the spirit, | |
| 14638 and then it is a venial sin; whereas sometimes it reaches to the reason, which consents in the dislike, horror and detestation | |
| 14639 of | |
| 14640 the Divine good, on account of the flesh utterly prevailing over the spirit. In this case it is evident that sloth is a mortal | |
| 14641 sin. | |
| 14642 </p> | |
| 14643 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p7"> | |
| 14644 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Sloth is opposed to the precept about hallowing the Sabbath day. For this precept, in so far as it is a moral precept, implicitly | |
| 14645 commands the mind to rest in God: and sorrow of the mind about the Divine good is contrary thereto. | |
| 14646 </p> | |
| 14647 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p8"> | |
| 14648 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Sloth is not an aversion of the mind from any spiritual good, but from the Divine good, to which the mind is obliged to adhere. | |
| 14649 Wherefore if a man is sorry because someone forces him to do acts of virtue that he is not bound to do, this is not a sin | |
| 14650 of sloth; but when he is sorry to have to do something for God's sake. | |
| 14651 </p> | |
| 14652 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p9"> | |
| 14653 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Imperfect movements of sloth are to be found in holy men, but they do not reach to the consent of reason. | |
| 14654 </p> | |
| 14655 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 14656 <p id="SS_Q35_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 14657 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14658 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14659 </div> | |
| 14660 <div id="SS_Q35_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 14661 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14662 <a href="summa.SS_Q36.html"></a> | |
| 14663 <h4 id="SS_Q35_A4-p0.1">Whether sloth should be accounted a capital vice?</h4> | |
| 14664 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 14665 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p2"> | |
| 14666 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sloth ought not to be accounted a capital vice. For a capital vice is one that moves a man to sinful acts, | |
| 14667 as stated above ( | |
| 14668 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A5.html">Q[34], A[5]</a>). Now sloth does not move one to action, but on the contrary withdraws one from it. Therefore it should not be accounted | |
| 14669 a capital sin. | |
| 14670 </p> | |
| 14671 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p3"> | |
| 14672 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a capital sin is one to which daughters are assigned. Now Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) assigns six daughters to sloth, | |
| 14673 viz. "malice, spite, faint-heartedness, despair, sluggishness in regard to the commandments, wandering of the mind after unlawful | |
| 14674 things." Now these do not seem in reality to arise from sloth. For "spite" is, seemingly the same as hatred, which arises | |
| 14675 from envy, as stated above ( | |
| 14676 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html">Q[34], A[6]</a>); "malice" is a genus | |
| 14677 which contains all vices, and, in like manner, a "wandering" of the mind after unlawful things is to be found in every vice; | |
| 14678 "sluggishness" about the commandments seems to be the same as sloth, while "faint-heartedness" and "despair" may arise from | |
| 14679 any sin. Therefore sloth is not rightly accounted a capital sin. | |
| 14680 </p> | |
| 14681 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p4"> | |
| 14682 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Isidore distinguishes the vice of sloth from the vice of sorrow, saying (De Summo Bono ii, 37) that in so far as | |
| 14683 a man shirks his duty because it is distasteful and burdensome, it is sorrow, and in so far as he is inclined to undue repose, | |
| 14684 it is sloth: and of sorrow he says that it gives rise to "spite, faint-heartedness, bitterness, despair," whereas he states | |
| 14685 that from sloth seven things arise, viz. "idleness, drowsiness, uneasiness of the mind, | |
| 14686 restlessness of the body, instability, loquacity, curiosity." Therefore it seems that either Gregory or Isidore has wrongly | |
| 14687 assigned sloth as a capital sin together with its daughters. | |
| 14688 </p> | |
| 14689 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p5"> | |
| 14690 <b>On the contrary,</b> The same Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) states that sloth is a capital sin, and has the daughters aforesaid. | |
| 14691 </p> | |
| 14692 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p6"> | |
| 14693 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 14694 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q84_A3.html">FS, Q[84], AA[3]</a>,4), a capital vice is one which easily gives rise to others as being their final cause. Now just as we do many things on | |
| 14695 account of pleasure, both in order to obtain it, and through being moved to do something under the impulse of pleasure, so | |
| 14696 again we do many things on account of sorrow, either that we may avoid it, or through being exasperated into doing something | |
| 14697 under pressure thereof. Wherefore, | |
| 14698 since sloth is a kind of sorrow, as stated above | |
| 14699 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html">(A[2];</a> | |
| 14700 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q85_A8.html">FS, Q[85], A[8]</a>), it is fittingly reckoned a capital sin. | |
| 14701 </p> | |
| 14702 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p7"> | |
| 14703 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Sloth by weighing on the mind, hinders us from doing things that cause sorrow: nevertheless it induces the mind to do certain | |
| 14704 things, either because they are in harmony with sorrow, such as weeping, or because they are a means of avoiding sorrow. | |
| 14705 </p> | |
| 14706 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p8"> | |
| 14707 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Gregory fittingly assigns the daughters of sloth. For since, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 5,6) "no man can | |
| 14708 be a long time in company with what is painful and unpleasant," it follows that something arises from sorrow in two ways: | |
| 14709 first, that man shuns whatever causes sorrow; secondly, that he passes to other things that give him pleasure: thus those | |
| 14710 who find no joy in spiritual pleasures, have recourse to pleasures of the body, according | |
| 14711 to the Philosopher (Ethic. x, 6). Now in the avoidance of sorrow the order observed is that man at first flies from unpleasant | |
| 14712 objects, and secondly he even struggles against such things as cause sorrow. Now spiritual goods which are the object of the | |
| 14713 sorrow of sloth, are both end and means. Avoidance of the end is the result of "despair," while avoidance of those goods which | |
| 14714 are the means to the end, in matters of difficulty which come under the counsels, is the effect of "faint-heartedness," | |
| 14715 and in matters of common righteousness, is the effect of "sluggishness about the commandments." The struggle against spiritual | |
| 14716 goods that cause sorrow is sometimes with men who lead others to spiritual goods, and this is called "spite"; and sometimes | |
| 14717 it extends to the spiritual goods themselves, when a man goes so far as to detest them, and this is properly called "malice." | |
| 14718 In so far as a man has recourse to eternal objects of pleasure, the daughter of sloth is called "wandering after unlawful | |
| 14719 things." From this it is clear how to reply to the objections against each of the daughters: for "malice" does not denote | |
| 14720 here that which is generic to all vices, but must be understood as explained. Nor is "spite" taken as synonymous with hatred, | |
| 14721 but for a kind of indignation, as stated above: and the same applies to the others. | |
| 14722 </p> | |
| 14723 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p9"> | |
| 14724 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This distinction between sorrow and sloth is also given by Cassian (De Instit. Caenob. x, 1). But Gregory more fittingly | |
| 14725 (Moral. xxxi, 45) calls sloth a kind of sorrow, because, as stated above | |
| 14726 <a id="SS_Q35_A4-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q35_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, sorrow is not a distinct vice, in so far as a man shirks a distasteful and burdensome work, or sorrows on account of any | |
| 14727 other cause whatever, but only in so far as he is sorry on account of the Divine good, which sorrow belongs | |
| 14728 essentially to sloth; since sloth seeks undue rest in so far as it spurns the Divine good. Moreover the things which Isidore | |
| 14729 reckons to arise from sloth and sorrow, are reduced to those mentioned by Gregory: for "bitterness" which Isidore states to | |
| 14730 be the result of sorrow, is an effect of "spite." "Idleness" and "drowsiness" are reduced to "sluggishness about the precepts": | |
| 14731 for some are idle and omit them altogether, while others are drowsy and fulfil them with negligence. All the other five | |
| 14732 which he reckons as effects of sloth, belong to the "wandering of the mind after unlawful things." This tendency to wander, | |
| 14733 if it reside in the mind itself that is desirous of rushing after various things without rhyme or reason, is called "uneasiness | |
| 14734 of the mind," but if it pertains to the imaginative power, it is called "curiosity"; if it affect the speech it is called | |
| 14735 "loquacity"; and in so far as it affects a body that changes place, it is called "restlessness of the body," when, to wit, | |
| 14736 a | |
| 14737 man shows the unsteadiness of his mind, by the inordinate movements of members of his body; while if it causes the body to | |
| 14738 move from one place to another, it is called "instability"; or "instability" may denote changeableness of purpose. | |
| 14739 </p> | |
| 14740 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 14741 <p id="SS_Q35_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 14742 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14743 <a href="summa.SS_Q36.html"></a> | |
| 14744 </div> | |
| 14745 <a href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html"></a> | |
| 14746 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14747 </div> | |
| 14748 <div id="SS_Q36" class="div3"> | |
| 14749 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14750 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14751 <h3 id="SS_Q36-p0.1">OF ENVY (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 14752 <p id="SS_Q36-p1"></p> | |
| 14753 <p id="SS_Q36-p2"> We must now consider envy, and under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 14754 <p id="SS_Q36-p3"> (1) What is envy?</p> | |
| 14755 <p id="SS_Q36-p4"> (2) Whether it is a sin?</p> | |
| 14756 <p id="SS_Q36-p5"> (3) Whether it is a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 14757 <p id="SS_Q36-p6"> (4) Whether it is a capital sin, and which are its daughters?</p> | |
| 14758 <div id="SS_Q36_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 14759 <a href="summa.SS_Q36.html"></a> | |
| 14760 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14761 <h4 id="SS_Q36_A1-p0.1">Whether envy is a kind of sorrow?</h4> | |
| 14762 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 14763 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p2"> | |
| 14764 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that envy is not a kind of sorrow. For the object of envy is a good, for Gregory says (Moral. v, 46) of the | |
| 14765 envious man that "self-inflicted pain wounds the pining spirit, which is racked by the prosperity of another." Therefore envy | |
| 14766 is not a kind of sorrow. | |
| 14767 </p> | |
| 14768 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p3"> | |
| 14769 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, likeness is a cause, not of sorrow but rather of pleasure. But likeness is a cause of envy: for the Philosopher | |
| 14770 says (Rhet. ii, 10): "Men are envious of such as are like them in genus, in knowledge, in stature, in habit, or in reputation." | |
| 14771 Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. | |
| 14772 </p> | |
| 14773 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p4"> | |
| 14774 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, sorrow is caused by a defect, wherefore those who are in great defect are inclined to sorrow, as stated above ( | |
| 14775 <a id="SS_Q36_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q47_A3.html">FS, Q[47], A[3]</a>) when we were treating of the passions. Now those who lack little, and who love honors, and who are considered wise, are | |
| 14776 envious, according to the Philosopher (Rhet. ii, 10). Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. | |
| 14777 </p> | |
| 14778 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p5"> | |
| 14779 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, sorrow is opposed to pleasure. Now opposite effects have not one and the same cause. Therefore, since the recollection | |
| 14780 of goods once possessed is a cause of pleasure, as stated above ( | |
| 14781 <a id="SS_Q36_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q32_A3.html">FS, Q[32], A[3]</a>) it will not be a cause of sorrow. But it is a cause of envy; for the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 10) that "we envy those | |
| 14782 who have or have had things that befitted ourselves, or which we possessed at some time." Therefore sloth is | |
| 14783 not a kind of sorrow. | |
| 14784 </p> | |
| 14785 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p6"> | |
| 14786 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 14) calls envy a species of sorrow, and says that "envy is sorrow for another's good." | |
| 14787 </p> | |
| 14788 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p7"> | |
| 14789 <b>I answer that,</b> The object of a man's sorrow is his own evil. Now it may happen that another's good is apprehended as one's own evil, and | |
| 14790 in this way sorrow can be about another's good. But this happens in two ways: first, when a man is sorry about another's good, | |
| 14791 in so far as it threatens to be an occasion of harm to himself, as when a man grieves for his enemy's prosperity, for fear | |
| 14792 lest he may do him some harm: such like sorrow is not envy, but rather an effect of fear, | |
| 14793 as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, 9). | |
| 14794 </p> | |
| 14795 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p8"> Secondly, another's good may be reckoned as being one's own evil, in so far as it conduces to the lessening of one's own | |
| 14796 good name or excellence. It is in this way that envy grieves for another's good: and consequently men are envious of those | |
| 14797 goods in which a good name consists, and about which men like to be honored and esteemed, as the Philosopher remarks (Rhet. | |
| 14798 ii, 10). | |
| 14799 </p> | |
| 14800 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p9"> | |
| 14801 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nothing hinders what is good for one from being reckoned as evil for another: and in this way it is possible for sorrow to | |
| 14802 be about good, as stated above. | |
| 14803 </p> | |
| 14804 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p10"> | |
| 14805 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since envy is about another's good name in so far as it diminishes the good name a man desires to have, it follows that a | |
| 14806 man is envious of those only whom he wishes to rival or surpass in reputation. But this does not apply to people who are far | |
| 14807 removed from one another: for no man, unless he be out of his mind, endeavors to rival or surpass in reputation those who | |
| 14808 are far above him. Thus a commoner does not envy the king, nor does the king envy a | |
| 14809 commoner whom he is far above. Wherefore a man envies not those who are far removed from him, whether in place, time, or station, | |
| 14810 but those who are near him, and whom he strives to rival or surpass. For it is against our will that these should be in better | |
| 14811 repute than we are, and that gives rise to sorrow. On the other hand, likeness causes pleasure in so far as it is in agreement | |
| 14812 with the will. | |
| 14813 </p> | |
| 14814 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p11"> | |
| 14815 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A man does not strive for mastery in matters where he is very deficient; so that he does not envy one who surpasses him in | |
| 14816 such matters, unless he surpass him by little, for then it seems to him that this is not beyond him, and so he makes an effort; | |
| 14817 wherefore, if his effort fails through the other's reputation surpassing his, he grieves. Hence it is that those who love | |
| 14818 to be honored are more envious; and in like manner the faint-hearted are envious, | |
| 14819 because all things are great to them, and whatever good may befall another, they reckon that they themselves have been bested | |
| 14820 in something great. Hence it is written ( | |
| 14821 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A1-p11.1" href="./asv.html#Job.5.2" target="asv">Job 5:2</a>): "Envy slayeth the little one," and Gregory says (Moral. v, 46) that "we can envy those only whom we think better in some | |
| 14822 respect than ourselves." | |
| 14823 </p> | |
| 14824 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p12"> | |
| 14825 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Recollection of past goods in so far as we have had them, causes pleasure; in so far as we have lost them, causes sorrow; | |
| 14826 and in so far as others have them, causes envy, because that, above all, seems to belittle our reputation. Hence the Philosopher | |
| 14827 says (Rhet. ii) that the old envy the young, and those who have spent much in order to get something, envy those who have | |
| 14828 got it by spending little, because they grieve that they have lost their goods, | |
| 14829 and that others have acquired goods. | |
| 14830 </p> | |
| 14831 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 14832 <p id="SS_Q36_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 14833 <a href="summa.SS_Q36.html"></a> | |
| 14834 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14835 </div> | |
| 14836 <div id="SS_Q36_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 14837 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14838 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14839 <h4 id="SS_Q36_A2-p0.1">Whether envy is a sin?</h4> | |
| 14840 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 14841 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p2"> | |
| 14842 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that envy is not a sin. For Jerome says to Laeta about the education of her daughter (Ep. cvii): "Let her have | |
| 14843 companions, so that she may learn together with them, envy them, and be nettled when they are praised." But no one should | |
| 14844 be advised to commit a sin. Therefore envy is not a sin | |
| 14845 </p> | |
| 14846 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p3"> | |
| 14847 <b>Objection 1:</b> Further, "Envy is sorrow for another's good," as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 14). But this is sometimes praiseworthy: | |
| 14848 for it is written ( | |
| 14849 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.29.2" target="asv">Prov. 29:2</a>): "When the wicked shall bear rule, the people shall mourn." Therefore envy is not always a sin. | |
| 14850 </p> | |
| 14851 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p4"> | |
| 14852 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, envy denotes a kind of zeal. But there is a good zeal, according to | |
| 14853 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.68.10" target="asv"> Ps. 68:10</a>: "The zeal of Thy house hath eaten me up." Therefore envy is not always a sin. | |
| 14854 </p> | |
| 14855 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p5"> | |
| 14856 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, punishment is condivided with fault. But envy is a kind of punishment: for Gregory says (Moral. v, 46): "When the | |
| 14857 foul sore of envy corrupts the vanquished heart, the very exterior itself shows how forcibly the mind is urged by madness. | |
| 14858 For paleness seizes the complexion, the eyes are weighed down, the spirit is inflamed, while the limbs are chilled, there | |
| 14859 is frenzy in the heart, there is gnashing with the teeth." Therefore envy is not a sin. | |
| 14860 </p> | |
| 14861 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p6"> | |
| 14862 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 14863 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.26" target="asv">Gal. 5:26</a>): "Let us not be made desirous of vainglory, provoking one another, envying one another." | |
| 14864 </p> | |
| 14865 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p7"> | |
| 14866 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 14867 <a id="SS_Q36_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, envy is sorrow for another's good. Now this sorrow may come about in four ways. First, when a man grieves for another's | |
| 14868 good, through fear that it may cause harm either to himself, or to some other goods. This sorrow is not envy, as stated above | |
| 14869 | |
| 14870 <a id="SS_Q36_A2-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, and may be void of sin. Hence Gregory says (Moral. xxii, 11): "It very often happens that without charity being lost, both | |
| 14871 the | |
| 14872 destruction of an enemy rejoices us, and again his glory, without any sin of envy, saddens us, since, when he falls, we believe | |
| 14873 that some are deservedly set up, and when he prospers, we dread lest many suffer unjustly." | |
| 14874 </p> | |
| 14875 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p8"> Secondly, we may grieve over another's good, not because he has it, but because the good which he has, we have not: and this, | |
| 14876 properly speaking, is zeal, as the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 9). And if this zeal be about virtuous goods, it is praiseworthy, | |
| 14877 according to | |
| 14878 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.14.1" target="asv">1 Cor. 14:1</a>: "Be zealous for spiritual gifts": while, if it be about temporal goods, it may be either sinful or sinless. Thirdly, one | |
| 14879 may grieve over another's good, because he who happens to | |
| 14880 have that good is unworthy of it. Such sorrow as this cannot be occasioned by virtuous goods, which make a man righteous, | |
| 14881 but, as the Philosopher states, is about riches, and those things which can accrue to the worthy and the unworthy; and he | |
| 14882 calls this sorrow {nemesis} [*The nearest equivalent is "indignation." The use of the word "nemesis" to signify "revenge" | |
| 14883 does not represent the original Greek.], saying that it belongs to good morals. But he says this because he considered temporal | |
| 14884 goods | |
| 14885 in themselves, in so far as they may seem great to those who look not to eternal goods: whereas, according to the teaching | |
| 14886 of faith, temporal goods that accrue to those who are unworthy, are so disposed according to God's just ordinance, either | |
| 14887 for the correction of those men, or for their condemnation, and such goods are as nothing in comparison with the goods to | |
| 14888 come, which are prepared for good men. Wherefore sorrow of this kind is forbidden in Holy Writ, according to | |
| 14889 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.36.1" target="asv"> Ps. | |
| 14890 36:1 | |
| 14891 </a>: "Be not emulous of evil doers, nor envy them that work iniquity," and elsewhere ( | |
| 14892 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A2-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Ps.72.2" target="asv">Ps. 72:2,3</a>): "My steps had well nigh slipped, for I was envious of the wicked, when I saw the prosperity of sinners [*Douay: 'because | |
| 14893 I had a zeal on occasion of the wicked, seeing the prosperity of sinners']." Fourthly, we grieve over a man's good, in so | |
| 14894 far as his good surpasses ours; this is envy properly speaking, and is always sinful, as also the Philosopher states (Rhet. | |
| 14895 ii, 10), because to do so is to grieve over what should make us rejoice, viz. over our neighbor's good. | |
| 14896 </p> | |
| 14897 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p9"> | |
| 14898 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Envy there denotes the zeal with which we ought to strive to progress with those who are better than we are. | |
| 14899 </p> | |
| 14900 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p10"> | |
| 14901 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers sorrow for another's good in the first sense given above. | |
| 14902 </p> | |
| 14903 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p11"> | |
| 14904 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Envy differs from zeal, as stated above. Hence a certain zeal may be good, whereas envy is always evil. | |
| 14905 </p> | |
| 14906 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p12"> | |
| 14907 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Nothing hinders a sin from being penal accidentally, as stated above ( | |
| 14908 <a id="SS_Q36_A2-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q87_A2.html">FS, Q[87], A[2]</a>) when we were treating of sins. | |
| 14909 </p> | |
| 14910 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 14911 <p id="SS_Q36_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 14912 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html"></a> | |
| 14913 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14914 </div> | |
| 14915 <div id="SS_Q36_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 14916 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14917 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14918 <h4 id="SS_Q36_A3-p0.1">Whether envy is a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 14919 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 14920 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p2"> | |
| 14921 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that envy is not a mortal sin. For since envy is a kind of sorrow, it is a passion of the sensitive appetite. | |
| 14922 Now there is no mortal sin in the sensuality, but only in the reason, as Augustine declares (De Trin. xii, 12) [*Cf. | |
| 14923 <a id="SS_Q36_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A4.html">FS, Q[74], A[4]</a>]. Therefore envy is not a mortal sin. | |
| 14924 </p> | |
| 14925 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p3"> | |
| 14926 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, there cannot be mortal sin in infants. But envy can be in them, for Augustine says (Confess. i): "I myself have | |
| 14927 seen and known even a baby envious, it could not speak, yet it turned pale and looked bitterly on its foster-brother." Therefore | |
| 14928 envy is not a mortal sin. | |
| 14929 </p> | |
| 14930 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p4"> | |
| 14931 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every mortal sin is contrary to some virtue. But envy is contrary, not to a virtue but to {nemesis}, which is a | |
| 14932 passion, according to the Philosopher (Rhet. ii, 9). Therefore envy is not a mortal sin. | |
| 14933 </p> | |
| 14934 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p5"> | |
| 14935 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 14936 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Job.5.2" target="asv">Job 5:2</a>): "Envy slayeth the little one." Now nothing slays spiritually, except mortal sin. Therefore envy is a mortal sin. | |
| 14937 </p> | |
| 14938 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p6"> | |
| 14939 <b>I answer that,</b> Envy is a mortal sin, in respect of its genus. For the genus of a sin is taken from its object; and envy according to the | |
| 14940 aspect of its object is contrary to charity, whence the soul derives its spiritual life, according to | |
| 14941 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A3-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.14" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:14</a>: "We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love the brethren." Now the object both of charity and of envy | |
| 14942 is our neighbor's good, but by contrary movements, since charity rejoices in our | |
| 14943 neighbor's good, while envy grieves over it, as stated above | |
| 14944 <a id="SS_Q36_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore it is evident that envy is a mortal sin in respect of its genus. | |
| 14945 </p> | |
| 14946 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p7"> Nevertheless, as stated above (Q[35], A[4]; | |
| 14947 <a id="SS_Q36_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q72_A5.html">FS, Q[72], A[5]</a>, ad 1), in every kind of mortal sin we find certain imperfect movements in the sensuality, which are venial sins: such are | |
| 14948 the first movement of concupiscence, in the genus of adultery, and the first movement of anger, in the genus of murder, and | |
| 14949 so in the genus of envy we find sometimes even in perfect men certain first movements, which are venial sins. | |
| 14950 </p> | |
| 14951 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p8"> | |
| 14952 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The movement of envy in so far as it is a passion of the sensuality, is an imperfect thing in the genus of human acts, the | |
| 14953 principle of which is the reason, so that envy of that kind is not a mortal sin. The same applies to the envy of little children | |
| 14954 who have not the use of reason: wherefore the Reply to the Second Objection is manifest. | |
| 14955 </p> | |
| 14956 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p9"> | |
| 14957 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> According to the Philosopher (Rhet. ii, 9), envy is contrary both to {nemesis} and to pity, but for different reasons. For | |
| 14958 it is directly contrary to pity, their principal objects being contrary to one another, since the envious man grieves over | |
| 14959 his neighbor's good, whereas the pitiful man grieves over his neighbor's evil, so that the envious have no pity, as he states | |
| 14960 in the same passage, nor is the pitiful man envious. On the other hand, envy is | |
| 14961 contrary to {nemesis} on the part of the man whose good grieves the envious man, for {nemesis} is sorrow for the good of the | |
| 14962 undeserving according to | |
| 14963 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A3-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.72.3" target="asv"> Ps. 72:3</a>: "I was envious of the wicked, when I saw the prosperity of sinners" [*Douay: 'because I had a zeal on occasion of the wicked, | |
| 14964 seeing the prosperity of sinners'], whereas the envious grieves over the good of those who are deserving of it. Hence it is | |
| 14965 clear that the former contrariety is more direct than the latter. | |
| 14966 Now pity is a virtue, and an effect proper to charity: so that envy is contrary to pity and charity. | |
| 14967 </p> | |
| 14968 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 14969 <p id="SS_Q36_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 14970 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A2.html"></a> | |
| 14971 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A4.html"></a> | |
| 14972 </div> | |
| 14973 <div id="SS_Q36_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 14974 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html"></a> | |
| 14975 <a href="summa.SS_Q37.html"></a> | |
| 14976 <h4 id="SS_Q36_A4-p0.1">Whether envy is a capital vice?</h4> | |
| 14977 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 14978 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p2"> | |
| 14979 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that envy is not a capital vice. For the capital vices are distinct from their daughters. Now envy is the daughter | |
| 14980 of vainglory; for the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 10) that "those who love honor and glory are more envious." Therefore envy | |
| 14981 is not a capital vice. | |
| 14982 </p> | |
| 14983 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p3"> | |
| 14984 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the capital vices seem to be less grave than the other vices which arise from them. For Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, | |
| 14985 45): "The leading vices seem to worm their way into the deceived mind under some kind of pretext, but those which follow them | |
| 14986 provoke the soul to all kinds of outrage, and confuse the mind with their wild outcry." Now envy is seemingly a most grave | |
| 14987 sin, for Gregory says (Moral. v, 46): "Though in every evil thing that is done, the venom | |
| 14988 of our old enemy is infused into the heart of man, yet in this wickedness the serpent stirs his whole bowels and discharges | |
| 14989 the bane of spite fitted to enter deep into the mind." Therefore envy is not a capital sin. | |
| 14990 </p> | |
| 14991 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p4"> | |
| 14992 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it seems that its daughters are unfittingly assigned by Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45), who says that from envy arise | |
| 14993 "hatred, tale-bearing, detraction, joy at our neighbor's misfortunes, and grief for his prosperity." For joy at our neighbor's | |
| 14994 misfortunes and grief for his prosperity seem to be the same as envy, as appears from what has been said above | |
| 14995 <a id="SS_Q36_A4-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. Therefore these should not be assigned as daughters of envy. | |
| 14996 </p> | |
| 14997 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p5"> On the contrary stands the authority of Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) who states that envy is a capital sin and assigns the aforesaid | |
| 14998 daughters thereto. | |
| 14999 </p> | |
| 15000 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p6"> | |
| 15001 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as sloth is grief for a Divine spiritual good, so envy is grief for our neighbor's good. Now it has been stated above | |
| 15002 ( | |
| 15003 <a id="SS_Q36_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q35_A4.html">Q[35], A[4]</a>) that sloth is a capital vice for the reason that it incites man to do certain things, with the purpose either of avoiding | |
| 15004 sorrow or of satisfying its demands. Wherefore envy is accounted a capital vice for the same reason. | |
| 15005 </p> | |
| 15006 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p7"> | |
| 15007 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 45), "the capital vices are so closely akin to one another that one springs from the other. | |
| 15008 For the first offspring of pride is vainglory, which by corrupting the mind it occupies begets envy, since while it craves | |
| 15009 for the power of an empty name, it repines for fear lest another should acquire that power." Consequently the notion of a | |
| 15010 capital vice does not exclude its originating from another vice, but it demands that it | |
| 15011 should have some principal reason for being itself the origin of several kinds of sin. However it is perhaps because envy | |
| 15012 manifestly arises from vainglory, that it is not reckoned a capital sin, either by Isidore (De Summo Bono) or by Cassian (De | |
| 15013 Instit. Caenob. v, 1). | |
| 15014 </p> | |
| 15015 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p8"> | |
| 15016 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It does not follow from the passage quoted that envy is the greatest of sins, but that when the devil tempts us to envy, | |
| 15017 he is enticing us to that which has its chief place in his heart, for as quoted further on in the same passage, "by the envy | |
| 15018 of the devil, death came into the world" ( | |
| 15019 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q36_A4-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.2.24" target="asv">Wis. 2:24</a>). | |
| 15020 </p> | |
| 15021 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p9"> There is, however, a kind of envy which is accounted among the most grievous sins, viz. envy of another's spiritual good, | |
| 15022 which envy is a sorrow for the increase of God's grace, and not merely for our neighbor's good. Hence it is accounted a sin | |
| 15023 against the Holy Ghost, because thereby a man envies, as it were, the Holy Ghost Himself, Who is glorified in His works. | |
| 15024 </p> | |
| 15025 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p10"> | |
| 15026 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The number of envy's daughters may be understood for the reason that in the struggle aroused by envy there is something by | |
| 15027 way of beginning, something by way of middle, and something by way of term. The beginning is that a man strives to lower another's | |
| 15028 reputation, and this either secretly, and then we have "tale-bearing," or openly, and then we have "detraction." The middle | |
| 15029 consists in the fact that when a man aims at defaming another, he is either | |
| 15030 able to do so, and then we have "joy at another's misfortune," or he is unable, and then we have "grief at another's prosperity." | |
| 15031 The term is hatred itself, because just as good which delights causes love, so does sorrow cause hatred, as stated above ( | |
| 15032 <a id="SS_Q36_A4-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q34_A6.html">Q[34], A[6]</a>). Grief at another's prosperity is in one way the very same as envy, when, to Wit, a man grieves over another's prosperity, | |
| 15033 in so far as it gives the latter a good name, but in another way it is a daughter of | |
| 15034 envy, in so far as the envious man sees his neighbor prosper notwithstanding his efforts to prevent it. On the other hand, | |
| 15035 "joy at another's misfortune" is not directly the same as envy, but is a result thereof, because grief over our neighbor's | |
| 15036 good which is envy, gives rise to joy in his evil. | |
| 15037 </p> | |
| 15038 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 15039 <p id="SS_Q36_A4-p12"></p> | |
| 15040 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15041 <a href="summa.SS_Q37.html"></a> | |
| 15042 </div> | |
| 15043 <a href="summa.SS_Q35_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15044 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15045 </div> | |
| 15046 <div id="SS_Q37" class="div3"> | |
| 15047 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15048 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15049 <h3 id="SS_Q37-p0.1">OF DISCORD, WHICH IS CONTRARY TO PEACE (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 15050 <p id="SS_Q37-p1"></p> | |
| 15051 <p id="SS_Q37-p2"> We must now consider the sins contrary to peace, and first we shall consider discord which is in the heart, secondly contention, | |
| 15052 which is on the lips, thirdly, those things which consist in deeds, viz. schism, quarrelling, war, and sedition. Under the | |
| 15053 first head there are two points of inquiry: | |
| 15054 </p> | |
| 15055 <p id="SS_Q37-p3"> (1) Whether discord is a sin?</p> | |
| 15056 <p id="SS_Q37-p4"> (2) Whether it is a daughter of vainglory?</p> | |
| 15057 <div id="SS_Q37_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 15058 <a href="summa.SS_Q37.html"></a> | |
| 15059 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15060 <h4 id="SS_Q37_A1-p0.1">Whether discord is a sin?</h4> | |
| 15061 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 15062 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p2"> | |
| 15063 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that discord is not a sin. For to disaccord with man is to sever oneself from another's will. But this does | |
| 15064 not seem to be a sin, because God's will alone, and not our neighbor's, is the rule of our own will. Therefore discord is | |
| 15065 not a sin. | |
| 15066 </p> | |
| 15067 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p3"> | |
| 15068 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whoever induces another to sin, sins also himself. But it appears not to be a sin to incite others to discord, for | |
| 15069 it is written ( | |
| 15070 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.23.6" target="asv">Acts 23:6</a>) that Paul, knowing that the one part were Sadducees, and the other Pharisees, cried out in the council: "Men brethren, I | |
| 15071 am a Pharisee, the son of Pharisees, concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am called in question. And when he | |
| 15072 had so said, there arose a dissension between the | |
| 15073 Pharisees and the Sadducees." Therefore discord is not a sin. | |
| 15074 </p> | |
| 15075 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p4"> | |
| 15076 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, sin, especially mortal sin, is not to be found in a holy man. But discord is to be found even among holy men, for | |
| 15077 it is written ( | |
| 15078 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Acts.15.39" target="asv">Acts 15:39</a>): "There arose a dissension" between Paul and Barnabas, "so that they departed one from another." Therefore discord is not | |
| 15079 a sin. and least of all a mortal sin. | |
| 15080 </p> | |
| 15081 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p5"> | |
| 15082 <b>On the contrary,</b> "Dissensions," that is, discords, are reckoned among the works of the flesh ( | |
| 15083 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv">Gal. 5:20</a>), of which it is said afterwards ( | |
| 15084 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.21" target="asv">Gal. 5:21</a>) that "they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God." Now nothing, save mortal sin, excludes man from the | |
| 15085 kingdom of God. Therefore discord is a mortal sin. | |
| 15086 </p> | |
| 15087 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p6"> | |
| 15088 <b>I answer that,</b> Discord is opposed to concord. Now, as stated above ( | |
| 15089 <a id="SS_Q37_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html">Q[29], AA[1]</a>,3) concord results from charity, in as much as charity directs many hearts together to one thing, which is chiefly the Divine | |
| 15090 good, secondarily, the good of our neighbor. Wherefore discord is a sin, in so far as it is opposed to this concord. | |
| 15091 </p> | |
| 15092 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p7"> But it must be observed that this concord is destroyed by discord in two ways: first, directly; secondly, accidentally. Now, | |
| 15093 human acts and movements are said to be direct when they are according to one's intention. Wherefore a man directly disaccords | |
| 15094 with his neighbor, when he knowingly and intentionally dissents from the Divine good and his neighbor's good, to which he | |
| 15095 ought to consent. This is a mortal sin in respect of its genus, because it is contrary to charity, although | |
| 15096 the first movements of such discord are venial sins by reason of their being imperfect acts. | |
| 15097 </p> | |
| 15098 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p8"> The accidental in human acts is that which occurs beside the intention. Hence when several intend a good pertaining to God's | |
| 15099 honor, or our neighbor's profit, while one deems a certain thing good, and another thinks contrariwise, the discord is in | |
| 15100 this case accidentally contrary to the Divine good or that of our neighbor. Such like discord is neither sinful nor against | |
| 15101 charity, unless it be accompanied by an error about things necessary to salvation, or by undue obstinacy, since | |
| 15102 it has also been stated above ( | |
| 15103 <a id="SS_Q37_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A1.html">Q[29], AA[1]</a>,3, ad 2) that the concord which is an effect of charity, is union of wills not of opinions. It follows from this that discord | |
| 15104 is sometimes the sin of one party only, for instance, when one wills a good which the other knowingly resists; while sometimes | |
| 15105 it implies sin in both parties, as when each dissents from the other's good, and loves his own. | |
| 15106 </p> | |
| 15107 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p9"> | |
| 15108 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> One man's will considered in itself is not the rule of another man's will; but in so far as our neighbor's will adheres to | |
| 15109 God's will, it becomes in consequence, a rule regulated according to its proper measure. Wherefore it is a sin to disaccord | |
| 15110 with such a will, because by that very fact one disaccords with the Divine rule. | |
| 15111 </p> | |
| 15112 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p10"> | |
| 15113 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as a man's will that adheres to God is a right rule, to disaccord with which is a sin, so too a man's will that is opposed | |
| 15114 to God is a perverse rule, to disaccord with which is good. Hence to cause a discord, whereby a good concord resulting from | |
| 15115 charity is destroyed, is a grave sin: wherefore it is written ( | |
| 15116 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.6.16" target="asv">Prov. 6:16</a>): "Six things there are, which the Lord hateth, and the seventh His soul detesteth," which seventh is stated | |
| 15117 ( | |
| 15118 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p10.2" href="./asv.html#Prov.6.19" target="asv">Prov. 6:19</a>) to be "him that soweth discord among brethren." On the other hand, to arouse a discord whereby an evil concord (i.e. concord | |
| 15119 in an evil will) is destroyed, is praiseworthy. In this way Paul was to be commended for sowing discord among those who concorded | |
| 15120 together in evil, because Our Lord also said of Himself ( | |
| 15121 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A1-p10.3" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.34" target="asv">Mat. 10:34</a>): "I came not to send peace, but the sword." | |
| 15122 </p> | |
| 15123 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p11"> | |
| 15124 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The discord between Paul and Barnabas was accidental and not direct: because each intended some good, yet the one thought | |
| 15125 one thing good, while the other thought something else, which was owing to human deficiency: for that controversy was not | |
| 15126 about things necessary to salvation. Moreover all this was ordained by Divine providence, on account of the good which would | |
| 15127 ensue. | |
| 15128 </p> | |
| 15129 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 15130 <p id="SS_Q37_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 15131 <a href="summa.SS_Q37.html"></a> | |
| 15132 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15133 </div> | |
| 15134 <div id="SS_Q37_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 15135 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15136 <a href="summa.SS_Q38.html"></a> | |
| 15137 <h4 id="SS_Q37_A2-p0.1">Whether discord is a daughter of vainglory?</h4> | |
| 15138 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 15139 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p2"> | |
| 15140 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that discord is not a daughter of vainglory. For anger is a vice distinct from vainglory. Now discord is apparently | |
| 15141 the daughter of anger, according to | |
| 15142 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.15.18" target="asv"> Prov. 15:18</a>: "A passionate man stirreth up strifes." Therefore it is not a daughter of vainglory. | |
| 15143 </p> | |
| 15144 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p3"> | |
| 15145 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine expounding the words of | |
| 15146 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#John.7.39" target="asv"> Jn. 7:39, </a> "As yet the Spirit was not given," says (Tract. xxxii) "Malice severs, charity unites." Now discord is merely a separation | |
| 15147 of wills. Therefore discord arises from malice, i.e. envy, rather than from vainglory. | |
| 15148 </p> | |
| 15149 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p4"> | |
| 15150 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever gives rise to many evils, would seem to be a capital vice. Now such is discord, because Jerome in commenting | |
| 15151 on | |
| 15152 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q37_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.25" target="asv">Mat. 12:25</a>, "Every kingdom divided against itself shall be made desolate," says: "Just as concord makes small things thrive, so discord | |
| 15153 brings the greatest things to ruin." Therefore discord should itself be reckoned a capital vice, rather than a daughter of | |
| 15154 vainglory. | |
| 15155 </p> | |
| 15156 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p5"> On the contrary stands the authority of Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45).</p> | |
| 15157 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p6"> | |
| 15158 <b>I answer that,</b> Discord denotes a certain disunion of wills, in so far, to wit, as one man's will holds fast to one thing, while the other | |
| 15159 man's will holds fast to something else. Now if a man's will holds fast to its own ground, this is due to the act that he | |
| 15160 prefers what is his own to that which belongs to others, and if he do this inordinately, it is due to pride and vainglory. | |
| 15161 Therefore discord, whereby a man holds to his own way of thinking, and departs from that of | |
| 15162 others, is reckoned to be a daughter of vainglory. | |
| 15163 </p> | |
| 15164 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p7"> | |
| 15165 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Strife is not the same as discord, for strife consists in external deeds, wherefore it is becoming that it should arise from | |
| 15166 anger, which incites the mind to hurt one's neighbor; whereas discord consists in a divergence in the movements of wills, | |
| 15167 which arises from pride or vainglory, for the reason given above. | |
| 15168 </p> | |
| 15169 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p8"> | |
| 15170 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In discord we may consider that which is the term "wherefrom," i.e. another's will from which we recede, and in this respect | |
| 15171 it arises from envy; and again we may consider that which is the term "whither," i.e. something of our own to which we cling, | |
| 15172 and in this respect it is caused by vainglory. And since in every moment the term "whither" is more important than the term | |
| 15173 "wherefrom" (because the end is of more account than the beginning), discord is | |
| 15174 accounted a daughter of vainglory rather than of envy, though it may arise from both for different reasons, as stated. | |
| 15175 </p> | |
| 15176 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p9"> | |
| 15177 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The reason why concord makes small things thrive, while discord brings the greatest to ruin, is because "the more united | |
| 15178 a force is, the stronger it is, while the more disunited it is the weaker it becomes" (De Causis xvii). Hence it is evident | |
| 15179 that this is part of the proper effect of discord which is a disunion of wills, and in no way indicates that other vices arise | |
| 15180 from discord, as though it were a capital vice. | |
| 15181 </p> | |
| 15182 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 15183 <p id="SS_Q37_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 15184 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15185 <a href="summa.SS_Q38.html"></a> | |
| 15186 </div> | |
| 15187 <a href="summa.SS_Q36_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15188 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15189 </div> | |
| 15190 <div id="SS_Q38" class="div3"> | |
| 15191 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15192 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15193 <h3 id="SS_Q38-p0.1">OF CONTENTION (TWO ARTICLES) </h3> | |
| 15194 <p id="SS_Q38-p1"></p> | |
| 15195 <p id="SS_Q38-p2"> We must now consider contention, in respect of which there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 15196 <p id="SS_Q38-p3"> (1) Whether contention is a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 15197 <p id="SS_Q38-p4"> (2) Whether it is a daughter of vainglory?</p> | |
| 15198 <div id="SS_Q38_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 15199 <a href="summa.SS_Q38.html"></a> | |
| 15200 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15201 <h4 id="SS_Q38_A1-p0.1">Whether contention is a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 15202 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 15203 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p2"> | |
| 15204 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that contention is not a mortal sin. For there is no mortal sin in spiritual men: and yet contention is to | |
| 15205 be found in them, according to | |
| 15206 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.22.24" target="asv"> Lk. 22:24</a>: "And there was also a strife amongst" the disciples of Jesus, "which of them should . . . be the greatest." Therefore contention | |
| 15207 is not a mortal sin. | |
| 15208 </p> | |
| 15209 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p3"> | |
| 15210 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no well disposed man should be pleased that his neighbor commit a mortal sin. But the Apostle says ( | |
| 15211 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.1.17" target="asv">Phil. 1:17</a>): "Some out of contention preach Christ," and afterwards he says ( | |
| 15212 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Phil.1.18" target="asv">Phil. 1:18</a>): "In this also I rejoice, yea, and will rejoice." Therefore contention is not a mortal sin. | |
| 15213 </p> | |
| 15214 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p4"> | |
| 15215 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it happens that people contend either in the courts or in disputations, without any spiteful purpose, and with a | |
| 15216 good intention, as, for example, those who contend by disputing with heretics. Hence a gloss on | |
| 15217 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iKgs.14.1" target="asv">1 Kings 14:1, </a> "It came to pass one day," etc. says: "Catholics do not raise contentions with heretics, unless they are first challenged | |
| 15218 to dispute." Therefore contention is not a mortal sin. | |
| 15219 </p> | |
| 15220 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p5"> | |
| 15221 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Job seems to have contended with God, according to | |
| 15222 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Job.39.32" target="asv">Job 39:32</a>: "Shall he that contendeth with God be so easily silenced?" And yet Job was not guilty of mortal sin, since the Lord said | |
| 15223 of him ( | |
| 15224 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Job.42.7" target="asv">Job 42:7</a>): "You have not spoken the thing that is right before me, as my servant Job hath." Therefore contention is not always a mortal | |
| 15225 sin. | |
| 15226 </p> | |
| 15227 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p6"> | |
| 15228 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is against the precept of the Apostle who says ( | |
| 15229 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.14" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:14</a>): "Contend not in words." Moreover ( | |
| 15230 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv">Gal. 5:20</a>) contention is included among the works of the flesh, and as stated there ( | |
| 15231 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.21" target="asv">Gal. 5:21</a>) "they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God." Now whatever excludes a man from the kingdom of God and is | |
| 15232 against a precept, is a mortal sin. Therefore contention is a mortal sin. | |
| 15233 </p> | |
| 15234 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p7"> | |
| 15235 <b>I answer that,</b> To contend is to tend against some one. Wherefore just as discord denotes a contrariety of wills, so contention signifies | |
| 15236 contrariety of speech. For this reason when a man contrasts various contrary things in a speech, this is called "contentio," | |
| 15237 which Tully calls one of the rhetorical colors (De Rhet. ad Heren. iv), where he says that "it consists in developing a speech | |
| 15238 from contrary things," for instance: "Adulation has a pleasant beginning, and a most | |
| 15239 bitter end." | |
| 15240 </p> | |
| 15241 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p8"> Now contrariety of speech may be looked at in two ways: first with regard to the intention of the contentious party, secondly, | |
| 15242 with regard to the manner of contending. As to the intention, we must consider whether he contends against the truth, and | |
| 15243 then he is to be blamed, or against falsehood, and then he should be praised. As to the manner, we must consider whether his | |
| 15244 manner of contending is in keeping with the persons and the matter in dispute, for then it would be | |
| 15245 praiseworthy, hence Tully says (De Rhet. ad Heren. iii) that "contention is a sharp speech suitable for proof and refutation"---or | |
| 15246 whether it exceeds the demands of the persons and matter in dispute, in which case it is blameworthy. | |
| 15247 </p> | |
| 15248 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p9"> Accordingly if we take contention as denoting a disclaimer of the truth and an inordinate manner, it is a mortal sin. Thus | |
| 15249 Ambrose [*Cf. Gloss. Ord. in Rom. i, 29] defines contention: "Contention is a disclaimer of the truth with clamorous confidence." | |
| 15250 If, however, contention denote a disavowal of what is false, with the proper measure of acrimony, it is praiseworthy: whereas, | |
| 15251 if it denote a disavowal of falsehood, together with an inordinate manner, it can be a venial sin, | |
| 15252 unless the contention be conducted so inordinately, as to give scandal to others. Hence the Apostle after saying ( | |
| 15253 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.14" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:14</a>): "Contend not in words," adds, "for it is to no profit, but to the subverting of the hearers." | |
| 15254 </p> | |
| 15255 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p10"> | |
| 15256 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The disciples of Christ contended together, not with the intention of disclaiming the truth, since each one stood up for | |
| 15257 what he thought was true. Yet there was inordinateness in their contention, because they contended about a matter which they | |
| 15258 ought not to have contended about, viz. the primacy of honor; for they were not spiritual men as yet, as a gloss says on the | |
| 15259 same passage; and for this reason Our Lord checked them. | |
| 15260 </p> | |
| 15261 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p11"> | |
| 15262 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Those who preached Christ "out of contention," were to be blamed, because, although they did not gainsay the truth of faith, | |
| 15263 but preached it, yet they did gainsay the truth, by the fact that they thought they would "raise affliction" to the Apostle | |
| 15264 who was preaching the truth of faith. Hence the Apostle rejoiced not in their contention, but in the fruit that would result | |
| 15265 therefrom, namely that Christ would be made known---since evil is sometimes the | |
| 15266 occasion of good results. | |
| 15267 </p> | |
| 15268 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p12"> | |
| 15269 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Contention is complete and is a mortal sin when, in contending before a judge, a man gainsays the truth of justice, or in | |
| 15270 a disputation, intends to impugn the true doctrine. In this sense Catholics do not contend against heretics, but the reverse. | |
| 15271 But when, whether in court or in a disputation, it is incomplete, i.e. in respect of the acrimony of speech, it is not always | |
| 15272 a mortal sin. | |
| 15273 </p> | |
| 15274 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p13"> | |
| 15275 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Contention here denotes an ordinary dispute. For Job had said (13:3): "I will speak to the Almighty, and I desire to reason | |
| 15276 with God": yet he intended not to impugn the truth, but to defend it, and in seeking the truth thus, he had no wish to be | |
| 15277 inordinate in mind or in speech. | |
| 15278 </p> | |
| 15279 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 15280 <p id="SS_Q38_A1-p15"></p> | |
| 15281 <a href="summa.SS_Q38.html"></a> | |
| 15282 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15283 </div> | |
| 15284 <div id="SS_Q38_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 15285 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15286 <a href="summa.SS_Q39.html"></a> | |
| 15287 <h4 id="SS_Q38_A2-p0.1">Whether contention is a daughter of vainglory?</h4> | |
| 15288 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 15289 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p2"> | |
| 15290 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that contention is not a daughter of vainglory. For contention is akin to zeal, wherefore it is written ( | |
| 15291 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.3" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:3</a>): "Whereas there is among you zeal [Douay: 'envying'] and contention, are you not carnal, and walk according to men?" Now | |
| 15292 zeal pertains to envy. Therefore contention arises rather from envy. | |
| 15293 </p> | |
| 15294 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p3"> | |
| 15295 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, contention is accompanied by raising of the voice. But the voice is raised on account of anger, as Gregory declares | |
| 15296 (Moral. xxxi, 14). Therefore contention too arises from anger. | |
| 15297 </p> | |
| 15298 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p4"> | |
| 15299 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, among other things knowledge seems to be the matter of pride and vainglory, according to | |
| 15300 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q38_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.8.1" target="asv">1 Cor. 8:1</a>: "Knowledge puffeth up." Now contention is often due to lack of knowledge, and by knowledge we do not impugn the truth, we | |
| 15301 know it. Therefore contention is not a daughter of vainglory. | |
| 15302 </p> | |
| 15303 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p5"> On the contrary stands the authority of Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 14).</p> | |
| 15304 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p6"> | |
| 15305 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 15306 <a id="SS_Q38_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html">Q[37], A[2]</a>), discord is a daughter of vainglory, because each of the disaccording parties clings to his own opinion, rather than acquiesce | |
| 15307 with the other. Now it is proper to pride and vainglory to seek one's own glory. And just as people are discordant when they | |
| 15308 hold to their own opinion in their hearts, so are they contentious when each defends his own opinion by words. Consequently | |
| 15309 contention is reckoned a | |
| 15310 daughter of vainglory for the same reason as discord. | |
| 15311 </p> | |
| 15312 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p7"> | |
| 15313 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Contention, like discord, is akin to envy in so far as a man severs himself from the one with whom he is discordant, or with | |
| 15314 whom he contends, but in so far as a contentious man holds to something, it is akin to pride and vainglory, because, to wit, | |
| 15315 he clings to his own opinion, as stated above ( | |
| 15316 <a id="SS_Q38_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html">Q[37], A[2]</a>, ad 1). | |
| 15317 </p> | |
| 15318 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p8"> | |
| 15319 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The contention of which we are speaking puts on a loud voice, for the purpose of impugning the truth, so that it is not the | |
| 15320 chief part of contention. Hence it does not follow that contention arises from the same source as the raising of the voice. | |
| 15321 </p> | |
| 15322 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p9"> | |
| 15323 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Pride and vainglory are occasioned chiefly by goods even those that are contrary to them, for instance, when a man is proud | |
| 15324 of his humility: for when a thing arises in this way, it does so not directly but accidentally, in which way nothing hinders | |
| 15325 one contrary from arising out of another. Hence there is no reason why the "per se" and direct effects of pride or vainglory, | |
| 15326 should not result from the contraries of those things which are the occasion of | |
| 15327 pride. | |
| 15328 </p> | |
| 15329 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 15330 <p id="SS_Q38_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 15331 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15332 <a href="summa.SS_Q39.html"></a> | |
| 15333 </div> | |
| 15334 <a href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15335 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15336 </div> | |
| 15337 <div id="SS_Q39" class="div3"> | |
| 15338 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15339 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15340 <h3 id="SS_Q39-p0.1">OF SCHISM (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 15341 <p id="SS_Q39-p1"></p> | |
| 15342 <p id="SS_Q39-p2"> We must now consider the vices contrary to peace, which belong to deeds: such are schism, strife, sedition, and war. In the | |
| 15343 first place, then, about schism, there are four points of inquiry: | |
| 15344 </p> | |
| 15345 <p id="SS_Q39-p3"> (1) Whether schism is a special sin?</p> | |
| 15346 <p id="SS_Q39-p4"> (2) Whether it is graver than unbelief?</p> | |
| 15347 <p id="SS_Q39-p5"> (3) Of the power exercised by schismatics;</p> | |
| 15348 <p id="SS_Q39-p6"> (4) Of the punishment inflicted on them.</p> | |
| 15349 <div id="SS_Q39_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 15350 <a href="summa.SS_Q39.html"></a> | |
| 15351 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15352 <h4 id="SS_Q39_A1-p0.1">Whether schism is a special sin?</h4> | |
| 15353 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 15354 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p2"> | |
| 15355 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that schism is not a special sin. For "schism," as Pope Pelagius I says (Epist. ad Victor. et Pancrat.), "denotes | |
| 15356 a division." But every sin causes a division, according to | |
| 15357 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.59" target="asv">Is. 59</a>:: "Your sins have divided between you and your God." Therefore schism is not a special sin. | |
| 15358 </p> | |
| 15359 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p3"> | |
| 15360 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a man is apparently a schismatic if he disobeys the Church. But every sin makes a man disobey the commandments of | |
| 15361 the Church, because sin, according to Ambrose (De Parad. viii) "is disobedience against the heavenly commandments." Therefore | |
| 15362 every sin is a schism. | |
| 15363 </p> | |
| 15364 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p4"> | |
| 15365 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, heresy also divides a man from the unity of faith. If, therefore, the word schism denotes a division, it would seem | |
| 15366 not to differ, as a special sin, from the sin of unbelief. | |
| 15367 </p> | |
| 15368 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p5"> | |
| 15369 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine (Contra Faust. xx, 3; Contra Crescon. ii, 4) distinguishes between schism and heresy, for he says that a "schismatic | |
| 15370 is one who holds the same faith, and practises the same worship, as others, and takes pleasure in the mere disunion of the | |
| 15371 community, whereas a heretic is one who holds another faith from that of the Catholic Church." Therefore schism is not a generic | |
| 15372 sin. | |
| 15373 </p> | |
| 15374 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p6"> | |
| 15375 <b>I answer that,</b> As Isidore says (Etym. viii, 3), schism takes its name "from being a scission of minds," and scission is opposed to unity. | |
| 15376 Wherefore the sin of schism is one that is directly and essentially opposed to unity. For in the moral, as in the physical | |
| 15377 order, the species is not constituted by that which is accidental. Now, in the moral order, the essential is that which is | |
| 15378 intended, and that which results beside the intention, is, as it were, accidental. Hence the | |
| 15379 sin of schism is, properly speaking, a special sin, for the reason that the schismatic intends to sever himself from that | |
| 15380 unity which is the effect of charity: because charity unites not only one person to another with the bond of spiritual love, | |
| 15381 but also the whole Church in unity of spirit. | |
| 15382 </p> | |
| 15383 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p7"> Accordingly schismatics properly so called are those who, wilfully and intentionally separate themselves from the unity of | |
| 15384 the Church; for this is the chief unity, and the particular unity of several individuals among themselves is subordinate to | |
| 15385 the unity of the Church, even as the mutual adaptation of each member of a natural body is subordinate to the unity of the | |
| 15386 whole body. Now the unity of the Church consists in two things; namely, in the mutual connection or communion of | |
| 15387 the members of the Church, and again in the subordination of all the members of the Church to the one head, according to | |
| 15388 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Col.2.18" target="asv"> Col. 2:18,19</a>: "Puffed up by the sense of his flesh, and not holding the Head, from which the whole body, by joints and bands, being supplied | |
| 15389 with nourishment and compacted, groweth unto the increase of God." Now this Head is Christ Himself, Whose viceregent in the | |
| 15390 Church is the Sovereign Pontiff. Wherefore schismatics are those who refuse to submit to the | |
| 15391 Sovereign Pontiff, and to hold communion with those members of the Church who acknowledge his supremacy. | |
| 15392 </p> | |
| 15393 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p8"> | |
| 15394 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The division between man and God that results from sin is not intended by the sinner: it happens beside his intention as | |
| 15395 a result of his turning inordinately to a mutable good, and so it is not schism properly so called. | |
| 15396 </p> | |
| 15397 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p9"> | |
| 15398 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The essence of schism consists in rebelliously disobeying the commandments: and I say "rebelliously," since a schismatic | |
| 15399 both obstinately scorns the commandments of the Church, and refuses to submit to her judgment. But every sinner does not do | |
| 15400 this, wherefore not every sin is a schism. | |
| 15401 </p> | |
| 15402 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p10"> | |
| 15403 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Heresy and schism are distinguished in respect of those things to which each is opposed essentially and directly. For heresy | |
| 15404 is essentially opposed to faith, while schism is essentially opposed to the unity of ecclesiastical charity. Wherefore just | |
| 15405 as faith and charity are different virtues, although whoever lacks faith lacks charity, so too schism and heresy are different | |
| 15406 vices, although whoever is a heretic is also a schismatic, but not conversely. | |
| 15407 This is what Jerome says in his commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians [*In Ep. ad Tit. iii, 10]: "I consider the difference | |
| 15408 between schism and heresy to be that heresy holds false doctrine while schism severs a man from the Church." Nevertheless, | |
| 15409 just as the loss of charity is the road to the loss of faith, according to | |
| 15410 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A1-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.6" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:6</a>: "From which things," i.e. charity and the like, "some going astray, are turned aside into vain babbling," so too, schism | |
| 15411 is the road to | |
| 15412 heresy. Wherefore Jerome adds (In Ep. ad Tit. iii, 10) that "at the outset it is possible, in a certain respect, to find a | |
| 15413 difference between schism and heresy: yet there is no schism that does not devise some heresy for itself, that it may appear | |
| 15414 to have had a reason for separating from the Church." | |
| 15415 </p> | |
| 15416 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 15417 <p id="SS_Q39_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 15418 <a href="summa.SS_Q39.html"></a> | |
| 15419 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15420 </div> | |
| 15421 <div id="SS_Q39_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 15422 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15423 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15424 <h4 id="SS_Q39_A2-p0.1">Whether schism is a graver sin than unbelief?</h4> | |
| 15425 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 15426 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p2"> | |
| 15427 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that schism is a graver sin than unbelief. For the graver sin meets with a graver punishment, according to | |
| 15428 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.25.2" target="asv"> Dt. 25:2</a>: "According to the measure of the sin shall the measure also of the stripes be." Now we find the sin of schism punished more | |
| 15429 severely than even the sin of unbelief or idolatry: for we read ( | |
| 15430 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A2-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.32.28" target="asv">Ex. 32:28</a>) that some were slain by the swords of their fellow men on account of idolatry: whereas of | |
| 15431 the sin of schism we read ( | |
| 15432 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A2-p2.3" href="./asv.html#Num.16.30" target="asv">Num. 16:30</a>): "If the Lord do a new thing, and the earth opening her mouth swallow them down, and all things that belong to them, and | |
| 15433 they go down alive into hell, you shall know that they have blasphemed the Lord God." Moreover the ten tribes who were guilty | |
| 15434 of schism in revolting from the rule of David were most severely punished (4 Kings 17). Therefore the sin of schism is graver | |
| 15435 than the sin of unbelief. | |
| 15436 </p> | |
| 15437 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p3"> | |
| 15438 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "The good of the multitude is greater and more godlike than the good of the individual," as the Philosopher states | |
| 15439 (Ethic. i, 2). Now schism is opposed to the good of the multitude, namely, ecclesiastical unity, whereas unbelief is contrary | |
| 15440 to the particular good of one man, namely the faith of an individual. Therefore it seems that schism is a graver sin than | |
| 15441 unbelief. | |
| 15442 </p> | |
| 15443 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p4"> | |
| 15444 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a greater good is opposed to a greater evil, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 10). Now schism is opposed | |
| 15445 to charity, which is a greater virtue than faith to which unbelief is opposed, as shown above ( | |
| 15446 <a id="SS_Q39_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q10_A2.html">Q[10], A[2]</a>; | |
| 15447 <a id="SS_Q39_A2-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A6.html"> Q[23], A[6]</a>). Therefore schism is a graver sin than unbelief. | |
| 15448 </p> | |
| 15449 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p5"> | |
| 15450 <b>On the contrary,</b> That which results from an addition to something else surpasses that thing either in good or in evil. Now heresy results | |
| 15451 from something being added to schism, for it adds corrupt doctrine, as Jerome declares in the passage quoted above (A[1], | |
| 15452 ad 3). Therefore schism is a less grievous sin than unbelief. | |
| 15453 </p> | |
| 15454 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p6"> | |
| 15455 <b>I answer that,</b> The gravity of a sin can be considered in two ways: first, according to the species of that sin, secondly, according to its | |
| 15456 circumstances. And since particular circumstances are infinite in number, so too they can be varied in an infinite number | |
| 15457 of ways: wherefore if one were to ask in general which of two sins is the graver, the question must be understood to refer | |
| 15458 to the gravity derived from the sin's genus. Now the genus or species of a sin is taken from | |
| 15459 its object, as shown above ( | |
| 15460 <a id="SS_Q39_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q72_A1.html">FS, Q[72], A[1]</a>; | |
| 15461 <a id="SS_Q39_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q73_A3.html">FS, Q[73], A[3]</a>). Wherefore the sin which is opposed to the greater good is, in respect of its genus, more grievous, for instance a sin committed | |
| 15462 against God is graver than a sin committed against one's neighbor. | |
| 15463 </p> | |
| 15464 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p7"> Now it is evident that unbelief is a sin committed against God Himself, according as He is Himself the First Truth, on which | |
| 15465 faith is founded; whereas schism is opposed to ecclesiastical unity, which is a participated good, and a lesser good than | |
| 15466 God Himself. Wherefore it is manifest that the sin of unbelief is generically more grievous than the sin of schism, although | |
| 15467 it may happen that a particular schismatic sins more grievously than a particular unbeliever, either because | |
| 15468 his contempt is greater, or because his sin is a source of greater danger, or for some similar reason. | |
| 15469 </p> | |
| 15470 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p8"> | |
| 15471 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It had already been declared to that people by the law which they had received that there was one God, and that no other | |
| 15472 God was to be worshipped by them; and the same had been confirmed among them by many kinds of signs. Consequently there was | |
| 15473 no need for those who sinned against this faith by falling into idolatry, to be punished in an unwonted manner: it was enough | |
| 15474 that they should be punished in the usual way. On the other hand, it was not so well | |
| 15475 known among them that Moses was always to be their ruler, and so it behooved those who rebelled against his authority to be | |
| 15476 punished in a miraculous and unwonted manner. | |
| 15477 </p> | |
| 15478 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p9"> We may also reply by saying that the sin of schism was sometimes more severely punished in that people, because they were | |
| 15479 inclined to seditions and schisms. For it is written ( | |
| 15480 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#." target="asv">1 Esdra 4:15</a>): "This city since days gone by has rebelled against its kings: and seditions and wars were raised therein [*Vulg.: 'This | |
| 15481 city is a rebellious city, and hurtful to the kings and provinces, and . . . wars were raised therein of old']." Now sometimes | |
| 15482 a more severe punishment | |
| 15483 is inflicted for an habitual sin (as stated above, | |
| 15484 <a id="SS_Q39_A2-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q105_A2.html">FS, Q[105], A[2]</a>, ad 9), because punishments are medicines intended to keep man away from sin: so that where there is greater proneness to | |
| 15485 sin, a more severe punishment ought to be inflicted. As regards the ten tribes, they were punished not only for the sin of | |
| 15486 schism, but also for that of idolatry as stated in the passage quoted. | |
| 15487 </p> | |
| 15488 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p10"> | |
| 15489 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as the good of the multitude is greater than the good of a unit in that multitude, so is it less than the extrinsic | |
| 15490 good to which that multitude is directed, even as the good of a rank in the army is less than the good of the commander-in-chief. | |
| 15491 In like manner the good of ecclesiastical unity, to which schism is opposed, is less than the good of Divine truth, to which | |
| 15492 unbelief is opposed. | |
| 15493 </p> | |
| 15494 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p11"> | |
| 15495 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Charity has two objects; one is its principal object and is the Divine goodness, the other is its secondary object and is | |
| 15496 our neighbor's good. Now schism and other sins against our neighbor, are opposed to charity in respect of its secondary good, | |
| 15497 which is less than the object of faith, for this is God Himself; and so these sins are less grievous than unbelief. On the | |
| 15498 other hand, hatred of God, which is opposed to charity in respect of its principal | |
| 15499 object, is not less grievous than unbelief. Nevertheless of all sins committed by man against his neighbor, the sin of schism | |
| 15500 would seem to be the greatest, because it is opposed to the spiritual good of the multitude. | |
| 15501 </p> | |
| 15502 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 15503 <p id="SS_Q39_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 15504 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15505 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15506 </div> | |
| 15507 <div id="SS_Q39_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 15508 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15509 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15510 <h4 id="SS_Q39_A3-p0.1">Whether schismatics have any power?</h4> | |
| 15511 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 15512 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p2"> | |
| 15513 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that schismatics have some power. For Augustine says (Contra Donat. i, 1): "Just as those who come back to | |
| 15514 the Church after being baptized, are not baptized again, so those who return after being ordained, are not ordained again." | |
| 15515 Now Order is a kind of power. Therefore schismatics have some power since they retain their Orders. | |
| 15516 </p> | |
| 15517 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p3"> | |
| 15518 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Unico Bapt. [*De Bap. contra Donat. vi, 5]): "One who is separated can confer a sacrament even | |
| 15519 as he can have it." But the power of conferring a sacrament is a very great power. Therefore schismatics who are separated | |
| 15520 from the Church, have a spiritual power. | |
| 15521 </p> | |
| 15522 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p4"> | |
| 15523 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Pope Urban II [*Council of Piacenza, cap. x; cf. Can. Ordinationes, ix, qu. 1] says: "We command that persons consecrated | |
| 15524 by bishops who were themselves consecrated according to the Catholic rite, but have separated themselves by schism from the | |
| 15525 Roman Church, should be received mercifully and that their Orders should be acknowledged, when they return to the unity of | |
| 15526 the Church, provided they be of commendable life and knowledge." But this would not be | |
| 15527 so, unless spiritual power were retained by schismatics. Therefore schismatics have spiritual power. | |
| 15528 </p> | |
| 15529 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p5"> | |
| 15530 <b>On the contrary,</b> Cyprian says in a letter (Ep. lii, quoted vii, qu. 1, can. Novatianus): "He who observes neither unity of spirit nor the | |
| 15531 concord of peace, and severs himself from the bonds of the Church, and from the fellowship of her priests, cannot have episcopal | |
| 15532 power or honor." | |
| 15533 </p> | |
| 15534 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p6"> | |
| 15535 <b>I answer that,</b> Spiritual power is twofold, the one sacramental, the other a power of jurisdiction. The sacramental power is one that is | |
| 15536 conferred by some kind of consecration. Now all the consecrations of the Church are immovable so long as the consecrated thing | |
| 15537 remains: as appears even in inanimate things, since an altar, once consecrated, is not consecrated again unless it has been | |
| 15538 broken up. Consequently such a power as this remains, as to its essence, in the man who | |
| 15539 has received it by consecration, as long as he lives, even if he fall into schism or heresy: and this is proved from the fact | |
| 15540 that if he come back to the Church, he is not consecrated anew. Since, however, the lower power ought not to exercise its | |
| 15541 act, except in so far as it is moved by the higher power, as may be seen also in the physical order, it follows that such | |
| 15542 persons lose the use of their power, so that it is not lawful for them to use it. Yet if they use it, this power has its effect | |
| 15543 in sacramental acts, because therein man acts only as God's instrument, so that sacramental effects are not precluded on account | |
| 15544 of any fault whatever in the person who confers the sacrament. | |
| 15545 </p> | |
| 15546 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p7"> On the other hand, the power of jurisdiction is that which is conferred by a mere human appointment. Such a power as this | |
| 15547 does not adhere to the recipient immovably: so that it does not remain in heretics and schismatics; and consequently they | |
| 15548 neither absolve nor excommunicate, nor grant indulgence, nor do anything of the kind, and if they do, it is invalid. | |
| 15549 </p> | |
| 15550 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p8"> Accordingly when it is said that such like persons have no spiritual power, it is to be understood as referring either to | |
| 15551 the second power, or if it be referred to the first power, not as referring to the essence of the power, but to its lawful | |
| 15552 use. | |
| 15553 </p> | |
| 15554 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 15555 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 15556 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 15557 <p id="SS_Q39_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 15558 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15559 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15560 </div> | |
| 15561 <div id="SS_Q39_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 15562 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15563 <a href="summa.SS_Q40.html"></a> | |
| 15564 <h4 id="SS_Q39_A4-p0.1">Whether it is right that schismatics should be punished with excommunication?</h4> | |
| 15565 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 15566 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p2"> | |
| 15567 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that schismatics are not rightly punished with excommunication. For excommunication deprives a man chiefly | |
| 15568 of a share in the sacraments. But Augustine says (Contra Donat. vi, 5) that "Baptism can be received from a schismatic." Therefore | |
| 15569 it seems that excommunication is not a fitting punishment for schismatics. | |
| 15570 </p> | |
| 15571 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p3"> | |
| 15572 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is the duty of Christ's faithful to lead back those who have gone astray, wherefore it is written against certain | |
| 15573 persons ( | |
| 15574 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Ezek.34.4" target="asv">Ezech. 34:4</a>): "That which was driven away you have not brought again, neither have you sought that which was lost." Now schismatics are | |
| 15575 more easily brought back by such as may hold communion with them. Therefore it seems that they ought not to be excommunicated. | |
| 15576 </p> | |
| 15577 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p4"> | |
| 15578 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a double punishment is not inflicted for one and the same sin, according to | |
| 15579 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Nah.1.9" target="asv"> Nahum 1:9</a>: "God will not judge the same twice" [*Septuagint version]. Now some receive a temporal punishment for the sin of schism, | |
| 15580 according to | |
| 15581 <a id="SS_Q39_A4-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A5.html"> Q[23], A[5]</a>, where it is stated: "Both divine and earthly laws have laid down that those who are severed from the unity of the Church, | |
| 15582 and disturb her peace, must be punished by the | |
| 15583 secular power." Therefore they ought not to be punished with excommunication. | |
| 15584 </p> | |
| 15585 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p5"> | |
| 15586 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 15587 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Num.16.26" target="asv">Num. 16:26</a>): "Depart from the tents of these wicked men," those, to wit, who had caused the schism, "and touch nothing of theirs, lest | |
| 15588 you be involved in their sins." | |
| 15589 </p> | |
| 15590 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p6"> | |
| 15591 <b>I answer that,</b> According to | |
| 15592 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q39_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.11.11" target="asv"> Wis. 11:11, </a> "By what things a man sinneth, by the same also he should be punished" [Vulg.: 'he is tormented']. Now a schismatic, as shown | |
| 15593 above | |
| 15594 <a id="SS_Q39_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, commits a twofold sin: first by separating himself from communion with the members of the Church, and in this respect the | |
| 15595 fitting punishment for schismatics is that they be excommunicated. Secondly, they refuse submission to the head of the Church, | |
| 15596 wherefore, since they are unwilling to be controlled by the Church's spiritual power, it is just that they should be compelled | |
| 15597 by the secular power. | |
| 15598 </p> | |
| 15599 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p7"> | |
| 15600 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is not lawful to receive Baptism from a schismatic, save in a case of necessity, since it is better for a man to quit | |
| 15601 this life, marked with the sign of Christ, no matter from whom he may receive it, whether from a Jew or a pagan, than deprived | |
| 15602 of that mark, which is bestowed in Baptism. | |
| 15603 </p> | |
| 15604 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p8"> | |
| 15605 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Excommunication does not forbid the intercourse whereby a person by salutary admonitions leads back to the unity of the Church | |
| 15606 those who are separated from her. Indeed this very separation brings them back somewhat, because through confusion at their | |
| 15607 separation, they are sometimes led to do penance | |
| 15608 </p> | |
| 15609 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p9"> | |
| 15610 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The punishments of the present life are medicinal, and therefore when one punishment does not suffice to compel a man, another | |
| 15611 is added: just as physicians employ several body medicines when one has no effect. In like manner the Church, when excommunication | |
| 15612 does not sufficiently restrain certain men, employs the compulsion of the secular arm. If, however, one punishment suffices, | |
| 15613 another should not be employed. | |
| 15614 </p> | |
| 15615 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 15616 <p id="SS_Q39_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 15617 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15618 <a href="summa.SS_Q40.html"></a> | |
| 15619 </div> | |
| 15620 <a href="summa.SS_Q38_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15621 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15622 </div> | |
| 15623 <div id="SS_Q40" class="div3"> | |
| 15624 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15625 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15626 <h3 id="SS_Q40-p0.1">OF WAR (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 15627 <p id="SS_Q40-p1"></p> | |
| 15628 <p id="SS_Q40-p2"> We must now consider war, under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 15629 <p id="SS_Q40-p3"> (1) Whether some kind of war is lawful?</p> | |
| 15630 <p id="SS_Q40-p4"> (2) Whether it is lawful for clerics to fight?</p> | |
| 15631 <p id="SS_Q40-p5"> (3) Whether it is lawful for belligerents to lay ambushes?</p> | |
| 15632 <p id="SS_Q40-p6"> (4) Whether it is lawful to fight on holy days?</p> | |
| 15633 <div id="SS_Q40_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 15634 <a href="summa.SS_Q40.html"></a> | |
| 15635 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15636 <h4 id="SS_Q40_A1-p0.1">Whether it is always sinful to wage war?</h4> | |
| 15637 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 15638 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p2"> | |
| 15639 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is always sinful to wage war. Because punishment is not inflicted except for sin. Now those who wage | |
| 15640 war are threatened by Our Lord with punishment, according to | |
| 15641 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.26.52" target="asv"> Mat. 26:52</a>: "All that take the sword shall perish with the sword." Therefore all wars are unlawful. | |
| 15642 </p> | |
| 15643 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p3"> | |
| 15644 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is contrary to a Divine precept is a sin. But war is contrary to a Divine precept, for it is written ( | |
| 15645 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.39" target="asv">Mat. 5:39</a>): "But I say to you not to resist evil"; and ( | |
| 15646 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.12.19" target="asv">Rom. 12:19</a>): "Not revenging yourselves, my dearly beloved, but give place unto wrath." Therefore war is always sinful. | |
| 15647 </p> | |
| 15648 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p4"> | |
| 15649 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nothing, except sin, is contrary to an act of virtue. But war is contrary to peace. Therefore war is always a sin. | |
| 15650 </p> | |
| 15651 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p5"> | |
| 15652 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the exercise of a lawful thing is itself lawful, as is evident in scientific exercises. But warlike exercises which | |
| 15653 take place in tournaments are forbidden by the Church, since those who are slain in these trials are deprived of ecclesiastical | |
| 15654 burial. Therefore it seems that war is a sin in itself. | |
| 15655 </p> | |
| 15656 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p6"> | |
| 15657 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says in a sermon on the son of the centurion [*Ep. ad Marcel. cxxxviii]: "If the Christian Religion forbade war | |
| 15658 altogether, those who sought salutary advice in the Gospel would rather have been counselled to cast aside their arms, and | |
| 15659 to give up soldiering altogether. On the contrary, they were told: 'Do violence to no man . . . and be content with your pay' | |
| 15660 [* | |
| 15661 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.3.14" target="asv">Lk. 3:14</a>]. If he commanded them to be content with their pay, he | |
| 15662 did not forbid soldiering." | |
| 15663 </p> | |
| 15664 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p7"> | |
| 15665 <b>I answer that,</b> In order for a war to be just, three things are necessary. First, the authority of the sovereign by whose command the war | |
| 15666 is to be waged. For it is not the business of a private individual to declare war, because he can seek for redress of his | |
| 15667 rights from the tribunal of his superior. Moreover it is not the business of a private individual to summon together the people, | |
| 15668 which has to be done in wartime. And as the care of the common weal is committed to those | |
| 15669 who are in authority, it is their business to watch over the common weal of the city, kingdom or province subject to them. | |
| 15670 And just as it is lawful for them to have recourse to the sword in defending that common weal against internal disturbances, | |
| 15671 when they punish evil-doers, according to the words of the Apostle ( | |
| 15672 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.13.4" target="asv">Rom. 13:4</a>): "He beareth not the sword in vain: for he is God's minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doth evil"; so too, | |
| 15673 it is their business to have | |
| 15674 recourse to the sword of war in defending the common weal against external enemies. Hence it is said to those who are in authority | |
| 15675 ( | |
| 15676 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p7.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.81.4" target="asv">Ps. 81:4</a>): "Rescue the poor: and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner"; and for this reason Augustine says (Contra Faust. | |
| 15677 xxii, 75): "The natural order conducive to peace among mortals demands that the power to declare and counsel war should be | |
| 15678 in the hands of those who hold the supreme authority." | |
| 15679 </p> | |
| 15680 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p8"> Secondly, a just cause is required, namely that those who are attacked, should be attacked because they deserve it on account | |
| 15681 of some fault. Wherefore Augustine says (QQ. in Hept., qu. x, super Jos.): "A just war is wont to be described as one that | |
| 15682 avenges wrongs, when a nation or state has to be punished, for refusing to make amends for the wrongs inflicted by its subjects, | |
| 15683 or to restore what it has seized unjustly." | |
| 15684 </p> | |
| 15685 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p9"> Thirdly, it is necessary that the belligerents should have a rightful intention, so that they intend the advancement of good, | |
| 15686 or the avoidance of evil. Hence Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. [*The words quoted are to be found not in St. Augustine's works, | |
| 15687 but Can. Apud. Caus. xxiii, qu. 1]): "True religion looks upon as peaceful those wars that are waged not for motives of aggrandizement, | |
| 15688 or cruelty, but with the object of securing peace, of punishing evil-doers, and of uplifting | |
| 15689 the good." For it may happen that the war is declared by the legitimate authority, and for a just cause, and yet be rendered | |
| 15690 unlawful through a wicked intention. Hence Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 74): "The passion for inflicting harm, the | |
| 15691 cruel thirst for vengeance, an unpacific and relentless spirit, the fever of revolt, the lust of power, and such like things, | |
| 15692 all these are rightly condemned in war." | |
| 15693 </p> | |
| 15694 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p10"> | |
| 15695 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 70): "To take the sword is to arm oneself in order to take the life of anyone, without | |
| 15696 the command or permission of superior or lawful authority." On the other hand, to have recourse to the sword (as a private | |
| 15697 person) by the authority of the sovereign or judge, or (as a public person) through zeal for justice, and by the authority, | |
| 15698 so to speak, of God, is not to "take the sword," but to use it as commissioned by | |
| 15699 another, wherefore it does not deserve punishment. And yet even those who make sinful use of the sword are not always slain | |
| 15700 with the sword, yet they always perish with their own sword, because, unless they repent, they are punished eternally for | |
| 15701 their sinful use of the sword. | |
| 15702 </p> | |
| 15703 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p11"> | |
| 15704 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Such like precepts, as Augustine observes (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 19), should always be borne in readiness of mind, so | |
| 15705 that we be ready to obey them, and, if necessary, to refrain from resistance or self-defense. Nevertheless it is necessary | |
| 15706 sometimes for a man to act otherwise for the common good, or for the good of those with whom he is fighting. Hence Augustine | |
| 15707 says (Ep. ad Marcellin. cxxxviii): "Those whom we have to punish with a kindly | |
| 15708 severity, it is necessary to handle in many ways against their will. For when we are stripping a man of the lawlessness of | |
| 15709 sin, it is good for him to be vanquished, since nothing is more hopeless than the happiness of sinners, whence arises a guilty | |
| 15710 impunity, and an evil will, like an internal enemy." | |
| 15711 </p> | |
| 15712 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p12"> | |
| 15713 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Those who wage war justly aim at peace, and so they are not opposed to peace, except to the evil peace, which Our Lord "came | |
| 15714 not to send upon earth" ( | |
| 15715 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A1-p12.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.10.34" target="asv">Mat. 10:34</a>). Hence Augustine says (Ep. ad Bonif. clxxxix): "We do not seek peace in order to be at war, but we go to war that we may | |
| 15716 have peace. Be peaceful, therefore, in warring, so that you may vanquish those whom you war against, and bring them to the | |
| 15717 prosperity of peace." | |
| 15718 </p> | |
| 15719 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p13"> | |
| 15720 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Manly exercises in warlike feats of arms are not all forbidden, but those which are inordinate and perilous, and end in slaying | |
| 15721 or plundering. In olden times warlike exercises presented no such danger, and hence they were called "exercises of arms" or | |
| 15722 "bloodless wars," as Jerome states in an epistle [*Reference incorrect: cf. Veget., De Re Milit. i]. | |
| 15723 </p> | |
| 15724 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 15725 <p id="SS_Q40_A1-p15"></p> | |
| 15726 <a href="summa.SS_Q40.html"></a> | |
| 15727 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15728 </div> | |
| 15729 <div id="SS_Q40_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 15730 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15731 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15732 <h4 id="SS_Q40_A2-p0.1">Whether it is lawful for clerics and bishops to fight?</h4> | |
| 15733 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 15734 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p2"> | |
| 15735 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem lawful for clerics and bishops to fight. For, as stated above | |
| 15736 <a id="SS_Q40_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, wars are lawful and just in so far as they protect the poor and the entire common weal from suffering at the hands of the | |
| 15737 foe. Now this seems to be above all the duty of prelates, for Gregory says (Hom. in Ev. xiv): "The wolf comes upon the sheep, | |
| 15738 when any unjust and rapacious man oppresses those who are faithful and humble. But he who was thought to be | |
| 15739 the shepherd, and was not, leaveth the sheep, end flieth, for he fears lest the wolf hurt him, and dares not stand up against | |
| 15740 his injustice." Therefore it is lawful for prelates and clerics to fight. | |
| 15741 </p> | |
| 15742 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p3"> | |
| 15743 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Pope Leo IV writes (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Igitur): "As untoward tidings had frequently come from the Saracen side, | |
| 15744 some said that the Saracens would come to the port of Rome secretly and covertly; for which reason we commanded our people | |
| 15745 to gather together, and ordered them to go down to the seashore." Therefore it is lawful for bishops to fight. | |
| 15746 </p> | |
| 15747 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p4"> | |
| 15748 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, apparently, it comes to the same whether a man does a thing himself, or consents to its being done by another, according | |
| 15749 to | |
| 15750 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.32" target="asv">Rom. 1:32</a>: "They who do such things, are worthy of death, and not only they that do them, but they also that consent to them that do | |
| 15751 them." Now those, above all, seem to consent to a thing, who induce others to do it. But it is lawful for bishops and clerics | |
| 15752 to induce others to fight: for it is written (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Hortatu) | |
| 15753 that Charles went to war with the Lombards at the instance and entreaty of Adrian, bishop of Rome. Therefore they also are | |
| 15754 allowed to fight. | |
| 15755 </p> | |
| 15756 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p5"> | |
| 15757 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, whatever is right and meritorious in itself, is lawful for prelates and clerics. Now it is sometimes right and meritorious | |
| 15758 to make war, for it is written (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Omni timore) that if "a man die for the true faith, or to save his country, | |
| 15759 or in defense of Christians, God will give him a heavenly reward." Therefore it is lawful for bishops and clerics to fight. | |
| 15760 </p> | |
| 15761 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p6"> | |
| 15762 <b>On the contrary,</b> It was said to Peter as representing bishops and clerics ( | |
| 15763 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.16.52" target="asv">Mat. 16:52</a>): "Put up again thy sword into the scabbard [Vulg.: 'its place'] [*"Scabbard" is the reading in | |
| 15764 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p6.2" href="./asv.html#John.18.11" target="asv"> Jn. 18:11</a>]." Therefore it is not lawful for them to fight. | |
| 15765 </p> | |
| 15766 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p7"> | |
| 15767 <b>I answer that,</b> Several things are requisite for the good of a human society: and a number of things are done better and quicker by a number | |
| 15768 of persons than by one, as the Philosopher observes (Polit. i, 1), while certain occupations are so inconsistent with one | |
| 15769 another, that they cannot be fittingly exercised at the same time; wherefore those who are deputed to important duties are | |
| 15770 forbidden to occupy themselves with things of small importance. Thus according to human | |
| 15771 laws, soldiers who are deputed to warlike pursuits are forbidden to engage in commerce [*Cod. xii, 35, De Re Milit.]. | |
| 15772 </p> | |
| 15773 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p8"> Now warlike pursuits are altogether incompatible with the duties of a bishop and a cleric, for two reasons. The first reason | |
| 15774 is a general one, because, to wit, warlike pursuits are full of unrest, so that they hinder the mind very much from the contemplation | |
| 15775 of Divine things, the praise of God, and prayers for the people, which belong to the duties of a cleric. Wherefore just as | |
| 15776 commercial enterprises are forbidden to clerics, because they unsettle the mind too much, so too are | |
| 15777 warlike pursuits, according to | |
| 15778 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iiTim.2.4" target="asv">2 Tim. 2:4</a>: "No man being a soldier to God, entangleth himself with secular business." The second reason is a special one, because, | |
| 15779 to wit, all the clerical Orders are directed to the ministry of the altar, on which the Passion of Christ is represented sacramentally, | |
| 15780 according to | |
| 15781 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p8.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.26" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:26</a>: "As often as you shall eat this bread, and drink the chalice, you shall show the death of the Lord, until He come." Wherefore | |
| 15782 it is | |
| 15783 unbecoming for them to slay or shed blood, and it is more fitting that they should be ready to shed their own blood for Christ, | |
| 15784 so as to imitate in deed what they portray in their ministry. For this reason it has been decreed that those who shed blood, | |
| 15785 even without sin, become irregular. Now no man who has a certain duty to perform, can lawfully do that which renders him unfit | |
| 15786 for that duty. Wherefore it is altogether unlawful for clerics to fight, because war is directed to the shedding of | |
| 15787 blood. | |
| 15788 </p> | |
| 15789 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p9"> | |
| 15790 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Prelates ought to withstand not only the wolf who brings spiritual death upon the flock, but also the pillager and the oppressor | |
| 15791 who work bodily harm; not, however, by having recourse themselves to material arms, but by means of spiritual weapons, according | |
| 15792 to the saying of the Apostle ( | |
| 15793 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p9.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.10.4" target="asv">2 Cor. 10:4</a>): "The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God." Such are salutary warnings, devout prayers, and, for | |
| 15794 those who | |
| 15795 are obstinate, the sentence of excommunication. | |
| 15796 </p> | |
| 15797 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p10"> | |
| 15798 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Prelates and clerics may, by the authority of their superiors, take part in wars, not indeed by taking up arms themselves, | |
| 15799 but by affording spiritual help to those who fight justly, by exhorting and absolving them, and by other like spiritual helps. | |
| 15800 Thus in the Old Testament ( | |
| 15801 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#Josh.6.4" target="asv">Joshua 6:4</a>) the priests were commanded to sound the sacred trumpets in the battle. It was for this purpose that bishops or clerics were | |
| 15802 first allowed to go | |
| 15803 to the front: and it is an abuse of this permission, if any of them take up arms themselves. | |
| 15804 </p> | |
| 15805 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p11"> | |
| 15806 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 15807 <a id="SS_Q40_A2-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A4.html">Q[23], A[4]</a>, ad 2) every power, art or virtue that regards the end, has to dispose that which is directed to the end. Now, among the | |
| 15808 faithful, carnal wars should be considered as having for their end the Divine spiritual good to which clerics are deputed. | |
| 15809 Wherefore it is the duty of clerics to dispose and counsel other men to engage in just wars. For they are forbidden to take | |
| 15810 up arms, not as though it were a | |
| 15811 sin, but because such an occupation is unbecoming their personality. | |
| 15812 </p> | |
| 15813 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p12"> | |
| 15814 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Although it is meritorious to wage a just war, nevertheless it is rendered unlawful for clerics, by reason of their being | |
| 15815 deputed to works more meritorious still. Thus the marriage act may be meritorious; and yet it becomes reprehensible in those | |
| 15816 who have vowed virginity, because they are bound to a yet greater good. | |
| 15817 </p> | |
| 15818 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 15819 <p id="SS_Q40_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 15820 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15821 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15822 </div> | |
| 15823 <div id="SS_Q40_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 15824 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15825 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15826 <h4 id="SS_Q40_A3-p0.1">Whether it is lawful to lay ambushes in war?</h4> | |
| 15827 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 15828 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p2"> | |
| 15829 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is unlawful to lay ambushes in war. For it is written ( | |
| 15830 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.16.20" target="asv">Dt. 16:20</a>): "Thou shalt follow justly after that which is just." But ambushes, since they are a kind of deception, seem to pertain | |
| 15831 to injustice. Therefore it is unlawful to lay ambushes even in a just war. | |
| 15832 </p> | |
| 15833 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p3"> | |
| 15834 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, ambushes and deception seem to be opposed to faithfulness even as lies are. But since we are bound to keep faith | |
| 15835 with all men, it is wrong to lie to anyone, as Augustine states (Contra Mend. xv). Therefore, as one is bound to keep faith | |
| 15836 with one's enemy, as Augustine states (Ep. ad Bonif. clxxxix), it seems that it is unlawful to lay ambushes for one's enemies. | |
| 15837 </p> | |
| 15838 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p4"> | |
| 15839 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 15840 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.12" target="asv">Mat. 7:12</a>): "Whatsoever you would that men should do to you, do you also to them": and we ought to observe this in all our dealings | |
| 15841 with our neighbor. Now our enemy is our neighbor. Therefore, since no man wishes ambushes or deceptions to be prepared for | |
| 15842 himself, it seems that no one ought to carry on war by laying ambushes. | |
| 15843 </p> | |
| 15844 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p5"> | |
| 15845 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. in Hept. qu. x super Jos): "Provided the war be just, it is no concern of justice whether it be carried | |
| 15846 on openly or by ambushes": and he proves this by the authority of the Lord, Who commanded Joshua to lay ambushes for the city | |
| 15847 of Hai ( | |
| 15848 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Josh.8.2" target="asv">Joshua 8:2</a>). | |
| 15849 </p> | |
| 15850 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p6"> | |
| 15851 <b>I answer that,</b> The object of laying ambushes is in order to deceive the enemy. Now a man may be deceived by another's word or deed in two | |
| 15852 ways. First, through being told something false, or through the breaking of a promise, and this is always unlawful. No one | |
| 15853 ought to deceive the enemy in this way, for there are certain "rights of war and covenants, which ought to be observed even | |
| 15854 among enemies," as Ambrose states (De Officiis i). | |
| 15855 </p> | |
| 15856 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p7"> Secondly, a man may be deceived by what we say or do, because we do not declare our purpose or meaning to him. Now we are | |
| 15857 not always bound to do this, since even in the Sacred Doctrine many things have to be concealed, especially from unbelievers, | |
| 15858 lest they deride it, according to | |
| 15859 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A3-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.6" target="asv"> Mat. 7:6</a>: "Give not that which is holy, to dogs." Wherefore much more ought the plan of campaign to be hidden from the enemy. For | |
| 15860 this reason among other things that a soldier has | |
| 15861 to learn is the art of concealing his purpose lest it come to the enemy's knowledge, as stated in the Book on Strategy [*Stratagematum | |
| 15862 i, 1] by Frontinus. Such like concealment is what is meant by an ambush which may be lawfully employed in a just war. | |
| 15863 </p> | |
| 15864 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p8"> Nor can these ambushes be properly called deceptions, nor are they contrary to justice or to a well-ordered will. For a man | |
| 15865 would have an inordinate will if he were unwilling that others should hide anything from him | |
| 15866 </p> | |
| 15867 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 15868 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 15869 <p id="SS_Q40_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 15870 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15871 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15872 </div> | |
| 15873 <div id="SS_Q40_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 15874 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15875 <a href="summa.SS_Q41.html"></a> | |
| 15876 <h4 id="SS_Q40_A4-p0.1">Whether it is lawful to fight on holy days?</h4> | |
| 15877 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 15878 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p2"> | |
| 15879 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem unlawful to fight on holy days. For holy days are instituted that we may give our time to the things of God. | |
| 15880 Hence they are included in the keeping of the Sabbath prescribed | |
| 15881 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Exod.20.8" target="asv"> Ex. 20:8</a>: for "sabbath" is interpreted "rest." But wars are full of unrest. Therefore by no means is it lawful to fight on holy days. | |
| 15882 </p> | |
| 15883 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p3"> | |
| 15884 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, certain persons are reproached ( | |
| 15885 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.58.3" target="asv">Is. 58:3</a>) because on fast-days they exacted what was owing to them, were guilty of strife, and of smiting with the fist. Much more, | |
| 15886 therefore, is it unlawful to fight on holy days. | |
| 15887 </p> | |
| 15888 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p4"> | |
| 15889 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no ill deed should be done to avoid temporal harm. But fighting on a holy day seems in itself to be an ill deed. | |
| 15890 Therefore no one should fight on a holy day even through the need of avoiding temporal harm. | |
| 15891 </p> | |
| 15892 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p5"> | |
| 15893 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 15894 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iMacc.2.41" target="asv">1 Mac. 2:41</a>): The Jews rightly determined . . . saying: "Whosoever shall come up against us to fight on the Sabbath-day, we will fight | |
| 15895 against him." | |
| 15896 </p> | |
| 15897 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p6"> | |
| 15898 <b>I answer that,</b> The observance of holy days is no hindrance to those things which are ordained to man's safety, even that of his body. Hence | |
| 15899 Our Lord argued with the Jews, saying ( | |
| 15900 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q40_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#John.7.23" target="asv">Jn. 7:23</a>): "Are you angry at Me because I have healed the whole man on the Sabbath-day?" Hence physicians may lawfully attend to their | |
| 15901 patients on holy days. Now there is much more reason for safeguarding the common weal (whereby many are saved from being slain, | |
| 15902 and | |
| 15903 innumerable evils both temporal and spiritual prevented), than the bodily safety of an individual. Therefore, for the purpose | |
| 15904 of safeguarding the common weal of the faithful, it is lawful to carry on a war on holy days, provided there be need for doing | |
| 15905 so: because it would be to tempt God, if notwithstanding such a need, one were to choose to refrain from fighting. | |
| 15906 </p> | |
| 15907 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p7"> However, as soon as the need ceases, it is no longer lawful to fight on a holy day, for the reasons given: wherefore this | |
| 15908 suffices for the Replies to the Objections. | |
| 15909 </p> | |
| 15910 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p8"></p> | |
| 15911 <p id="SS_Q40_A4-p9"></p> | |
| 15912 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A3.html"></a> | |
| 15913 <a href="summa.SS_Q41.html"></a> | |
| 15914 </div> | |
| 15915 <a href="summa.SS_Q39_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15916 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15917 </div> | |
| 15918 <div id="SS_Q41" class="div3"> | |
| 15919 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A4.html"></a> | |
| 15920 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15921 <h3 id="SS_Q41-p0.1">OF STRIFE (TWO ARTICLES) [*Strife here denotes fighting between individuals]</h3> | |
| 15922 <p id="SS_Q41-p1"></p> | |
| 15923 <p id="SS_Q41-p2"> We must now consider strife, under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 15924 <p id="SS_Q41-p3"> (1) Whether strife is a sin?</p> | |
| 15925 <p id="SS_Q41-p4"> (2) Whether it is a daughter of anger?</p> | |
| 15926 <div id="SS_Q41_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 15927 <a href="summa.SS_Q41.html"></a> | |
| 15928 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15929 <h4 id="SS_Q41_A1-p0.1">Whether strife is always a sin?</h4> | |
| 15930 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 15931 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p2"> | |
| 15932 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that strife is not always a sin. For strife seems a kind of contention: hence Isidore says (Etym. x) that the | |
| 15933 word "rixosus [quarrelsome] is derived from the snarling [rictu] of a dog, because the quarrelsome man is ever ready to contradict; | |
| 15934 he delights in brawling, and provokes contention." Now contention is not always a sin. Neither, therefore, is strife. | |
| 15935 </p> | |
| 15936 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p3"> | |
| 15937 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is related ( | |
| 15938 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.26.21" target="asv">Gn. 26:21</a>) that the servants of Isaac "digged" another well, "and for that they quarrelled likewise." Now it is not credible that the | |
| 15939 household of Isaac quarrelled publicly, without being reproved by him, supposing it were a sin. Therefore strife is not a | |
| 15940 sin. | |
| 15941 </p> | |
| 15942 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p4"> | |
| 15943 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, strife seems to be a war between individuals. But war is not always sinful. Therefore strife is not always a sin. | |
| 15944 </p> | |
| 15945 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p5"> | |
| 15946 <b>On the contrary,</b> Strifes [*The Douay version has 'quarrels'] are reckoned among the works of the flesh ( | |
| 15947 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv">Gal. 5:20</a>), and "they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God." Therefore strifes are not only sinful, but they are | |
| 15948 even mortal sins. | |
| 15949 </p> | |
| 15950 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p6"> | |
| 15951 <b>I answer that,</b> While contention implies a contradiction of words, strife denotes a certain contradiction of deeds. Wherefore a gloss on | |
| 15952 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.20" target="asv"> Gal. 5:20 </a>says that "strifes are when persons strike one another through anger." Hence strife is a kind of private war, because it takes | |
| 15953 place between private persons, being declared not by public authority, but rather by an inordinate will. Therefore strife | |
| 15954 is always sinful. In fact it is a mortal sin in the man who | |
| 15955 attacks another unjustly, for it is not without mortal sin that one inflicts harm on another even if the deed be done by the | |
| 15956 hands. But in him who defends himself, it may be without sin, or it may sometimes involve a venial sin, or sometimes a mortal | |
| 15957 sin; and this depends on his intention and on his manner of defending himself. For if his sole intention be to withstand the | |
| 15958 injury done to him, and he defend himself with due moderation, it is no sin, and one cannot say properly that there is | |
| 15959 strife on his part. But if, on the other hand, his self-defense be inspired by vengeance and hatred, it is always a sin. It | |
| 15960 is a venial sin, if a slight movement of hatred or vengeance obtrude itself, or if he does not much exceed moderation in defending | |
| 15961 himself: but it is a mortal sin if he makes for his assailant with the fixed intention of killing him, or inflicting grievous | |
| 15962 harm on him. | |
| 15963 </p> | |
| 15964 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p7"> | |
| 15965 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Strife is not just the same as contention: and there are three things in the passage quoted from Isidore, which express the | |
| 15966 inordinate nature of strife. First, the quarrelsome man is always ready to fight, and this is conveyed by the words, "ever | |
| 15967 ready to contradict," that is to say, whether the other man says or does well or ill. Secondly, he delights in quarrelling | |
| 15968 itself, and so the passage proceeds, "and delights in brawling." Thirdly, "he" | |
| 15969 provokes others to quarrel, wherefore it goes on, "and provokes contention." | |
| 15970 </p> | |
| 15971 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p8"> | |
| 15972 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sense of the text is not that the servants of Isaac quarrelled, but that the inhabitants of that country quarrelled with | |
| 15973 them: wherefore these sinned, and not the servants of Isaac, who bore the calumny [*Cf. | |
| 15974 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.26.20" target="asv"> Gn. 26:20</a>]. | |
| 15975 </p> | |
| 15976 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p9"> | |
| 15977 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In order for a war to be just it must be declared by authority of the governing power, as stated above ( | |
| 15978 <a id="SS_Q41_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html">Q[40], A[1]</a>); whereas strife proceeds from a private feeling of anger or hatred. For if the servants of a sovereign or judge, in virtue | |
| 15979 of their public authority, attack certain men and these defend themselves, it is not the former who are said to be guilty | |
| 15980 of strife, but those who resist the public authority. Hence it is | |
| 15981 not the assailants in this case who are guilty of strife and commit sin, but those who defend themselves inordinately. | |
| 15982 </p> | |
| 15983 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 15984 <p id="SS_Q41_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 15985 <a href="summa.SS_Q41.html"></a> | |
| 15986 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A2.html"></a> | |
| 15987 </div> | |
| 15988 <div id="SS_Q41_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 15989 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html"></a> | |
| 15990 <a href="summa.SS_Q42.html"></a> | |
| 15991 <h4 id="SS_Q41_A2-p0.1">Whether strife is a daughter of anger?</h4> | |
| 15992 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 15993 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p2"> | |
| 15994 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that strife is not a daughter of anger. For it is written ( | |
| 15995 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.4.1" target="asv">James 4:1</a>): "Whence are wars and contentions? Are they not . . . from your concupiscences, which war in your members?" But anger is | |
| 15996 not in the concupiscible faculty. Therefore strife is a daughter, not of anger, but of concupiscence. | |
| 15997 </p> | |
| 15998 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p3"> | |
| 15999 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 16000 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.28.25" target="asv">Prov. 28:25</a>): "He that boasteth and puffeth up himself, stirreth up quarrels." Now strife is apparently the same as quarrel. Therefore | |
| 16001 it seems that strife is a daughter of pride or vainglory which makes a man boast and puff himself up. | |
| 16002 </p> | |
| 16003 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p4"> | |
| 16004 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 16005 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.18.6" target="asv">Prov. 18:6</a>): "The lips of a fool intermeddle with strife." Now folly differs from anger, for it is opposed, not to meekness, but to | |
| 16006 wisdom or prudence. Therefore strife is not a daughter of anger. | |
| 16007 </p> | |
| 16008 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p5"> | |
| 16009 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 16010 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.10.12" target="asv">Prov. 10:12</a>): "Hatred stirreth up strifes." But hatred arises from envy, according to Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 17). Therefore strife is | |
| 16011 not a daughter of anger, but of envy. | |
| 16012 </p> | |
| 16013 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p6"> | |
| 16014 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 16015 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.17.19" target="asv">Prov. 17:19</a>): "He that studieth discords, soweth [Vulg.: 'loveth'] quarrels." But discord is a daughter of vainglory, as stated above | |
| 16016 ( | |
| 16017 <a id="SS_Q41_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q37_A2.html">Q[37], A[2]</a>). Therefore strife is also. | |
| 16018 </p> | |
| 16019 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p7"> | |
| 16020 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 17) that "anger gives rise to strife"; and it is written ( | |
| 16021 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q41_A2-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.15.18" target="asv">Prov. 15:18</a>; 29:22): "A passionate man stirreth up strifes." | |
| 16022 </p> | |
| 16023 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p8"> | |
| 16024 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 16025 <a id="SS_Q41_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, strife denotes an antagonism extending to deeds, when one man designs to harm another. Now there are two ways in which one | |
| 16026 man may intend to harm another. In one way it is as though he intended absolutely the other's hurt, which in this case is | |
| 16027 the outcome of hatred, for the intention of hatred is directed to the hurt of one's enemy either openly or secretly. In another | |
| 16028 way a man intends to hurt another who | |
| 16029 knows and withstands his intention. This is what we mean by strife, and belongs properly to anger which is the desire of vengeance: | |
| 16030 for the angry man is not content to hurt secretly the object of his anger, he even wishes him to feel the hurt and know that | |
| 16031 what he suffers is in revenge for what he has done, as may be seen from what has been said above about the passion of anger | |
| 16032 ( | |
| 16033 <a id="SS_Q41_A2-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q46_A6.html">FS, Q[46], A[6]</a>, ad 2). Therefore, properly speaking, strife arises from anger. | |
| 16034 </p> | |
| 16035 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p9"> | |
| 16036 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16037 <a id="SS_Q41_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q25_A1.html">FS, Q[25], AA[1]</a>,2), all the irascible passions arise from those of the concupiscible faculty, so that whatever is the immediate outcome of | |
| 16038 anger, arises also from concupiscence as from its first root. | |
| 16039 </p> | |
| 16040 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p10"> | |
| 16041 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Boasting and puffing up of self which are the result of anger or vainglory, are not the direct but the occasional cause of | |
| 16042 quarrels or strife, because, when a man resents another being preferred to him, his anger is aroused, and then his anger results | |
| 16043 in quarrel and strife. | |
| 16044 </p> | |
| 16045 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p11"> | |
| 16046 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Anger, as stated above ( | |
| 16047 <a id="SS_Q41_A2-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q48_A3.html">FS, Q[48], A[3]</a>) hinders the judgment of the reason, so that it bears a likeness to folly. Hence they have a common effect, since it is due | |
| 16048 to a defect in the reason that a man designs to hurt another inordinately. | |
| 16049 </p> | |
| 16050 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p12"> | |
| 16051 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Although strife sometimes arises from hatred, it is not the proper effect thereof, because when one man hates another it | |
| 16052 is beside his intention to hurt him in a quarrelsome and open manner, since sometimes he seeks to hurt him secretly. When, | |
| 16053 however, he sees himself prevailing, he endeavors to harm him with strife and quarrel. But to hurt a man in a quarrel is the | |
| 16054 proper effect of anger, for the reason given above. | |
| 16055 </p> | |
| 16056 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p13"> | |
| 16057 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Strifes give rise to hatred and discord in the hearts of those who are guilty of strife, and so he that "studies," i.e., | |
| 16058 intends to sow discord among others, causes them to quarrel among themselves. Even so any sin may command the act of another | |
| 16059 sin, by directing it to its own end. This does not, however, prove that strife is the daughter of vainglory properly and directly. | |
| 16060 </p> | |
| 16061 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 16062 <p id="SS_Q41_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 16063 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16064 <a href="summa.SS_Q42.html"></a> | |
| 16065 </div> | |
| 16066 <a href="summa.SS_Q40_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16067 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16068 </div> | |
| 16069 <div id="SS_Q42" class="div3"> | |
| 16070 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16071 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16072 <h3 id="SS_Q42-p0.1">OF SEDITION (TWO ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 16073 <p id="SS_Q42-p1"></p> | |
| 16074 <p id="SS_Q42-p2"> We must now consider sedition, under which head there are two points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 16075 <p id="SS_Q42-p3"> (1) Whether it is a special sin?</p> | |
| 16076 <p id="SS_Q42-p4"> (2) Whether it is a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 16077 <div id="SS_Q42_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 16078 <a href="summa.SS_Q42.html"></a> | |
| 16079 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16080 <h4 id="SS_Q42_A1-p0.1">Whether sedition is a special sin distinct from other sins?</h4> | |
| 16081 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 16082 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p2"> | |
| 16083 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sedition is not a special sin distinct from other sins. For, according to Isidore (Etym. x), "a seditious | |
| 16084 man is one who sows dissent among minds, and begets discord." Now, by provoking the commission of a sin, a man sins by no | |
| 16085 other kind of sin than that which he provoked. Therefore it seems that sedition is not a special sin distinct from discord. | |
| 16086 </p> | |
| 16087 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p3"> | |
| 16088 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sedition denotes a kind of division. Now schism takes its name from scission, as stated above ( | |
| 16089 <a id="SS_Q42_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q39_A1.html">Q[39], A[1]</a>). Therefore, seemingly, the sin of sedition is not distinct from that of schism. | |
| 16090 </p> | |
| 16091 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p4"> | |
| 16092 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every special sin that is distinct from other sins, is either a capital vice, or arises from some capital vice. | |
| 16093 Now sedition is reckoned neither among the capital vices, nor among those vices which arise from them, as appears from Moral. | |
| 16094 xxxi, 45, where both kinds of vice are enumerated. Therefore sedition is not a special sin, distinct from other sins. | |
| 16095 </p> | |
| 16096 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p5"> | |
| 16097 <b>On the contrary,</b> Seditions are mentioned as distinct from other sins ( | |
| 16098 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q42_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.20" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:20</a>). | |
| 16099 </p> | |
| 16100 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p6"> | |
| 16101 <b>I answer that,</b> Sedition is a special sin, having something in common with war and strife, and differing somewhat from them. It has something | |
| 16102 in common with them, in so far as it implies a certain antagonism, and it differs from them in two points. First, because | |
| 16103 war and strife denote actual aggression on either side, whereas sedition may be said to denote either actual aggression, or | |
| 16104 the preparation for such aggression. Hence a gloss on | |
| 16105 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q42_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.20" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:20 | |
| 16106 | |
| 16107 </a>says that "seditions are tumults tending to fight," when, to wit, a number of people make preparations with the intention | |
| 16108 of fighting. Secondly, they differ in that war is, properly speaking, carried on against external foes, being as it were between | |
| 16109 one people and another, whereas strife is between one individual and another, or between few people on one side and few on | |
| 16110 the other side, while sedition, in its proper sense, is between mutually dissentient parts of one people, as when | |
| 16111 one part of the state rises in tumult against another part. Wherefore, since sedition is opposed to a special kind of good, | |
| 16112 namely the unity and peace of a people, it is a special kind of sin. | |
| 16113 </p> | |
| 16114 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p7"> | |
| 16115 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A seditious man is one who incites others to sedition, and since sedition denotes a kind of discord, it follows that a seditious | |
| 16116 man is one who creates discord, not of any kind, but between the parts of a multitude. And the sin of sedition is not only | |
| 16117 in him who sows discord, but also in those who dissent from one another inordinately. | |
| 16118 </p> | |
| 16119 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p8"> | |
| 16120 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Sedition differs from schism in two respects. First, because schism is opposed to the spiritual unity of the multitude, viz. | |
| 16121 ecclesiastical unity, whereas sedition is contrary to the temporal or secular unity of the multitude, for instance of a city | |
| 16122 or kingdom. Secondly, schism does not imply any preparation for a material fight as sedition does, but only for a spiritual | |
| 16123 dissent. | |
| 16124 </p> | |
| 16125 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p9"> | |
| 16126 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Sedition, like schism, is contained under discord, since each is a kind of discord, not between individuals, but between | |
| 16127 the parts of a multitude. | |
| 16128 </p> | |
| 16129 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 16130 <p id="SS_Q42_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 16131 <a href="summa.SS_Q42.html"></a> | |
| 16132 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16133 </div> | |
| 16134 <div id="SS_Q42_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 16135 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16136 <a href="summa.SS_Q43.html"></a> | |
| 16137 <h4 id="SS_Q42_A2-p0.1">Whether sedition is always a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 16138 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 16139 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p2"> | |
| 16140 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that sedition is not always a mortal sin. For sedition denotes "a tumult tending to fight," according to the | |
| 16141 gloss quoted above | |
| 16142 <a id="SS_Q42_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q42_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But fighting is not always a mortal sin, indeed it is sometimes just and lawful, as stated above (Q[40], A[1]). Much more, | |
| 16143 therefore, can sedition be without a mortal sin. | |
| 16144 </p> | |
| 16145 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p3"> | |
| 16146 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sedition is a kind of discord, as stated above (A[1], ad 3). Now discord can be without mortal sin, and sometimes | |
| 16147 without any sin at all. Therefore sedition can be also. | |
| 16148 </p> | |
| 16149 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p4"> | |
| 16150 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is praiseworthy to deliver a multitude from a tyrannical rule. Yet this cannot easily be done without some dissension | |
| 16151 in the multitude, if one part of the multitude seeks to retain the tyrant, while the rest strive to dethrone him. Therefore | |
| 16152 there can be sedition without mortal sin. | |
| 16153 </p> | |
| 16154 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p5"> | |
| 16155 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Apostle forbids seditions together with other things that are mortal sins ( | |
| 16156 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q42_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.20" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:20</a>). | |
| 16157 </p> | |
| 16158 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p6"> | |
| 16159 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[1], ad 2), sedition is contrary to the unity of the multitude, viz. the people of a city or kingdom. Now | |
| 16160 Augustine says (De Civ. Dei ii, 21) that "wise men understand the word people to designate not any crowd of persons, but the | |
| 16161 assembly of those who are united together in fellowship recognized by law and for the common good." Wherefore it is evident | |
| 16162 that the unity to which sedition is opposed is the unity of law and common good: whence | |
| 16163 it follows manifestly that sedition is opposed to justice and the common good. Therefore by reason of its genus it is a mortal | |
| 16164 sin, and its gravity will be all the greater according as the common good which it assails surpasses the private good which | |
| 16165 is assailed by strife. | |
| 16166 </p> | |
| 16167 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p7"> Accordingly the sin of sedition is first and chiefly in its authors, who sin most grievously; and secondly it is in those | |
| 16168 who are led by them to disturb the common good. Those, however, who defend the common good, and withstand the seditious party, | |
| 16169 are not themselves seditious, even as neither is a man to be called quarrelsome because he defends himself, as stated above | |
| 16170 ( | |
| 16171 <a id="SS_Q42_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q41_A1.html">Q[41], A[1]</a>). | |
| 16172 </p> | |
| 16173 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p8"> | |
| 16174 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is lawful to fight, provided it be for the common good, as stated above ( | |
| 16175 <a id="SS_Q42_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q40_A1.html">Q[40], A[1]</a>). But sedition runs counter to the common good of the multitude, so that it is always a mortal sin. | |
| 16176 </p> | |
| 16177 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p9"> | |
| 16178 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Discord from what is not evidently good, may be without sin, but discord from what is evidently good, cannot be without sin: | |
| 16179 and sedition is discord of this kind, for it is contrary to the unity of the multitude, which is a manifest good. | |
| 16180 </p> | |
| 16181 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p10"> | |
| 16182 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A tyrannical government is not just, because it is directed, not to the common good, but to the private good of the ruler, | |
| 16183 as the Philosopher states (Polit. iii, 5; Ethic. viii, 10). Consequently there is no sedition in disturbing a government of | |
| 16184 this kind, unless indeed the tyrant's rule be disturbed so inordinately, that his subjects suffer greater harm from the consequent | |
| 16185 disturbance than from the tyrant's government. Indeed it is the tyrant rather | |
| 16186 that is guilty of sedition, since he encourages discord and sedition among his subjects, that he may lord over them more securely; | |
| 16187 for this is tyranny, being conducive to the private good of the ruler, and to the injury of the multitude. | |
| 16188 </p> | |
| 16189 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 16190 <p id="SS_Q42_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 16191 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16192 <a href="summa.SS_Q43.html"></a> | |
| 16193 </div> | |
| 16194 <a href="summa.SS_Q41_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16195 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16196 </div> | |
| 16197 <div id="SS_Q43" class="div3"> | |
| 16198 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16199 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16200 <h3 id="SS_Q43-p0.1">OF SCANDAL (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 16201 <p id="SS_Q43-p1"></p> | |
| 16202 <p id="SS_Q43-p2"> It remains for us to consider the vices which are opposed to beneficence, among which some come under the head of injustice, | |
| 16203 those, to wit, whereby one harms one's neighbor unjustly. But scandal seems to be specially opposed to charity. Accordingly | |
| 16204 we must here consider scandal, under which head there are eight points of inquiry: | |
| 16205 </p> | |
| 16206 <p id="SS_Q43-p3"> (1) What is scandal?</p> | |
| 16207 <p id="SS_Q43-p4"> (2) Whether scandal is a sin?</p> | |
| 16208 <p id="SS_Q43-p5"> (3) Whether it is a special sin?</p> | |
| 16209 <p id="SS_Q43-p6"> (4) Whether it is a mortal sin?</p> | |
| 16210 <p id="SS_Q43-p7"> (5) Whether the perfect can be scandalized?</p> | |
| 16211 <p id="SS_Q43-p8"> (6) Whether they can give scandal?</p> | |
| 16212 <p id="SS_Q43-p9"> (7) Whether spiritual goods are to be foregone on account of scandal?</p> | |
| 16213 <p id="SS_Q43-p10"> (8) Whether temporal things are to be foregone on account of scandal?</p> | |
| 16214 <div id="SS_Q43_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 16215 <a href="summa.SS_Q43.html"></a> | |
| 16216 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16217 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A1-p0.1">Whether scandal is fittingly defined as being something less rightly said or done that occasions spiritual downfall?</h4> | |
| 16218 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 16219 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p2"> | |
| 16220 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that scandal is unfittingly defined as "something less rightly said or done that occasions spiritual downfall." | |
| 16221 For scandal is a sin as we shall state further on | |
| 16222 <a id="SS_Q43_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Now, according to Augustine (Contra Faust. xxii, 27), a sin is a "word, deed, or desire contrary to the law of God." Therefore | |
| 16223 the definition given above is insufficient, since it omits "thought" or "desire." | |
| 16224 </p> | |
| 16225 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p3"> | |
| 16226 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, since among virtuous or right acts one is more virtuous or more right than another, that one alone which has perfect | |
| 16227 rectitude would not seem to be a "less" right one. If, therefore, scandal is something "less" rightly said or done, it follows | |
| 16228 that every virtuous act except the best of all, is a scandal. | |
| 16229 </p> | |
| 16230 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p4"> | |
| 16231 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an occasion is an accidental cause. But nothing accidental should enter a definition, because it does not specify | |
| 16232 the thing defined. Therefore it is unfitting, in defining scandal, to say that it is an "occasion." | |
| 16233 </p> | |
| 16234 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p5"> | |
| 16235 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, whatever a man does may be the occasion of another's spiritual downfall, because accidental causes are indeterminate. | |
| 16236 Consequently, if scandal is something that occasions another's spiritual downfall, any deed or word can be a scandal: and | |
| 16237 this seems unreasonable. | |
| 16238 </p> | |
| 16239 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p6"> | |
| 16240 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, a man occasions his neighbor's spiritual downfall when he offends or weakens him. Now scandal is condivided with | |
| 16241 offense and weakness, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 16242 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.21" target="asv">Rom. 14:21</a>): "It is good not to eat flesh, and not to drink wine, nor anything whereby thy brother is offended or scandalized, or weakened." | |
| 16243 Therefore the aforesaid definition of scandal is unfitting. | |
| 16244 </p> | |
| 16245 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p7"> | |
| 16246 <b>On the contrary,</b> Jerome in expounding | |
| 16247 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.15.12" target="asv"> Mat. 15:12, </a> "Dost thou know that the Pharisees, when they heard this word," etc. says: "When we read 'Whosoever shall scandalize,' the | |
| 16248 sense is 'Whosoever shall, by deed or word, occasion another's spiritual downfall.'" | |
| 16249 </p> | |
| 16250 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p8"> | |
| 16251 <b>I answer that,</b> As Jerome observes the Greek {skandalon} may be rendered offense, downfall, or a stumbling against something. For when a | |
| 16252 body, while moving along a path, meets with an obstacle, it may happen to stumble against it, and be disposed to fall down: | |
| 16253 such an obstacle is a {skandalon}. | |
| 16254 </p> | |
| 16255 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p9"> In like manner, while going along the spiritual way, a man may be disposed to a spiritual downfall by another's word or deed, | |
| 16256 in so far, to wit, as one man by his injunction, inducement or example, moves another to sin; and this is scandal properly | |
| 16257 so called. | |
| 16258 </p> | |
| 16259 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p10"> Now nothing by its very nature disposes a man to spiritual downfall, except that which has some lack of rectitude, since | |
| 16260 what is perfectly right, secures man against a fall, instead of conducing to his downfall. Scandal is, therefore, fittingly | |
| 16261 defined as "something less rightly done or said, that occasions another's spiritual downfall." | |
| 16262 </p> | |
| 16263 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p11"> | |
| 16264 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The thought or desire of evil lies hidden in the heart, wherefore it does not suggest itself to another man as an obstacle | |
| 16265 conducing to his spiritual downfall: hence it cannot come under the head of scandal. | |
| 16266 </p> | |
| 16267 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p12"> | |
| 16268 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A thing is said to be less right, not because something else surpasses it in rectitude, but because it has some lack of rectitude, | |
| 16269 either through being evil in itself, such as sin, or through having an appearance of evil. Thus, for instance, if a man were | |
| 16270 to "sit at meat in the idol's temple" ( | |
| 16271 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A1-p12.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.8.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 8:10</a>), though this is not sinful in itself, provided it be done with no evil intention, yet, since it has a certain appearance | |
| 16272 of | |
| 16273 evil, and a semblance of worshipping the idol, it might occasion another man's spiritual downfall. Hence the Apostle says | |
| 16274 ( | |
| 16275 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A1-p12.2" href="./asv.html#iThess.5.22" target="asv">1 Thess. 5:22</a>): "From all appearance of evil refrain yourselves." Scandal is therefore fittingly described as something done "less rightly," | |
| 16276 so as to comprise both whatever is sinful in itself, and all that has an appearance of evil. | |
| 16277 </p> | |
| 16278 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p13"> | |
| 16279 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16280 <a id="SS_Q43_A1-p13.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q75_A2.html">FS, Q[75], AA[2]</a>,3; | |
| 16281 <a id="SS_Q43_A1-p13.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q80_A1.html">FS, Q[80], A[1]</a>), nothing can be a sufficient cause of a man's spiritual downfall, which is sin, save his own will. Wherefore another man's | |
| 16282 words or deeds can only be an imperfect cause, conducing somewhat to that downfall. For this reason scandal is said to afford | |
| 16283 not a cause, but an occasion, which is an imperfect, and not always an accidental cause. Nor is there | |
| 16284 any reason why certain definitions should not make mention of things that are accidental, since what is accidental to one, | |
| 16285 may be proper to something else: thus the accidental cause is mentioned in the definition of chance (Phys. ii, 5). | |
| 16286 </p> | |
| 16287 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p14"> | |
| 16288 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Another's words or deed may be the cause of another's sin in two ways, directly and accidentally. Directly, when a man either | |
| 16289 intends, by his evil word or deed, to lead another man into sin, or, if he does not so intend, when his deed is of such a | |
| 16290 nature as to lead another into sin: for instance, when a man publicly commits a sin or does something that has an appearance | |
| 16291 of sin. In this case he that does such an act does, properly speaking, afford an | |
| 16292 occasion of another's spiritual downfall, wherefore his act is called "active scandal." One man's word or deed is the accidental | |
| 16293 cause of another's sin, when he neither intends to lead him into sin, nor does what is of a nature to lead him into sin, and | |
| 16294 yet this other one, through being ill-disposed, is led into sin, for instance, into envy of another's good, and then he who | |
| 16295 does this righteous act, does not, so far as he is concerned, afford an occasion of the other's downfall, but it is this | |
| 16296 other one who takes the occasion according to | |
| 16297 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A1-p14.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.8" target="asv"> Rom. 7:8</a>: "Sin taking occasion by the commandment wrought in me all manner of concupiscence." Wherefore this is "passive," without | |
| 16298 "active scandal," since he that acts rightly does not, for his own part, afford the occasion of the other's downfall. Sometimes | |
| 16299 therefore it happens that there is active scandal in the one together with passive scandal in the other, as when one commits | |
| 16300 a sin being induced thereto by another; sometimes | |
| 16301 there is active without passive scandal, for instance when one, by word or deed, provokes another to sin, and the latter does | |
| 16302 not consent; and sometimes there is passive without active scandal, as we have already said. | |
| 16303 </p> | |
| 16304 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p15"> | |
| 16305 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> "Weakness" denotes proneness to scandal; while "offense" signifies resentment against the person who commits a sin, which | |
| 16306 resentment may be sometimes without spiritual downfall; and "scandal" is the stumbling that results in downfall. | |
| 16307 </p> | |
| 16308 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p16"></p> | |
| 16309 <p id="SS_Q43_A1-p17"></p> | |
| 16310 <a href="summa.SS_Q43.html"></a> | |
| 16311 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16312 </div> | |
| 16313 <div id="SS_Q43_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 16314 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16315 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16316 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A2-p0.1">Whether scandal is a sin?</h4> | |
| 16317 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 16318 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p2"> | |
| 16319 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that scandal is not a sin. For sins do not occur from necessity, since all sin is voluntary, as stated above | |
| 16320 ( | |
| 16321 <a id="SS_Q43_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A1.html">FS, Q[74], AA[1]</a>,2). Now it is written ( | |
| 16322 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A2-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.7" target="asv">Mat. 18:7</a>): "It must needs be that scandals come." Therefore scandal is not a sin. | |
| 16323 </p> | |
| 16324 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p3"> | |
| 16325 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no sin arises from a sense of dutifulness, because "a good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit" ( | |
| 16326 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.18" target="asv">Mat. 7:18</a>). But scandal may come from a sense of dutifulness, for Our Lord said to Peter ( | |
| 16327 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A2-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.16.23" target="asv">Mat. 16:23</a>): "Thou art a scandal unto Me," in reference to which words Jerome says that "the Apostle's error was due to his sense of | |
| 16328 dutifulness, and such is never inspired by the devil." Therefore scandal is not always a | |
| 16329 sin. | |
| 16330 </p> | |
| 16331 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p4"> | |
| 16332 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, scandal denotes a stumbling. But he that stumbles does not always fall. Therefore scandal, which is a spiritual | |
| 16333 fall, can be without sin. | |
| 16334 </p> | |
| 16335 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p5"> | |
| 16336 <b>On the contrary,</b> Scandal is "something less rightly said or done." Now anything that lacks rectitude is a sin. Therefore scandal is always | |
| 16337 with sin. | |
| 16338 </p> | |
| 16339 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p6"> | |
| 16340 <b>I answer that,</b> As already said (A[1], ad 4), scandal is of two kinds, passive scandal in the person scandalized, and active scandal in the | |
| 16341 person who gives scandal, and so occasions a spiritual downfall. Accordingly passive scandal is always a sin in the person | |
| 16342 scandalized; for he is not scandalized except in so far as he succumbs to a spiritual downfall, and that is a sin. | |
| 16343 </p> | |
| 16344 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p7"> Yet there can be passive scandal, without sin on the part of the person whose action has occasioned the scandal, as for instance, | |
| 16345 when a person is scandalized at another's good deed. In like manner active scandal is always a sin in the person who gives | |
| 16346 scandal, since either what he does is a sin, or if it only have the appearance of sin, it should always be left undone out | |
| 16347 of that love for our neighbor which binds each one to be solicitous for his neighbor's spiritual welfare; | |
| 16348 so that if he persist in doing it he acts against charity. | |
| 16349 </p> | |
| 16350 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p8"> Yet there can be active scandal without sin on the part of the person scandalized, as stated above (A[1], ad 4).</p> | |
| 16351 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p9"> | |
| 16352 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> These words, "It must needs be that scandals come," are to be understood to convey, not the absolute, but the conditional | |
| 16353 necessity of scandal; in which sense it is necessary that whatever God foresees or foretells must happen, provided it be taken | |
| 16354 conjointly with such foreknowledge, as explained in the | |
| 16355 <a id="SS_Q43_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A13.html">FP, Q[14], A[13]</a>, ad 3; | |
| 16356 <a id="SS_Q43_A2-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q23_A6.html">FP, Q[23], A[6]</a>, ad 2. | |
| 16357 </p> | |
| 16358 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p10"> Or we may say that the necessity of scandals occurring is a necessity of end, because they are useful in order that "they | |
| 16359 . . . who are reproved may be made manifest" ( | |
| 16360 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A2-p10.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.11.19" target="asv">1 Cor. 11:19</a>). | |
| 16361 </p> | |
| 16362 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p11"> Or scandals must needs occur, seeing the condition of man who fails to shield himself from sin. Thus a physician on seeing | |
| 16363 a man partaking of unsuitable food might say that such a man must needs injure his health, which is to be understood on the | |
| 16364 condition that he does not change his diet. In like manner it must needs be that scandals come, so long as men fail to change | |
| 16365 their evil mode of living. | |
| 16366 </p> | |
| 16367 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p12"> | |
| 16368 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In that passage scandal denotes any kind of hindrance: for Peter wished to hinder Our Lord's Passion out of a sense of dutifulness | |
| 16369 towards Christ. | |
| 16370 </p> | |
| 16371 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p13"> | |
| 16372 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> No man stumbles spiritually, without being kept back somewhat from advancing in God's way, and that is at least a venial | |
| 16373 sin. | |
| 16374 </p> | |
| 16375 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 16376 <p id="SS_Q43_A2-p15"></p> | |
| 16377 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16378 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16379 </div> | |
| 16380 <div id="SS_Q43_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 16381 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16382 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16383 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A3-p0.1">Whether scandal is a special sin?</h4> | |
| 16384 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 16385 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p2"> | |
| 16386 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that scandal is not a special sin. For scandal is "something said or done less rightly." But this applies to | |
| 16387 every kind of sin. Therefore every sin is a scandal, and consequently, scandal is not a special sin. | |
| 16388 </p> | |
| 16389 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p3"> | |
| 16390 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every special kind of sin, or every special kind of injustice, may be found separately from other kinds, as stated | |
| 16391 in Ethic. v, 3,5. But scandal is not to be found separately from other sins. Therefore it is not a special kind of sin. | |
| 16392 </p> | |
| 16393 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p4"> | |
| 16394 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every special sin is constituted by something which specifies the moral act. But the notion of scandal consists | |
| 16395 in its being something done in the presence of others: and the fact of a sin being committed openly, though it is an aggravating | |
| 16396 circumstance, does not seem to constitute the species of a sin. Therefore scandal is not a special sin. | |
| 16397 </p> | |
| 16398 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p5"> | |
| 16399 <b>On the contrary,</b> A special virtue has a special sin opposed to it. But scandal is opposed to a special virtue, viz. charity. For it is written | |
| 16400 ( | |
| 16401 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.15" target="asv">Rom. 14:15</a>): "If, because of thy meat, thy brother be grieved, thou walkest not now according to charity." Therefore scandal is a special | |
| 16402 sin. | |
| 16403 </p> | |
| 16404 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p6"> | |
| 16405 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 16406 <a id="SS_Q43_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, scandal is twofold, active and passive. Passive scandal cannot be a special sin, because through another's word or deed | |
| 16407 a man may fall into any kind of sin: and the fact that a man takes occasion to sin from another's word or deed, does not constitute | |
| 16408 a special kind of sin, because it does not imply a special deformity in opposition to a special virtue. | |
| 16409 </p> | |
| 16410 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p7"> On the other hand, active scandal may be understood in two ways, directly and accidently. The scandal is accidental when | |
| 16411 it is beside the agent's intention, as when a man does not intend, by his inordinate deed or word, to occasion another's spiritual | |
| 16412 downfall, but merely to satisfy his own will. In such a case even active scandal is not a special sin, because a species is | |
| 16413 not constituted by that which is accidental. | |
| 16414 </p> | |
| 16415 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p8"> Active scandal is direct when a man intends, by his inordinate word or deed, to draw another into sin, and then it becomes | |
| 16416 a special kind of sin on account of the intention of a special kind of end, because moral actions take their species from | |
| 16417 their end, as stated above ( | |
| 16418 <a id="SS_Q43_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html">FS, Q[1], A[3]</a>; | |
| 16419 <a id="SS_Q43_A3-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html">FS, Q[18], AA[4]</a>,6). Hence, just as theft and murder are special kinds of sin, on account of their denoting the intention of doing a special | |
| 16420 injury to one's neighbor: so too, scandal is a special kind of sin, because thereby a man intends a special harm to his neighbor, | |
| 16421 and it is directly opposed to fraternal correction, whereby a man intends the removal of a special kind of harm. | |
| 16422 </p> | |
| 16423 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p9"> | |
| 16424 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Any sin may be the matter of active scandal, but it may derive the formal aspect of a special sin from the end intended, | |
| 16425 as stated above. | |
| 16426 </p> | |
| 16427 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p10"> | |
| 16428 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Active scandal can be found separate from other sins, as when a man scandalizes his neighbor by a deed which is not a sin | |
| 16429 in itself, but has an appearance of evil. | |
| 16430 </p> | |
| 16431 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p11"> | |
| 16432 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Scandal does not derive the species of a special sin from the circumstance in question, but from the intention of the end, | |
| 16433 as stated above. | |
| 16434 </p> | |
| 16435 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 16436 <p id="SS_Q43_A3-p13"></p> | |
| 16437 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16438 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16439 </div> | |
| 16440 <div id="SS_Q43_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 16441 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16442 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A5.html"></a> | |
| 16443 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A4-p0.1">Whether scandal is a mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 16444 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 16445 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p2"> | |
| 16446 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that scandal is a mortal sin. For every sin that is contrary to charity is a mortal sin, as stated above (Q[24], | |
| 16447 A[12]; Q[35] , A[3]). But scandal is contrary to charity, as stated above ( | |
| 16448 <a id="SS_Q43_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q43_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,3). Therefore scandal is a mortal sin. | |
| 16449 </p> | |
| 16450 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p3"> | |
| 16451 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no sin, save mortal sin, deserves the punishment of eternal damnation. But scandal deserves the punishment of eternal | |
| 16452 damnation, according to | |
| 16453 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.6" target="asv"> Mat. 18:6</a>: "He that shall scandalize one of these little ones, that believe in Me, it were better for him that a mill-stone should | |
| 16454 be hanged about his neck, and that he should be drowned in the depth of the sea." For, as Jerome says on this passage, "it | |
| 16455 is much better to receive a brief | |
| 16456 punishment for a fault, than to await everlasting torments." Therefore scandal is a mortal sin. | |
| 16457 </p> | |
| 16458 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p4"> | |
| 16459 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every sin committed against God is a mortal sin, because mortal sin alone turns man away from God. Now scandal is | |
| 16460 a sin against God, for the Apostle says ( | |
| 16461 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A4-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.8.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 8:12</a>): "When you wound the weak conscience of the brethren [*Vulg.: 'When you sin thus against the brethren and wound their weak | |
| 16462 conscience'], you sin against Christ." Therefore scandal is always a mortal sin. | |
| 16463 </p> | |
| 16464 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p5"> | |
| 16465 <b>On the contrary,</b> It may be a venial sin to lead a person into venial sin: and yet this would be to give scandal. Therefore scandal may be | |
| 16466 a venial sin. | |
| 16467 </p> | |
| 16468 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p6"> | |
| 16469 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 16470 <a id="SS_Q43_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q43_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, scandal denotes a stumbling whereby a person is disposed to a spiritual downfall. Consequently passive scandal may sometimes | |
| 16471 be a venial sin, when it consists in a stumbling and nothing more; for instance, when a person is disturbed by a movement | |
| 16472 of venial sin occasioned by another's inordinate word or deed: while sometimes it is a mortal sin, when the stumbling results | |
| 16473 in a downfall, for instance, when a | |
| 16474 person goes so far as to commit a mortal sin through another's inordinate word or deed. | |
| 16475 </p> | |
| 16476 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p7"> Active scandal, if it be accidental, may sometimes be a venial sin; for instance, when, through a slight indiscretion, a | |
| 16477 person either commits a venial sin, or does something that is not a sin in itself, but has some appearance of evil. On the | |
| 16478 other hand, it is sometimes a mortal sin, either because a person commits a mortal sin, or because he has such contempt for | |
| 16479 his neighbor's spiritual welfare that he declines, for the sake of procuring it, to forego doing what he wishes to | |
| 16480 do. But in the case of active direct scandal, as when a person intends to lead another into sin, if he intends to lead him | |
| 16481 into mortal sin, his own sin will be mortal; and in like manner if he intends by committing a mortal sin himself, to lead | |
| 16482 another into venial sin; whereas if he intends, by committing a venial sin, to lead another into venial sin, there will be | |
| 16483 a venial sin of scandal. | |
| 16484 </p> | |
| 16485 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p8"> And this suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 16486 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p9"></p> | |
| 16487 <p id="SS_Q43_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 16488 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16489 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A5.html"></a> | |
| 16490 </div> | |
| 16491 <div id="SS_Q43_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 16492 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16493 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A6.html"></a> | |
| 16494 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A5-p0.1">Whether passive scandal may happen even to the perfect?</h4> | |
| 16495 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 16496 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p2"> | |
| 16497 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that passive scandal may happen even to the perfect. For Christ was supremely perfect: and yet He said to Peter | |
| 16498 ( | |
| 16499 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.16.23" target="asv">Mat. 16:23</a>): "Thou art a scandal to Me." Much more therefore can other perfect men suffer scandal. | |
| 16500 </p> | |
| 16501 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p3"> | |
| 16502 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, scandal denotes an obstacle which is put in a person's spiritual way. Now even perfect men can be hindered in their | |
| 16503 progress along the spiritual way, according to | |
| 16504 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iThess.2.18" target="asv">1 Thess. 2:18</a>: "We would have come to you, I Paul indeed, once and again; but Satan hath hindered us." Therefore even perfect men can suffer | |
| 16505 scandal. | |
| 16506 </p> | |
| 16507 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p4"> | |
| 16508 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, even perfect men are liable to venial sins, according to | |
| 16509 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.1.8" target="asv">1 Jn. 1:8</a>: "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves." Now passive scandal is not always a mortal sin, but is sometimes | |
| 16510 venial, as stated above | |
| 16511 <a id="SS_Q43_A5-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q43_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Therefore passive scandal may be found in perfect men. | |
| 16512 </p> | |
| 16513 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p5"> | |
| 16514 <b>On the contrary,</b> Jerome, in commenting on | |
| 16515 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.18.6" target="asv"> Mat. 18:6, </a> "He that shall scandalize one of these little ones," says: "Observe that it is the little one that is scandalized, for the | |
| 16516 elders do not take scandal." | |
| 16517 </p> | |
| 16518 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p6"> | |
| 16519 <b>I answer that,</b> Passive scandal implies that the mind of the person who takes scandal is unsettled in its adherence to good. Now no man can | |
| 16520 be unsettled, who adheres firmly to something immovable. The elders, i.e. the perfect, adhere to God alone, Whose goodness | |
| 16521 is unchangeable, for though they adhere to their superiors, they do so only in so far as these adhere to Christ, according | |
| 16522 to | |
| 16523 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.4.16" target="asv">1 Cor. 4:16</a>: "Be ye followers of me, as I also am of Christ." | |
| 16524 Wherefore, however much others may appear to them to conduct themselves ill in word or deed, they themselves do not stray | |
| 16525 from their righteousness, according to | |
| 16526 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.124.1" target="asv"> Ps. 124:1</a>: "They that trust in the Lord shall be as Mount Sion: he shall not be moved for ever that dwelleth in Jerusalem." Therefore | |
| 16527 scandal is not found in those who adhere to God perfectly by love, according to | |
| 16528 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.165" target="asv"> Ps. 118:165</a>: "Much peace have they that love Thy law, and to them there is no | |
| 16529 stumbling-block [scandalum]." | |
| 16530 </p> | |
| 16531 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p7"> | |
| 16532 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated above (A[2], ad 2), in this passage, scandal is used in a broad sense, to denote any kind of hindrance. Hence Our | |
| 16533 Lord said to Peter: "Thou art a scandal to Me," because he was endeavoring to weaken Our Lord's purpose of undergoing His | |
| 16534 Passion. | |
| 16535 </p> | |
| 16536 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p8"> | |
| 16537 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Perfect men may be hindered in the performance of external actions. But they are not hindered by the words or deeds of others, | |
| 16538 from tending to God in the internal acts of the will, according to | |
| 16539 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.38" target="asv">Rom. 8:38,39</a>: "Neither death, nor life . . . shall be able to separate us from the love of God." | |
| 16540 </p> | |
| 16541 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p9"> | |
| 16542 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Perfect men sometimes fall into venial sins through the weakness of the flesh; but they are not scandalized (taking scandal | |
| 16543 in its true sense), by the words or deeds of others, although there can be an approach to scandal in them, according to | |
| 16544 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A5-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.72.2" target="asv"> Ps. 72:2</a>: "My feet were almost moved." | |
| 16545 </p> | |
| 16546 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 16547 <p id="SS_Q43_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 16548 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16549 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A6.html"></a> | |
| 16550 </div> | |
| 16551 <div id="SS_Q43_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 16552 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A5.html"></a> | |
| 16553 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A7.html"></a> | |
| 16554 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A6-p0.1">Whether active scandal can be found in the perfect?</h4> | |
| 16555 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 16556 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p2"> | |
| 16557 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that active scandal can be found in the perfect. For passion is the effect of action. Now some are scandalized | |
| 16558 passively by the words or deeds of the perfect, according to | |
| 16559 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.15.12" target="asv"> Mat. 15:12</a>: "Dost thou know that the Pharisees, when they heard this word, were scandalized?" Therefore active scandal can be found | |
| 16560 in the perfect. | |
| 16561 </p> | |
| 16562 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p3"> | |
| 16563 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Peter, after receiving the Holy Ghost, was in the state of the perfect. Yet afterwards he scandalized the gentiles: | |
| 16564 for it is written ( | |
| 16565 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.2.14" target="asv">Gal. 2:14</a>): "When I saw that they walked not uprightly unto the truth of the Gospel, I said to Cephas," i.e. Peter, "before them all: | |
| 16566 If thou being a Jew, livest after the manner of the gentiles, and not as the Jews do, how dost thou compel the gentiles to | |
| 16567 live as do the Jews?" Therefore active | |
| 16568 scandal can be in the perfect. | |
| 16569 </p> | |
| 16570 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p4"> | |
| 16571 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, active scandal is sometimes a venial sin. But venial sins may be in perfect men. Therefore active scandal may be | |
| 16572 in perfect men. | |
| 16573 </p> | |
| 16574 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p5"> | |
| 16575 <b>On the contrary,</b> Active scandal is more opposed to perfection, than passive scandal. But passive scandal cannot be in the perfect. Much less, | |
| 16576 therefore, can active scandal be in them. | |
| 16577 </p> | |
| 16578 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p6"> | |
| 16579 <b>I answer that,</b> Active scandal, properly so called, occurs when a man says or does a thing which in itself is of a nature to occasion another's | |
| 16580 spiritual downfall, and that is only when what he says or does is inordinate. Now it belongs to the perfect to direct all | |
| 16581 their actions according to the rule of reason, as stated in | |
| 16582 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A6-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.14.40" target="asv">1 Cor. 14:40</a>: "Let all things be done decently and according to order"; and they are careful to do this in those matters chiefly | |
| 16583 wherein not only would they do wrong, but would also be to others an occasion of wrongdoing. And if indeed they fail in this | |
| 16584 moderation in such words or deeds as come to the knowledge of others, this has its origin in human weakness wherein they fall | |
| 16585 short of perfection. Yet they do not fall short so far as to stray far from the order of reason, but only a little and in | |
| 16586 some slight matter: and this is not so grave that anyone can reasonably take therefrom an occasion for committing sin. | |
| 16587 </p> | |
| 16588 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p7"> | |
| 16589 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Passive scandal is always due to some active scandal; yet this active scandal is not always in another, but in the very person | |
| 16590 who is scandalized, because, to wit, he scandalizes himself. | |
| 16591 </p> | |
| 16592 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p8"> | |
| 16593 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In the opinion of Augustine (Ep. xxviii, xl, lxxxii) and of Paul also, Peter sinned and was to be blamed, in withdrawing | |
| 16594 from the gentiles in order to avoid the scandal of the Jews, because he did this somewhat imprudently, so that the gentiles | |
| 16595 who had been converted to the faith were scandalized. Nevertheless Peter's action was not so grave a sin as to give others | |
| 16596 sufficient ground for scandal. Hence they were guilty of passive scandal, while there | |
| 16597 was no active scandal in Peter. | |
| 16598 </p> | |
| 16599 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p9"> | |
| 16600 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The venial sins of the perfect consist chiefly in sudden movements, which being hidden cannot give scandal. If, however, | |
| 16601 they commit any venial sins even in their external words or deeds, these are so slight as to be insufficient in themselves | |
| 16602 to give scandal. | |
| 16603 </p> | |
| 16604 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 16605 <p id="SS_Q43_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 16606 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A5.html"></a> | |
| 16607 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A7.html"></a> | |
| 16608 </div> | |
| 16609 <div id="SS_Q43_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 16610 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A6.html"></a> | |
| 16611 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A8.html"></a> | |
| 16612 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A7-p0.1">Whether spiritual goods should be foregone on account of scandal?</h4> | |
| 16613 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 16614 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p2"> | |
| 16615 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that spiritual goods ought to be foregone on account of scandal. For Augustine (Contra Ep. Parmen. iii, 2) | |
| 16616 teaches that "punishment for sin should cease, when the peril of schism is feared." But punishment of sins is a spiritual | |
| 16617 good, since it is an act of justice. Therefore a spiritual good is to be foregone on account of scandal. | |
| 16618 </p> | |
| 16619 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p3"> | |
| 16620 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Sacred Doctrine is a most spiritual thing. Yet one ought to desist therefrom on account of scandal, according | |
| 16621 to | |
| 16622 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A7-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.6" target="asv"> Mat. 7:6</a>: "Give not that which is holy to dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine lest . . . turning upon you, they tear you." | |
| 16623 Therefore a spiritual good should be foregone on account of scandal. | |
| 16624 </p> | |
| 16625 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p4"> | |
| 16626 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since fraternal correction is an act of charity, it is a spiritual good. Yet sometimes it is omitted out of charity, | |
| 16627 in order to avoid giving scandal to others, as Augustine observes (De Civ. Dei i, 9). Therefore a spiritual good should be | |
| 16628 foregone on account of scandal. | |
| 16629 </p> | |
| 16630 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p5"> | |
| 16631 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Jerome [*Hugh de S. Cher., In Matth. xviii; in Luc. xvii, 2] says that in order to avoid scandal we should forego | |
| 16632 whatever it is possible to omit without prejudice to the threefold truth, i.e. "the truth of life, of justice and of doctrine." | |
| 16633 Now the observance of the counsels, and the bestowal of alms may often be omitted without prejudice to the aforesaid threefold | |
| 16634 truth, else whoever omitted them would always be guilty of sin, and yet such things | |
| 16635 are the greatest of spiritual works. Therefore spiritual works should be omitted on account of scandal. | |
| 16636 </p> | |
| 16637 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p6"> | |
| 16638 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, the avoidance of any sin is a spiritual good, since any sin brings spiritual harm to the sinner. Now it seems that | |
| 16639 one ought sometimes to commit a venial sin in order to avoid scandalizing one's neighbor, for instance, when by sinning venially, | |
| 16640 one would prevent someone else from committing a mortal sin: because one is bound to hinder the damnation of one's neighbor | |
| 16641 as much as one can without prejudice to one's own salvation, which is not precluded by | |
| 16642 a venial sin. Therefore one ought to forego a spiritual good in order to avoid scandal. | |
| 16643 </p> | |
| 16644 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p7"> | |
| 16645 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Hom. Super Ezech. vii): "If people are scandalized at the truth, it is better to allow the birth of scandal, | |
| 16646 than to abandon the truth." Now spiritual goods belong, above all others, to the truth. Therefore spiritual goods are not | |
| 16647 to be foregone on account of scandal. | |
| 16648 </p> | |
| 16649 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p8"> | |
| 16650 <b>I answer that,</b> Whereas scandal is twofold, active and passive, the present question does not apply to active scandal, for since active scandal | |
| 16651 is "something said or done less rightly," nothing ought to be done that implies active scandal. The question does, however, | |
| 16652 apply to passive scandal, and accordingly we have to see what ought to be foregone in order to avoid scandal. Now a distinction | |
| 16653 must be made in spiritual goods. For some of them are necessary for salvation, and | |
| 16654 cannot be foregone without mortal sin: and it is evident that no man ought to commit a mortal sin, in order to prevent another | |
| 16655 from sinning, because according to the order of charity, a man ought to love his own spiritual welfare more than another's. | |
| 16656 Therefore one ought not to forego that which is necessary for salvation, in order to avoid giving scandal. | |
| 16657 </p> | |
| 16658 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p9"> Again a distinction seems necessary among spiritual things which are not necessary for salvation: because the scandal which | |
| 16659 arises from such things sometimes proceeds from malice, for instance when a man wishes to hinder those spiritual goods by | |
| 16660 stirring up scandal. This is the "scandal of the Pharisees," who were scandalized at Our Lord's teaching: and Our Lord teaches | |
| 16661 ( | |
| 16662 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.15.14" target="asv">Mat. 15:14</a>) that we ought to treat such like scandal with contempt. Sometimes scandal | |
| 16663 proceeds from weakness or ignorance, and such is the "scandal of little ones." In order to avoid this kind of scandal, spiritual | |
| 16664 goods ought to be either concealed, or sometimes even deferred (if this can be done without incurring immediate danger), until | |
| 16665 the matter being explained the scandal cease. If, however, the scandal continue after the matter has been explained, it would | |
| 16666 seem to be due to malice, and then it would no longer be right to forego that spiritual good in order to avoid such | |
| 16667 like scandal. | |
| 16668 </p> | |
| 16669 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p10"> | |
| 16670 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In the infliction of punishment it is not the punishment itself that is the end in view, but its medicinal properties in | |
| 16671 checking sin; wherefore punishment partakes of the nature of justice, in so far as it checks sin. But if it is evident that | |
| 16672 the infliction of punishment will result in more numerous and more grievous sins being committed, the infliction of punishment | |
| 16673 will no longer be a part of justice. It is in this sense that Augustine is | |
| 16674 speaking, when, to wit, the excommunication of a few threatens to bring about the danger of a schism, for in that case it | |
| 16675 would be contrary to the truth of justice to pronounce excommunication. | |
| 16676 </p> | |
| 16677 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p11"> | |
| 16678 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> With regard to a man's doctrine two points must be considered, namely, the truth which is taught, and the act of teaching. | |
| 16679 The first of these is necessary for salvation, to wit, that he whose duty it is to teach should no' teach what is contrary | |
| 16680 to the truth, and that he should teach the truth according to the requirements of times and persons: wherefore on no account | |
| 16681 ought he to suppress the truth and teach error in order to avoid any scandal that | |
| 16682 might ensue. But the act itself of teaching is one of the spiritual almsdeeds, as stated above ( | |
| 16683 <a id="SS_Q43_A7-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q32_A2.html">Q[32], A[2]</a>), and so the same is to be said of it as of the other works of mercy, of which we shall speak further on (ad 4). | |
| 16684 </p> | |
| 16685 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p12"> | |
| 16686 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16687 <a id="SS_Q43_A7-p12.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A1.html">Q[33], A[1]</a>), fraternal correction aims at the correction of a brother, wherefore it is to be reckoned among spiritual goods in so far | |
| 16688 as this end can be obtained, which is not the case if the brother be scandalized through being corrected. And so, if the correction | |
| 16689 be omitted in order to avoid scandal, no spiritual good is foregone. | |
| 16690 </p> | |
| 16691 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p13"> | |
| 16692 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> The truth of life, of doctrine, and of justice comprises not only whatever is necessary for salvation, but also whatever | |
| 16693 is a means of obtaining salvation more perfectly, according to | |
| 16694 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A7-p13.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.31" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:31</a>: "Be zealous for the better gifts." Wherefore neither the counsels nor even the works of mercy are to be altogether omitted | |
| 16695 in order to avoid scandal; but sometimes they should be concealed or deferred, on account of the scandal of the | |
| 16696 little ones, as stated above. Sometimes, however, the observance of the counsels and the fulfilment of the works of mercy | |
| 16697 are necessary for salvation. This may be seen in the case of those who have vowed to keep the counsels, and of those whose | |
| 16698 duty it is to relieve the wants of others, either in temporal matters (as by feeding the hungry), or in spiritual matters | |
| 16699 (as by instructing the ignorant), whether such duties arise from their being enjoined as in the case of prelates, or from | |
| 16700 the need | |
| 16701 on the part of the person in want; and then the same applies to these things as to others that are necessary for salvation. | |
| 16702 </p> | |
| 16703 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p14"> | |
| 16704 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> Some have said that one ought to commit a venial sin in order to avoid scandal. But this implies a contradiction, since if | |
| 16705 it ought to be done, it is no longer evil or sinful, for a sin cannot be a matter of choice. It may happen however that, on | |
| 16706 account of some circumstance, something is not a venial sin, though it would be were it not for that circumstance: thus an | |
| 16707 idle word is a venial sin, when it is uttered uselessly; yet if it be uttered for a | |
| 16708 reasonable cause, it is neither idle nor sinful. And though venial sin does not deprive a man of grace which is his means | |
| 16709 of salvation, yet, in so far as it disposes him to mortal sin, it tends to the loss of salvation. | |
| 16710 </p> | |
| 16711 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p15"></p> | |
| 16712 <p id="SS_Q43_A7-p16"></p> | |
| 16713 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A6.html"></a> | |
| 16714 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A8.html"></a> | |
| 16715 </div> | |
| 16716 <div id="SS_Q43_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 16717 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A7.html"></a> | |
| 16718 <a href="summa.SS_Q44.html"></a> | |
| 16719 <h4 id="SS_Q43_A8-p0.1">Whether temporal goods should be foregone on account of scandal?</h4> | |
| 16720 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 16721 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p2"> | |
| 16722 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that temporal goods should be foregone on account of scandal. For we ought to love our neighbor's spiritual | |
| 16723 welfare which is hindered by scandal, more than any temporal goods whatever. But we forego what we love less for the sake | |
| 16724 of what we love more. Therefore we should forego temporal goods in order to avoid scandalizing our neighbor. | |
| 16725 </p> | |
| 16726 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p3"> | |
| 16727 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Jerome's rule [*Cf. A[7], OBJ[4]], whatever can be foregone without prejudice to the threefold truth, | |
| 16728 should be omitted in order to avoid scandal. Now temporal goods can be foregone without prejudice to the threefold truth. | |
| 16729 Therefore they should be foregone in order to avoid scandal. | |
| 16730 </p> | |
| 16731 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p4"> | |
| 16732 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no temporal good is more necessary than food. But we ought to forego taking food on account of scandal, according | |
| 16733 to | |
| 16734 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A8-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.15" target="asv">Rom. 14:15</a>: "Destroy not him with thy meat for whom Christ died." Much more therefore should all other temporal goods be foregone on | |
| 16735 account of scandal. | |
| 16736 </p> | |
| 16737 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p5"> | |
| 16738 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the most fitting way of safeguarding and recovering temporal goods is the court of justice. But it is unlawful to | |
| 16739 have recourse to justice, especially if scandal ensues: for it is written ( | |
| 16740 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.40" target="asv">Mat. 5:40</a>): "If a man will contend with thee in judgment, and take away thy coat, let go thy cloak also unto him"; and ( | |
| 16741 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A8-p5.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.6.7" target="asv">1 Cor. 6:7</a>): "Already indeed there is plainly a fault among you, that you have lawsuits one with another. Why do you not | |
| 16742 rather take wrong? why do you not rather suffer yourselves to be defrauded?" Therefore it seems that we ought to forego temporal | |
| 16743 goods on account of scandal. | |
| 16744 </p> | |
| 16745 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p6"> | |
| 16746 <b>Objection 5:</b> Further, we ought, seemingly, to forego least of all those temporal goods which are connected with spiritual goods: and yet | |
| 16747 we ought to forego them on account of scandal. For the Apostle while sowing spiritual things did not accept a temporal stipend | |
| 16748 lest he "should give any hindrance to the Gospel of Christ" as we read | |
| 16749 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A8-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.9.12" target="asv">1 Cor. 9:12.</a> For a like reason the Church does not demand tithes in certain countries, in order to avoid scandal. Much | |
| 16750 more, therefore, ought we to forego other temporal goods in order to avoid scandal. | |
| 16751 </p> | |
| 16752 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p7"> | |
| 16753 <b>On the contrary,</b> Blessed Thomas of Canterbury demanded the restitution of Church property, notwithstanding that the king took scandal from | |
| 16754 his doing so. | |
| 16755 </p> | |
| 16756 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p8"> | |
| 16757 <b>I answer that,</b> A distinction must be made in temporal goods: for either they are ours, or they are consigned to us to take care of them | |
| 16758 for someone else; thus the goods of the Church are consigned to prelates, and the goods of the community are entrusted to | |
| 16759 all such persons as have authority over the common weal. In this latter case the care of such things (as of things held in | |
| 16760 deposit) devolves of necessity on those persons to whom they are entrusted, wherefore, even as | |
| 16761 other things that are necessary for salvation, they are not to be foregone on account of scandal. On the other hand, as regards | |
| 16762 those temporalities of which we have the dominion, sometimes, on account of scandal, we are bound to forego them, and sometimes | |
| 16763 we are not so bound, whether we forego them by giving them up, if we have them in our possession, or by omitting to claim | |
| 16764 them, if they are in the possession of others. For if the scandal arise therefrom through the ignorance or weakness of | |
| 16765 others (in which case, as stated above, A[7], it is scandal of the little ones) we must either forego such temporalities altogether, | |
| 16766 or the scandal must be abated by some other means, namely, by some kind of admonition. Hence Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. | |
| 16767 in Monte i, 20): "Thou shouldst give so as to injure neither thyself nor another, as much as thou canst lend, and if thou | |
| 16768 refusest what is asked, thou must yet be just to him, indeed thou wilt give him something better than he asks, if thou | |
| 16769 reprove him that asks unjustly." Sometimes, however, scandal arises from malice. This is scandal of the Pharisees: and we | |
| 16770 ought not to forego temporal goods for the sake of those who stir up scandals of this kind, for this would both be harmful | |
| 16771 to the common good, since it would give wicked men an opportunity of plunder, and would be injurious to the plunderers themselves, | |
| 16772 who would remain in sin as long as they were in possession of another's property. Hence Gregory says (Moral. xxxi, 13): | |
| 16773 "Sometimes we ought to suffer those who rob us of our temporalities, while sometimes we should resist them, as far as equity | |
| 16774 allows, in the hope not only that we may safeguard our property, but also lest those who take what is not theirs may lose | |
| 16775 themselves." | |
| 16776 </p> | |
| 16777 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p9"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 16778 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p10"> | |
| 16779 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> If it were permissible for wicked men to rob other people of their property, this would tend to the detriment of the truth | |
| 16780 of life and justice. Therefore we are not always bound to forego our temporal goods in order to avoid scandal. | |
| 16781 </p> | |
| 16782 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p11"> | |
| 16783 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The Apostle had no intention of counselling total abstinence from food on account of scandal, because our welfare requires | |
| 16784 that we should take food: but he intended to counsel abstinence from a particular kind of food, in order to avoid scandal, | |
| 16785 according to | |
| 16786 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q43_A8-p11.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.8.13" target="asv">1 Cor. 8:13</a>: "I will never eat flesh, lest I should scandalize my brother." | |
| 16787 </p> | |
| 16788 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p12"> | |
| 16789 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> According to Augustine (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 19) this precept of Our Lord is to be understood of the preparedness of | |
| 16790 the mind, namely, that man should be prepared, if it be expedient, to suffer being harmed or defrauded, rather than go to | |
| 16791 law. But sometimes it is not expedient, as stated above (ad 2). The same applies to the saying of the Apostle. | |
| 16792 </p> | |
| 16793 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p13"> | |
| 16794 <b>Reply to Objection 5:</b> The scandal which the Apostle avoided, arose from an error of the gentiles who were not used to this payment. Hence it behooved | |
| 16795 him to forego it for the time being, so that they might be taught first of all that such a payment was a duty. For a like | |
| 16796 reason the Church refrains from demanding tithes in those countries where it is not customary to pay them. | |
| 16797 </p> | |
| 16798 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p14"></p> | |
| 16799 <p id="SS_Q43_A8-p15"></p> | |
| 16800 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A7.html"></a> | |
| 16801 <a href="summa.SS_Q44.html"></a> | |
| 16802 </div> | |
| 16803 <a href="summa.SS_Q42_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16804 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16805 </div> | |
| 16806 <div id="SS_Q44" class="div3"> | |
| 16807 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A8.html"></a> | |
| 16808 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16809 <h3 id="SS_Q44-p0.1">OF THE PRECEPTS OF CHARITY (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 16810 <p id="SS_Q44-p1"></p> | |
| 16811 <p id="SS_Q44-p2"> We must now consider the Precepts of Charity, under which there are eight points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 16812 <p id="SS_Q44-p3"> (1) Whether precepts should be given about charity?</p> | |
| 16813 <p id="SS_Q44-p4"> (2) Whether there should be one or two?</p> | |
| 16814 <p id="SS_Q44-p5"> (3) Whether two suffice?</p> | |
| 16815 <p id="SS_Q44-p6"> (4) Whether it is fittingly prescribed that we should love God, "with thy whole heart"?</p> | |
| 16816 <p id="SS_Q44-p7"> (5) Whether it is fittingly added: "With thy whole mind," etc.?</p> | |
| 16817 <p id="SS_Q44-p8"> (6) Whether it is possible to fulfil this precept in this life?</p> | |
| 16818 <p id="SS_Q44-p9"> (7) Of the precept: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself";</p> | |
| 16819 <p id="SS_Q44-p10"> (8) Whether the order of charity is included in the precept?</p> | |
| 16820 <div id="SS_Q44_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 16821 <a href="summa.SS_Q44.html"></a> | |
| 16822 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16823 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A1-p0.1">Whether any precept should be given about charity?</h4> | |
| 16824 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 16825 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p2"> | |
| 16826 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that no precept should be given about charity. For charity imposes the mode on all acts of virtue, since it | |
| 16827 is the form of the virtues as stated above ( | |
| 16828 <a id="SS_Q44_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A8.html">Q[23], A[8]</a>), while the precepts are about the virtues themselves. Now, according to the common saying, the mode is not included in the | |
| 16829 precept. Therefore no precepts should be given about charity. | |
| 16830 </p> | |
| 16831 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p3"> | |
| 16832 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, charity, which "is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Ghost" ( | |
| 16833 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.5" target="asv">Rom. 5:5</a>), makes us free, since "where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty" ( | |
| 16834 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iiCor.3.17" target="asv">2 Cor. 3:17</a>). Now the obligation that arises from a precept is opposed to liberty, since it imposes a necessity. Therefore no precept | |
| 16835 should be given about charity. | |
| 16836 </p> | |
| 16837 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p4"> | |
| 16838 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, charity is the foremost among all the virtues, to which the precepts are directed, as shown above ( | |
| 16839 <a id="SS_Q44_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q90_A2.html">FS, Q[90], A[2]</a>; | |
| 16840 <a id="SS_Q44_A1-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q100_A9.html">FS, Q[100], A[9]</a>). If, therefore, any precepts were given about charity, they should have a place among the chief precepts which are those | |
| 16841 of the decalogue. But they have no place there. Therefore no precepts should be given about charity. | |
| 16842 </p> | |
| 16843 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p5"> | |
| 16844 <b>On the contrary,</b> Whatever God requires of us is included in a precept. Now God requires that man should love Him, according to | |
| 16845 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.10.12" target="asv"> Dt. 10:12.</a> Therefore it behooved precepts to be given about the love of charity, which is the love of God. | |
| 16846 </p> | |
| 16847 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p6"> | |
| 16848 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (Q[16], A[1]; | |
| 16849 <a id="SS_Q44_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q99_A1.html">FS, Q[99], A[1]</a>), a precept implies the notion of something due. Hence a thing is a matter of precept, in so far as it is something due. | |
| 16850 Now a thing is due in two ways, for its own sake, and for the sake of something else. In every affair, it is the end that | |
| 16851 is due for its own sake, because it has the character of a good for its own sake: while that which is directed to the end | |
| 16852 is due for the sake of | |
| 16853 something else: thus for a physician, it is due for its own sake, that he should heal, while it is due for the sake of something | |
| 16854 else that he should give a medicine in order to heal. Now the end of the spiritual life is that man be united to God, and | |
| 16855 this union is effected by charity, while all things pertaining to the spiritual life are ordained to this union, as to their | |
| 16856 end. Hence the Apostle says ( | |
| 16857 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A1-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iTim.1.5" target="asv">1 Tim. 1:5</a>): "The end of the commandment is charity from a pure heart, | |
| 16858 and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith." For all the virtues, about whose acts the precepts are given, are directed | |
| 16859 either to the freeing of the heart from the whirl of the passions---such are the virtues that regulate the passions---or at | |
| 16860 least to the possession of a good conscience---such are the virtues that regulate operations---or to the having of a right | |
| 16861 faith---such are those which pertain to the worship of God: and these three things are required of man that he may love God. | |
| 16862 For | |
| 16863 an impure heart is withdrawn from loving God, on account of the passion that inclines it to earthly things; an evil conscience | |
| 16864 gives man a horror for God's justice, through fear of His punishments; and an untrue faith draws man's affections to an untrue | |
| 16865 representation of God, and separates him from the truth of God. Now in every genus that which is for its own sake takes precedence | |
| 16866 of that which is for the sake of another, wherefore the greatest precept is that of charity, as stated in | |
| 16867 | |
| 16868 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A1-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.39" target="asv"> Mat. 22:39.</a> | |
| 16869 </p> | |
| 16870 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p7"> | |
| 16871 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16872 <a id="SS_Q44_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q100_A10.html">FS, Q[100], A[10]</a>) when we were treating of the commandments, the mode of love does not come under those precepts which are about the other | |
| 16873 acts of virtue: for instance, this precept, "Honor thy father and thy mother," does not prescribe that this should be done | |
| 16874 out of charity. The act of love does, however, fall under special precepts. | |
| 16875 </p> | |
| 16876 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p8"> | |
| 16877 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The obligation of a precept is not opposed to liberty, except in one whose mind is averted from that which is prescribed, | |
| 16878 as may be seen in those who keep the precepts through fear alone. But the precept of love cannot be fulfilled save of one's | |
| 16879 own will, wherefore it is not opposed to charity. | |
| 16880 </p> | |
| 16881 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p9"> | |
| 16882 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> All the precepts of the decalogue are directed to the love of God and of our neighbor: and therefore the precepts of charity | |
| 16883 had not to be enumerated among the precepts of the decalogue, since they are included in all of them. | |
| 16884 </p> | |
| 16885 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p10"></p> | |
| 16886 <p id="SS_Q44_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 16887 <a href="summa.SS_Q44.html"></a> | |
| 16888 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16889 </div> | |
| 16890 <div id="SS_Q44_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 16891 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16892 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16893 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A2-p0.1">Whether there should have been given two precepts of charity?</h4> | |
| 16894 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 16895 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p2"> | |
| 16896 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there should not have been given two precepts of charity. For the precepts of the Law are directed to | |
| 16897 virtue, as stated above (A[1], OBJ[3]). Now charity is one virtue, as shown above ( | |
| 16898 <a id="SS_Q44_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q33_A5.html">Q[33], A[5]</a>). Therefore only one precept of charity should have been given. | |
| 16899 </p> | |
| 16900 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p3"> | |
| 16901 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 22,27), charity loves none but God in our neighbor. Now we are sufficiently | |
| 16902 directed to love God by the precept, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God." Therefore there was no need to add the precept about | |
| 16903 loving our neighbor. | |
| 16904 </p> | |
| 16905 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p4"> | |
| 16906 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, different sins are opposed to different precepts. But it is not a sin to put aside the love of our neighbor, provided | |
| 16907 we put not aside the love of God; indeed, it is written ( | |
| 16908 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A2-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Luke.15.26" target="asv">Lk. 15:26</a>): "If any man come to Me, and hate not his father, and mother . . . he cannot be My disciple." Therefore the precept of the | |
| 16909 love of God is not distinct from the precept of the love of our neighbor. | |
| 16910 </p> | |
| 16911 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p5"> | |
| 16912 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 16913 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.13.8" target="asv">Rom. 13:8</a>): "He that loveth his neighbor hath fulfilled the Law." But a law is not fulfilled unless all its precepts be observed. Therefore | |
| 16914 all the precepts are included in the love of our neighbor: and consequently the one precept of the love of our neighbor suffices. | |
| 16915 Therefore there should not be two precepts of charity. | |
| 16916 </p> | |
| 16917 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p6"> | |
| 16918 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 16919 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A2-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.21" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:21</a>): "This commandment we have from God, that he who loveth God, love also his brother." | |
| 16920 </p> | |
| 16921 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p7"> | |
| 16922 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16923 <a id="SS_Q44_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q91_A3.html">FS, Q[91], A[3]</a>; | |
| 16924 <a id="SS_Q44_A2-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q94_A2.html">FS, Q[94], A[2]</a>) when we were treating of the commandments, the precepts are to the Law what propositions are to speculative sciences, for | |
| 16925 in these latter, the conclusions are virtually contained in the first principles. Hence whoever knows the principles as to | |
| 16926 their entire virtual extent has no need to have the conclusions put separately before him. Since, however, some who | |
| 16927 know the principles are unable to consider all that is virtually contained therein, it is necessary, for their sake, that | |
| 16928 scientific conclusions should be traced to their principles. Now in practical matters wherein the precepts of the Law direct | |
| 16929 us, the end has the character of principle, as stated above (Q[23], A[7], ad 2; Q[26], A[1], ad 1): and the love of God is | |
| 16930 the end to which the love of our neighbor is directed. Therefore it behooved us to receive precepts not only of the love of | |
| 16931 God | |
| 16932 but also of the love of our neighbor, on account of those who are less intelligent, who do not easily understand that one | |
| 16933 of these precepts is included in the other. | |
| 16934 </p> | |
| 16935 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p8"> | |
| 16936 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although charity is one virtue, yet it has two acts, one of which is directed to the other as to its end. Now precepts are | |
| 16937 given about acts of virtue, and so there had to be several precepts of charity. | |
| 16938 </p> | |
| 16939 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p9"> | |
| 16940 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> God is loved in our neighbor, as the end is loved in that which is directed to the end; and yet there was need for an explicit | |
| 16941 precept about both, for the reason given above. | |
| 16942 </p> | |
| 16943 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p10"> | |
| 16944 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The means derive their goodness from their relation to the end, and accordingly aversion from the means derives its malice | |
| 16945 from the same source and from no other | |
| 16946 </p> | |
| 16947 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p11"> | |
| 16948 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Love of our neighbor includes love of God, as the end is included in the means, and vice versa: and yet it behooved each | |
| 16949 precept to be given explicitly, for the reason given above. | |
| 16950 </p> | |
| 16951 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 16952 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p13"></p> | |
| 16953 <p id="SS_Q44_A2-p14"></p> | |
| 16954 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A1.html"></a> | |
| 16955 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A3.html"></a> | |
| 16956 </div> | |
| 16957 <div id="SS_Q44_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 16958 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A2.html"></a> | |
| 16959 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A4.html"></a> | |
| 16960 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A3-p0.1">Whether two precepts of charity suffice?</h4> | |
| 16961 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 16962 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p2"> | |
| 16963 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that two precepts of charity do not suffice. For precepts are given about acts of virtue. Now acts are distinguished | |
| 16964 by their objects. Since, then, man is bound to love four things out of charity, namely, God, himself, his neighbor and his | |
| 16965 own body, as shown above ( | |
| 16966 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html">Q[25], A[12]</a>; | |
| 16967 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26.html"> Q[26])</a>, it seems that there ought to be four precepts of charity, so that two are not sufficient. | |
| 16968 </p> | |
| 16969 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p3"> | |
| 16970 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, love is not the only act of charity, but also joy, peace and beneficence. But precepts should be given about the | |
| 16971 acts of the virtues. Therefore two precepts of charity do not suffice. | |
| 16972 </p> | |
| 16973 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p4"> | |
| 16974 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, virtue consists not only in doing good but also in avoiding evil. Now we are led by the positive precepts to do | |
| 16975 good, and by the negative precepts to avoid evil. Therefore there ought to have been not only positive, but also negative | |
| 16976 precepts about charity; and so two precepts of charity are not sufficient. | |
| 16977 </p> | |
| 16978 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p5"> | |
| 16979 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said ( | |
| 16980 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.40" target="asv">Mat. 22:40</a>): "On these two commandments dependeth the whole Law and the prophets." | |
| 16981 </p> | |
| 16982 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p6"> | |
| 16983 <b>I answer that,</b> Charity, as stated above ( | |
| 16984 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q23_A1.html">Q[23], A[1]</a>), is a kind of friendship. Now friendship is between one person and another, wherefore Gregory says (Hom. in Ev. xvii): "Charity | |
| 16985 is not possible between less than two": and it has been explained how one may love oneself out of charity ( | |
| 16986 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A4.html">Q[25], A[4]</a>). Now since good is the object of dilection and love, and since good is either an end or a means, it is fitting that there | |
| 16987 should be two precepts of charity, one whereby we are induced to love God as our end, and another whereby we are led to love | |
| 16988 our neighbor for God's sake, as for the sake of our end | |
| 16989 </p> | |
| 16990 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p7"> | |
| 16991 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 23), "though four things are to be loved out of charity, there was no need of a precept | |
| 16992 as regards the second and fourth," i.e. love of oneself and of one's own body. "For however much a man may stray from the | |
| 16993 truth, the love of himself and of his own body always remains in him." And yet the mode of this love had to be prescribed | |
| 16994 to man, namely, that he should love himself and his own body in an ordinate manner, | |
| 16995 and this is done by his loving God and his neighbor. | |
| 16996 </p> | |
| 16997 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p8"> | |
| 16998 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As stated above ( | |
| 16999 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q28_A4.html">Q[28], A[4]</a>; | |
| 17000 <a id="SS_Q44_A3-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html"> Q[29], A[3]</a>), the other acts of charity result from the act of love as effects from their cause. Hence the precepts of love virtually | |
| 17001 include the precepts about the other acts. And yet we find that, for the sake of the laggards, special precepts were given | |
| 17002 about each act---about joy ( | |
| 17003 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p8.3" href="./asv.html#Phil.4.4" target="asv">Phil. 4:4</a>): "Rejoice in the Lord always"---about peace | |
| 17004 ( | |
| 17005 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p8.4" href="./asv.html#Heb.12.14" target="asv">Heb. 12:14</a>): "Follow peace with all men"---about beneficence ( | |
| 17006 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p8.5" href="./asv.html#Gal.6.10" target="asv">Gal. 6:10</a>): "Whilst we have time, let us work good to all men"---and Holy Writ contains precepts about each of the parts of beneficence, | |
| 17007 as may be seen by anyone who considers the matter carefully. | |
| 17008 </p> | |
| 17009 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p9"> | |
| 17010 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To do good is more than to avoid evil, and therefore the positive precepts virtually include the negative precepts. Nevertheless | |
| 17011 we find explicit precepts against the vices contrary to charity: for, against hatred it is written ( | |
| 17012 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Lev.12.17" target="asv">Lev. 12:17</a>): "Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart"; against sloth ( | |
| 17013 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p9.2" href="./asv.html#Sir.6.26" target="asv">Ecclus. 6:26</a>): "Be not grieved with her bands"; against envy ( | |
| 17014 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p9.3" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.26" target="asv">Gal. 5:26</a>): "Let us not | |
| 17015 be made desirous of vainglory, provoking one another, envying one another"; against discord ( | |
| 17016 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p9.4" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:10</a>): "That you all speak the same thing, and that there be no schisms among you"; and against scandal ( | |
| 17017 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A3-p9.5" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.13" target="asv">Rom. 14:13</a>): "That you put not a stumbling-block or a scandal in your brother's way." | |
| 17018 </p> | |
| 17019 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 17020 <p id="SS_Q44_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 17021 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17022 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17023 </div> | |
| 17024 <div id="SS_Q44_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 17025 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17026 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17027 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A4-p0.1">Whether it is fittingly commanded that man should love God with his whole heart?</h4> | |
| 17028 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 17029 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p2"> | |
| 17030 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it is unfittingly commanded that man should love God with his whole heart. For the mode of a virtuous | |
| 17031 act is not a matter of precept, as shown above (A[1], ad 1; | |
| 17032 <a id="SS_Q44_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q100_A9.html">FS, Q[100], A[9]</a>). Now the words "with thy whole heart" signify the mode of the love of God. Therefore it is unfittingly commanded that man | |
| 17033 should love God with his whole heart. | |
| 17034 </p> | |
| 17035 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p3"> | |
| 17036 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "A thing is whole and perfect when it lacks nothing" (Phys. iii, 6). If therefore it is a matter of precept that | |
| 17037 God be loved with the whole heart, whoever does something not pertaining to the love of God, acts counter to the precept, | |
| 17038 and consequently sins mortally. Now a venial sin does not pertain to the love of God. Therefore a venial sin is a mortal sin, | |
| 17039 which is absurd. | |
| 17040 </p> | |
| 17041 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p4"> | |
| 17042 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to love God with one's whole heart belongs to perfection, since according to the Philosopher (Phys. iii, text. 64), | |
| 17043 "to be whole is to be perfect." But that which belongs to perfection is not a matter of precept, but a matter of counsel. | |
| 17044 Therefore we ought not to be commanded to love God with our whole heart. | |
| 17045 </p> | |
| 17046 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p5"> | |
| 17047 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17048 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.5" target="asv">Dt. 6:5</a>): "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart." | |
| 17049 </p> | |
| 17050 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p6"> | |
| 17051 <b>I answer that,</b> Since precepts are given about acts of virtue, an act is a matter of precept according as it is an act of virtue. Now it | |
| 17052 is requisite for an act of virtue that not only should it fall on its own matter, but also that it should be endued with its | |
| 17053 due circumstances, whereby it is adapted to that matter. But God is to be loved as the last end, to which all things are to | |
| 17054 be referred. Therefore some kind of totality was to be indicated in connection with the | |
| 17055 precept of the love of God. | |
| 17056 </p> | |
| 17057 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p7"> | |
| 17058 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The commandment that prescribes an act of virtue does not prescribe the mode which that virtue derives from another and higher | |
| 17059 virtue, but it does prescribe the mode which belongs to its own proper virtue, and this mode is signified in the words "with | |
| 17060 thy whole heart." | |
| 17061 </p> | |
| 17062 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p8"> | |
| 17063 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> To love God with one's whole heart has a twofold signification. First, actually, so that a man's whole heart be always actually | |
| 17064 directed to God: this is the perfection of heaven. Secondly, in the sense that a man's whole heart be habitually directed | |
| 17065 to God, so that it consent to nothing contrary to the love of God, and this is the perfection of the way. Venial sin is not | |
| 17066 contrary to this latter perfection, because it does not destroy the habit of | |
| 17067 charity, since it does not tend to a contrary object, but merely hinders the use of charity. | |
| 17068 </p> | |
| 17069 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p9"> | |
| 17070 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That perfection of charity to which the counsels are directed, is between the two perfections mentioned in the preceding | |
| 17071 reply: and it consists in man renouncing, as much as possible, temporal things, even such as are lawful, because they occupy | |
| 17072 the mind and hinder the actual movement of the heart towards God. | |
| 17073 </p> | |
| 17074 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 17075 <p id="SS_Q44_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 17076 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17077 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17078 </div> | |
| 17079 <div id="SS_Q44_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 17080 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17081 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17082 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A5-p0.1">Whether to the words, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart," it was fitting to add "and with thy whole soul, | |
| 17083 and with thy whole strength"? | |
| 17084 </h4> | |
| 17085 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 17086 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p2"> | |
| 17087 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that it was unfitting to the words, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, with thy whole heart," to add, "and | |
| 17088 with thy whole soul, and with thy whole strength" ( | |
| 17089 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.5" target="asv">Dt. 6:5</a>). For heart does not mean here a part of the body, since to love God is not a bodily action: and therefore heart is to be | |
| 17090 taken here in a spiritual sense. Now the heart understood spiritually is either the soul itself or part of the soul. Therefore | |
| 17091 it is | |
| 17092 superfluous to mention both heart and soul. | |
| 17093 </p> | |
| 17094 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p3"> | |
| 17095 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a man's strength whether spiritual or corporal depends on the heart. Therefore after the words, "Thou shalt love | |
| 17096 the Lord thy God with thy whole heart," it was unnecessary to add, "with all thy strength." | |
| 17097 </p> | |
| 17098 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p4"> | |
| 17099 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in | |
| 17100 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.37" target="asv"> Mat. 22:37 </a>we read: "With all thy mind," which words do not occur here. Therefore it seems that this precept is unfittingly worded in | |
| 17101 | |
| 17102 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Deut.6" target="asv">Dt. 6</a>. | |
| 17103 </p> | |
| 17104 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p5"> On the contrary stands the authority of Scripture.</p> | |
| 17105 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p6"> | |
| 17106 <b>I answer that,</b> This precept is differently worded in various places: for, as we said in the first objection, in | |
| 17107 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6" target="asv">Dt. 6</a> three points are mentioned: "with thy whole heart," and "with thy whole soul," and "with thy whole strength." In | |
| 17108 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Matt.22" target="asv">Mat. 22</a> we find two of these mentioned, viz. "with thy whole heart" and "with thy whole soul," while "with thy whole strength" is | |
| 17109 omitted, but "with thy whole mind" is added. Yet in | |
| 17110 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Mark.12" target="asv">Mark 12</a> we find all four, viz. "with thy whole heart," and "with | |
| 17111 thy whole soul," and "with thy whole mind," and "with thy whole force" which is the same as "strength." Moreover, these four | |
| 17112 are indicated in | |
| 17113 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A5-p6.4" href="./asv.html#Luke.10" target="asv">Luke 10</a>, where in place of "strength" or "force" we read "with all thy might." [*St. Thomas is explaining the Latin text which reads | |
| 17114 "ex tota fortitudine tua" (Dt.), "ex tota virtue tua" (Mk.), and "ex omnibus tuis" (Lk.), although the Greek in all three | |
| 17115 cases has {ex holes tes ischyos}, which the Douay renders "with thy whole strength."] | |
| 17116 </p> | |
| 17117 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p7"> Accordingly these four have to be explained, since the fact that one of them is omitted here or there is due to one implying | |
| 17118 another. We must therefore observe that love is an act of the will which is here denoted by the "heart," because just as the | |
| 17119 bodily heart is the principle of all the movements of the body, so too the will, especially as regards the intention of the | |
| 17120 last end which is the object of charity, is the principle of all the movements of the soul. Now there are | |
| 17121 three principles of action that are moved by the will, namely, the intellect which is signified by "the mind," the lower appetitive | |
| 17122 power, signified by "the soul"; and the exterior executive power signified by "strength," "force" or "might." Accordingly | |
| 17123 we are commanded to direct our whole intention to God, and this is signified by the words "with thy whole heart"; to submit | |
| 17124 our intellect to God, and this is expressed in the words "with thy whole mind"; to regulate our appetite according to | |
| 17125 God, in the words "with thy whole soul"; and to obey God in our external actions, and this is to love God with our whole "strength," | |
| 17126 "force" or "might." | |
| 17127 </p> | |
| 17128 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p8"> Chrysostom [*The quotation is from an anonymous author's unfinished work (Opus imperf. Hom. xlii, in Matth.) which is included | |
| 17129 in Chrysostom's works], on the other hand, takes "heart" and "soul" in the contrary sense; and Augustine (De Doctr. Christ. | |
| 17130 i, 22) refers "heart" to the thought, "soul" to the manner of life, and "mind" to the intellect. Again some explain "with | |
| 17131 thy whole heart" as denoting the intellect, "with thy whole soul" as signifying the will, "with thy mind" as | |
| 17132 pointing to the memory. And again, according to Gregory of Nyssa (De Hom. Opif. viii), "heart" signifies the vegetative soul, | |
| 17133 "soul" the sensitive, and "mind" the intellective soul, because our nourishment, sensation, and understanding ought all to | |
| 17134 be referred by us to God. | |
| 17135 </p> | |
| 17136 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p9"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 17137 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p10"></p> | |
| 17138 <p id="SS_Q44_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 17139 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17140 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17141 </div> | |
| 17142 <div id="SS_Q44_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 17143 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17144 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A7.html"></a> | |
| 17145 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A6-p0.1">Whether it is possible in this life to fulfil this precept of the love of God?</h4> | |
| 17146 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 17147 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p2"> | |
| 17148 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that in this life it is possible to fulfil this precept of the love of God. For according to Jerome [*Pelagius, | |
| 17149 Exposit. Cath. Fid.] "accursed is he who says that Cod has commanded anything impossible." But God gave this commandment, | |
| 17150 as is clear from | |
| 17151 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.6.5" target="asv"> Dt. 6:5.</a> Therefore it is possible to fulfil this precept in this life. | |
| 17152 </p> | |
| 17153 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p3"> | |
| 17154 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whoever does not fulfil a precept sins mortally, since according to Ambrose (De Parad. viii) sin is nothing else | |
| 17155 than "a transgression of the Divine Law, and disobedience of the heavenly commandments." If therefore this precept cannot | |
| 17156 be fulfilled by wayfarers, it follows that in this life no man can be without mortal sin, and this is against the saying of | |
| 17157 the Apostle ( | |
| 17158 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.8" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:8</a>): "(Who also) will confirm you unto the end without | |
| 17159 crime," and ( | |
| 17160 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A6-p3.2" href="./asv.html#iTim.3.10" target="asv">1 Tim. 3:10</a>): "Let them minister, having no crime." | |
| 17161 </p> | |
| 17162 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p4"> | |
| 17163 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, precepts are given in order to direct man in the way of salvation, according to | |
| 17164 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.18.9" target="asv"> Ps. 18:9</a>: "The commandment of the Lord is lightsome, enlightening the eyes." Now it is useless to direct anyone to what is impossible. | |
| 17165 Therefore it is not impossible to fulfill this precept in this life. | |
| 17166 </p> | |
| 17167 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p5"> | |
| 17168 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Perfect. Justit. viii): "In the fulness of heavenly charity this precept will be fulfilled: Thou shalt | |
| 17169 love the Lord thy God," etc. For as long as any carnal concupiscence remains, that can be restrained by continence, man cannot | |
| 17170 love God with all his heart. | |
| 17171 </p> | |
| 17172 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p6"> | |
| 17173 <b>I answer that,</b> A precept can be fulfilled in two ways; perfectly, and imperfectly. A precept is fulfilled perfectly, when the end intended | |
| 17174 by the author of the precept is reached; yet it is fulfilled, imperfectly however, when although the end intended by its author | |
| 17175 is not reached, nevertheless the order to that end is not departed from. Thus if the commander of an army order his soldiers | |
| 17176 to fight, his command will be perfectly obeyed by those who fight and conquer the | |
| 17177 foe, which is the commander's intention; yet it is fulfilled, albeit imperfectly, by those who fight without gaining the victory, | |
| 17178 provided they do nothing contrary to military discipline. Now God intends by this precept that man should be entirely united | |
| 17179 to Him, and this will be realized in heaven, when God will be "all in all," according to | |
| 17180 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A6-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.15.28" target="asv">1 Cor. 15:28.</a> Hence this precept will be observed fully and perfectly in heaven; yet it is fulfilled, though imperfectly, on the way. | |
| 17181 Nevertheless on the way one man will fulfil it more perfectly than another, and so much the more, as he approaches by some | |
| 17182 kind of likeness to the perfection of heaven. | |
| 17183 </p> | |
| 17184 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p7"> | |
| 17185 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument proves that the precept can be fulfilled after a fashion on the way, but not perfectly. | |
| 17186 </p> | |
| 17187 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p8"> | |
| 17188 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Even as the soldier who fights legitimately without conquering is not blamed nor deserves to be punished for this, so too | |
| 17189 he that does not fulfil this precept on the way, but does nothing against the love of God, does not sin mortally. | |
| 17190 </p> | |
| 17191 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p9"> | |
| 17192 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says (De Perfect. Justit. viii), "why should not this perfection be prescribed to man, although no man attains | |
| 17193 it in this life? For one cannot run straight unless one knows whither to run. And how would one know this if no precept pointed | |
| 17194 it out." | |
| 17195 </p> | |
| 17196 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 17197 <p id="SS_Q44_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 17198 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17199 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A7.html"></a> | |
| 17200 </div> | |
| 17201 <div id="SS_Q44_A7" class="div4"> | |
| 17202 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17203 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A8.html"></a> | |
| 17204 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A7-p0.1">Whether the precept of love of our neighbor is fittingly expressed?</h4> | |
| 17205 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p1"></p> | |
| 17206 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p2"> | |
| 17207 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the precept of the love of our neighbor is unfittingly expressed. For the love of charity extends to all | |
| 17208 men, even to our enemies, as may be seen in | |
| 17209 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.5.44" target="asv"> Mat. 5:44.</a> But the word "neighbor" denotes a kind of "nighness" which does not seem to exist towards all men. Therefore it seems that | |
| 17210 this precept is unfittingly expressed. | |
| 17211 </p> | |
| 17212 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p3"> | |
| 17213 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. ix, 8) "the origin of our friendly relations with others lies in our relation | |
| 17214 to ourselves," whence it seems to follow that love of self is the origin of one's love for one's neighbor. Now the principle | |
| 17215 is greater than that which results from it. Therefore man ought not to love his neighbor as himself. | |
| 17216 </p> | |
| 17217 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p4"> | |
| 17218 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, man loves himself, but not his neighbor, naturally. Therefore it is unfitting that he should be commanded to love | |
| 17219 his neighbor as himself. | |
| 17220 </p> | |
| 17221 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p5"> | |
| 17222 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17223 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A7-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.22.39" target="asv">Mat. 22:39</a>): "The second" commandment "is like to this: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." | |
| 17224 </p> | |
| 17225 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p6"> | |
| 17226 <b>I answer that,</b> This precept is fittingly expressed, for it indicates both the reason for loving and the mode of love. The reason for loving | |
| 17227 is indicated in the word "neighbor," because the reason why we ought to love others out of charity is because they are nigh | |
| 17228 to us, both as to the natural image of God, and as to the capacity for glory. Nor does it matter whether we say "neighbor," | |
| 17229 or "brother" according to | |
| 17230 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A7-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.4.21" target="asv">1 Jn. 4:21, </a> or "friend," according | |
| 17231 to | |
| 17232 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A7-p6.2" href="./asv.html#Lev.19.18" target="asv"> Lev. 19:18, </a> because all these words express the same affinity. | |
| 17233 </p> | |
| 17234 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p7"> The mode of love is indicated in the words "as thyself." This does not mean that a man must love his neighbor equally as | |
| 17235 himself, but in like manner as himself, and this in three ways. First, as regards the end, namely, that he should love his | |
| 17236 neighbor for God's sake, even as he loves himself for God's sake, so that his love for his neighbor is a "holy" love. Secondly, | |
| 17237 as regards the rule of love, namely, that a man should not give way to his neighbor in evil, but only in good | |
| 17238 things, even as he ought to gratify his will in good things alone, so that his love for his neighbor may be a "righteous" | |
| 17239 love. Thirdly, as regards the reason for loving, namely, that a man should love his neighbor, not for his own profit, or pleasure, | |
| 17240 but in the sense of wishing his neighbor well, even as he wishes himself well, so that his love for his neighbor may be a | |
| 17241 "true" love: since when a man loves his neighbor for his own profit or pleasure, he does not love his neighbor truly, but | |
| 17242 loves himself. | |
| 17243 </p> | |
| 17244 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p8"> This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.</p> | |
| 17245 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p9"></p> | |
| 17246 <p id="SS_Q44_A7-p10"></p> | |
| 17247 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17248 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A8.html"></a> | |
| 17249 </div> | |
| 17250 <div id="SS_Q44_A8" class="div4"> | |
| 17251 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A7.html"></a> | |
| 17252 <a href="summa.SS_Q45.html"></a> | |
| 17253 <h4 id="SS_Q44_A8-p0.1">Whether the order of charity is included in the precept?</h4> | |
| 17254 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p1"></p> | |
| 17255 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p2"> | |
| 17256 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the order of charity is not included in the precept. For whoever transgresses a precept does a wrong. | |
| 17257 But if man loves some one as much as he ought, and loves any other man more, he wrongs no man. Therefore he does not transgress | |
| 17258 the precept. Therefore the order of charity is not included in the precept. | |
| 17259 </p> | |
| 17260 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p3"> | |
| 17261 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever is a matter of precept is sufficiently delivered to us in Holy Writ. Now the order of charity which was | |
| 17262 given above ( | |
| 17263 <a id="SS_Q44_A8-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26.html">Q[26])</a> is nowhere indicated in Holy Writ. Therefore it is not included in the precept. | |
| 17264 </p> | |
| 17265 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p4"> | |
| 17266 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, order implies some kind of distinction. But the love of our neighbor is prescribed without any distinction, in the | |
| 17267 words, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." Therefore the order of charity is not included in the precept. | |
| 17268 </p> | |
| 17269 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p5"> | |
| 17270 <b>On the contrary,</b> Whatever God works in us by His grace, He teaches us first of all by His Law, according to | |
| 17271 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A8-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.31.33" target="asv"> Jer. 31:33</a>: "I will give My Law in their heart [*Vulg.: 'in their bowels, and I will write it in their heart']." Now God causes in us | |
| 17272 the order of charity, according to | |
| 17273 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A8-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Song.2.4" target="asv">Cant 2:4</a>: "He set in order charity in me." Therefore the order of charity comes under the precept of the Law. | |
| 17274 </p> | |
| 17275 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p6"> | |
| 17276 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[4], ad 1), the mode which is essential to an act of virtue comes under the precept which prescribes that | |
| 17277 virtuous act. Now the order of charity is essential to the virtue, since it is based on the proportion of love to the thing | |
| 17278 beloved, as shown above ( | |
| 17279 <a id="SS_Q44_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q25_A12.html">Q[25], A[12]</a>; | |
| 17280 <a id="SS_Q44_A8-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q26_A1.html"> Q[26], AA[1]</a>,2). It is therefore evident that the order of charity must come under the precept. | |
| 17281 </p> | |
| 17282 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p7"> | |
| 17283 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A man gratifies more the person he loves more, so that if he loved less one whom he ought to love more, he would wish to | |
| 17284 gratify more one whom he ought to gratify less, and so he would do an injustice to the one he ought to love more. | |
| 17285 </p> | |
| 17286 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p8"> | |
| 17287 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The order of those four things we have to love out of charity is expressed in Holy Writ. For when we are commanded to love | |
| 17288 God with our "whole heart," we are given to understand that we must love Him above all things. When we are commanded to love | |
| 17289 our neighbor "as ourselves," the love of self is set before love of our neighbor. In like manner where we are commanded ( | |
| 17290 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A8-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iJohn.3.16" target="asv">1 Jn. 3:16</a>) "to lay down our souls," i.e. the life of our bodies, | |
| 17291 "for the brethren," we are given to understand that a man ought to love his neighbor more than his own body; and again when | |
| 17292 we are commanded ( | |
| 17293 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A8-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Gal.6.10" target="asv">Gal. 6:10</a>) to "work good . . . especially to those who are of the household of the faith," and when a man is blamed ( | |
| 17294 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q44_A8-p8.3" href="./asv.html#iTim.5.8" target="asv">1 Tim. 5:8</a>) if he "have not care of his own, and especially of those of his house," it means that we ought to love most those of our | |
| 17295 neighbors who are more virtuous or more closely united to us. | |
| 17296 </p> | |
| 17297 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p9"> | |
| 17298 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It follows from the very words, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor" that those who are nearer to us are to be loved more. | |
| 17299 </p> | |
| 17300 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p10"></p> | |
| 17301 <p id="SS_Q44_A8-p11"></p> | |
| 17302 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A7.html"></a> | |
| 17303 <a href="summa.SS_Q45.html"></a> | |
| 17304 </div> | |
| 17305 <a href="summa.SS_Q43_A8.html"></a> | |
| 17306 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17307 </div> | |
| 17308 <div id="SS_Q45" class="div3"> | |
| 17309 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A8.html"></a> | |
| 17310 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17311 <h3 id="SS_Q45-p0.1">OF THE GIFT OF WISDOM (SIX ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 17312 <p id="SS_Q45-p1"></p> | |
| 17313 <p id="SS_Q45-p2"> We must now consider the gift of wisdom which corresponds to charity; and firstly, wisdom itself, secondly, the opposite | |
| 17314 vice. Under the first head there are six points of inquiry: | |
| 17315 </p> | |
| 17316 <p id="SS_Q45-p3"> (1) Whether wisdom should be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost?</p> | |
| 17317 <p id="SS_Q45-p4"> (2) What is its subject?</p> | |
| 17318 <p id="SS_Q45-p5"> (3) Whether wisdom is only speculative or also practical?</p> | |
| 17319 <p id="SS_Q45-p6"> (4) Whether the wisdom that is a gift is compatible with mortal sin?</p> | |
| 17320 <p id="SS_Q45-p7"> (5) Whether it is in all those who have sanctifying grace?</p> | |
| 17321 <p id="SS_Q45-p8"> (6) Which beatitude corresponds to it?</p> | |
| 17322 <div id="SS_Q45_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 17323 <a href="summa.SS_Q45.html"></a> | |
| 17324 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17325 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A1-p0.1">Whether wisdom should be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost?</h4> | |
| 17326 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 17327 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p2"> | |
| 17328 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that wisdom ought not to be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost. For the gifts are more perfect than | |
| 17329 the virtues, as stated above ( | |
| 17330 <a id="SS_Q45_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q68_A8.html">FS, Q[68], A[8]</a>). Now virtue is directed to the good alone, wherefore Augustine says (De Lib. Arb. ii, 19) that "no man makes bad use of | |
| 17331 the virtues." Much more therefore are the gifts of the Holy Ghost directed to the good alone. But wisdom is directed to evil | |
| 17332 also, for it is written | |
| 17333 ( | |
| 17334 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Jas.3.15" target="asv">James 3:15</a>) that a certain wisdom is "earthly, sensual, devilish." Therefore wisdom should not be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy | |
| 17335 Ghost. | |
| 17336 </p> | |
| 17337 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p3"> | |
| 17338 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Augustine (De Trin. xii, 14) "wisdom is the knowledge of Divine things." Now that knowledge of Divine | |
| 17339 things which man can acquire by his natural endowments, belongs to the wisdom which is an intellectual virtue, while the supernatural | |
| 17340 knowledge of Divine things belongs to faith which is a theological virtue, as explained above (Q[4], A[5]; | |
| 17341 <a id="SS_Q45_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q62_A3.html">FS, Q[62], A[3]</a>). Therefore wisdom should be called a virtue rather than a | |
| 17342 gift. | |
| 17343 </p> | |
| 17344 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p4"> | |
| 17345 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 17346 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Job.28.28" target="asv">Job 28:28</a>): "Behold the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to depart from evil, that is understanding." And in this passage according | |
| 17347 to the rendering of the Septuagint which Augustine follows (De Trin. xii, 14; xiv, 1) we read: "Behold piety, that is wisdom." | |
| 17348 Now both fear and piety are gifts of the Holy Ghost. Therefore wisdom should not be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost, | |
| 17349 as though it were distinct | |
| 17350 from the others. | |
| 17351 </p> | |
| 17352 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p5"> | |
| 17353 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17354 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.11.2" target="asv">Is. 11:2</a>): "The Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon Him; the spirit of wisdom and of understanding." | |
| 17355 </p> | |
| 17356 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p6"> | |
| 17357 <b>I answer that,</b> According to the Philosopher (Metaph. i: 2), it belongs to wisdom to consider the highest cause. By means of that cause we | |
| 17358 are able to form a most certain judgment about other causes, and according thereto all things should be set in order. Now | |
| 17359 the highest cause may be understood in two ways, either simply or in some particular genus. Accordingly he that knows the | |
| 17360 highest cause in any particular genus, and by its means is able to judge and set in order all | |
| 17361 the things that belong to that genus, is said to be wise in that genus, for instance in medicine or architecture, according | |
| 17362 to | |
| 17363 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:10</a>: "As a wise architect, I have laid a foundation." On the other hand, he who knows the cause that is simply the highest, which | |
| 17364 is God, is said to be wise simply, because he is able to judge and set in order all things according to Divine rules. | |
| 17365 </p> | |
| 17366 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p7"> Now man obtains this judgment through the Holy Ghost, according to | |
| 17367 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.15" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:15</a>: "The spiritual man judgeth all things," because as stated in the same chapter ( | |
| 17368 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p7.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.10" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:10</a>), "the Spirit searcheth all things, yea the deep things of God." Wherefore it is evident that wisdom is a gift of the Holy | |
| 17369 Ghost. | |
| 17370 </p> | |
| 17371 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p8"> | |
| 17372 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A thing is said to be good in two senses: first in the sense that it is truly good and simply perfect, secondly, by a kind | |
| 17373 of likeness, being perfect in wickedness; thus we speak of a good or a perfect thief, as the Philosopher observes (Metaph. | |
| 17374 v, text. 21). And just as with regard to those things which are truly good, we find a highest cause, namely the sovereign | |
| 17375 good which is the last end, by knowing which, man is said to be truly wise, so too in | |
| 17376 evil things something is to be found to which all others are to be referred as to a last end, by knowing which, man is said | |
| 17377 to be wise unto evil doing, according to | |
| 17378 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p8.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.4.22" target="asv"> Jer. 4:22</a>: "They are wise to do evils, but to do good they have no knowledge." Now whoever turns away from his due end, must needs | |
| 17379 fix on some undue end, since every agent acts for an end. Wherefore, if he fixes his end in external earthly things, his "wisdom" | |
| 17380 is called "earthly," if in the goods of the body, it | |
| 17381 is called "sensual wisdom," if in some excellence, it is called "devilish wisdom" because it imitates the devil's pride, of | |
| 17382 which it is written ( | |
| 17383 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p8.2" href="./asv.html#Job.41.25" target="asv">Job 41:25</a>): "He is king over all the children of pride." | |
| 17384 </p> | |
| 17385 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p9"> | |
| 17386 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The wisdom which is called a gift of the Holy Ghost, differs from that which is an acquired intellectual virtue, for the | |
| 17387 latter is attained by human effort, whereas the latter is "descending from above" ( | |
| 17388 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A1-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.3.15" target="asv">James 3:15</a>). In like manner it differs from faith, since faith assents to the Divine truth in itself, whereas it belongs to the gift | |
| 17389 of wisdom to judge according to the Divine truth. Hence the gift of wisdom presupposes faith, | |
| 17390 because "a man judges well what he knows" (Ethic. i, 3). | |
| 17391 </p> | |
| 17392 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p10"> | |
| 17393 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as piety which pertains to the worship of God is a manifestation of faith, in so far as we make profession of faith | |
| 17394 by worshipping God, so too, piety manifests wisdom. For this reason piety is stated to be wisdom, and so is fear, for the | |
| 17395 same reason, because if a man fear and worship God, this shows that he has a right judgment about Divine things. | |
| 17396 </p> | |
| 17397 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p11"></p> | |
| 17398 <p id="SS_Q45_A1-p12"></p> | |
| 17399 <a href="summa.SS_Q45.html"></a> | |
| 17400 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17401 </div> | |
| 17402 <div id="SS_Q45_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 17403 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17404 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17405 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A2-p0.1">Whether wisdom is in the intellect as its subject?</h4> | |
| 17406 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 17407 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p2"> | |
| 17408 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that wisdom is not in the intellect as its subject. For Augustine says (Ep. cxx) that "wisdom is the charity | |
| 17409 of God." Now charity is in the will as its subject, and not in the intellect, as stated above ( | |
| 17410 <a id="SS_Q45_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q24_A1.html">Q[24], A[1]</a>). Therefore wisdom is not in the intellect as its subject. | |
| 17411 </p> | |
| 17412 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p3"> | |
| 17413 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 17414 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A2-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.6.23" target="asv">Ecclus. 6:23</a>): "The wisdom of doctrine is according to her name," for wisdom [sapientia] may be described as "sweet-tasting science [sapida | |
| 17415 scientia]," and this would seem to regard the appetite, to which it belongs to taste spiritual pleasure or sweetness. Therefore | |
| 17416 wisdom is in the appetite rather than in the intellect. | |
| 17417 </p> | |
| 17418 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p4"> | |
| 17419 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the intellective power is sufficiently perfected by the gift of understanding. Now it is superfluous to require | |
| 17420 two things where one suffices for the purpose. Therefore wisdom is not in the intellect. | |
| 17421 </p> | |
| 17422 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p5"> | |
| 17423 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. ii, 49) that "wisdom is contrary to folly." But folly is in the intellect. Therefore wisdom is also. | |
| 17424 </p> | |
| 17425 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p6"> | |
| 17426 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above | |
| 17427 <a id="SS_Q45_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, wisdom denotes a certain rectitude of judgment according to the Eternal Law. Now rectitude of judgment is twofold: first, | |
| 17428 on account of perfect use of reason, secondly, on account of a certain connaturality with the matter about which one has to | |
| 17429 judge. Thus, about matters of chastity, a man after inquiring with his reason forms a right judgment, if he has learnt the | |
| 17430 science of morals, while he who has the | |
| 17431 habit of chastity judges of such matters by a kind of connaturality. | |
| 17432 </p> | |
| 17433 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p7"> Accordingly it belongs to the wisdom that is an intellectual virtue to pronounce right judgment about Divine things after | |
| 17434 reason has made its inquiry, but it belongs to wisdom as a gift of the Holy Ghost to judge aright about them on account of | |
| 17435 connaturality with them: thus Dionysius says (Div. Nom. ii) that "Hierotheus is perfect in Divine things, for he not only | |
| 17436 learns, but is patient of, Divine things." | |
| 17437 </p> | |
| 17438 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p8"> Now this sympathy or connaturality for Divine things is the result of charity, which unites us to God, according to | |
| 17439 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A2-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.6.17" target="asv">1 Cor. 6:17</a>: "He who is joined to the Lord, is one spirit." Consequently wisdom which is a gift, has its cause in the will, which cause | |
| 17440 is charity, but it has its essence in the intellect, whose act is to judge aright, as stated above ( | |
| 17441 <a id="SS_Q45_A2-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html">FS, Q[14], A[1]</a>). | |
| 17442 </p> | |
| 17443 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p9"> | |
| 17444 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of wisdom as to its cause, whence also wisdom [sapientia] takes its name, in so far as it denotes a | |
| 17445 certain sweetness [saporem]. Hence the Reply to the Second Objection is evident, that is if this be the true meaning of the | |
| 17446 text quoted. For, apparently this is not the case, because such an exposition of the text would only fit the Latin word for | |
| 17447 wisdom, whereas it does not apply to the Greek and perhaps not in other languages. | |
| 17448 Hence it would seem that in the text quoted wisdom stands for the renown of doctrine, for which it is praised by all. | |
| 17449 </p> | |
| 17450 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p10"> | |
| 17451 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The intellect exercises a twofold act, perception and judgment. The gift of understanding regards the former; the gift of | |
| 17452 wisdom regards the latter according to the Divine ideas, the gift of knowledge, according to human ideas. | |
| 17453 </p> | |
| 17454 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 17455 <p id="SS_Q45_A2-p12"></p> | |
| 17456 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17457 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17458 </div> | |
| 17459 <div id="SS_Q45_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 17460 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17461 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17462 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A3-p0.1">Whether wisdom is merely speculative, or practical also?</h4> | |
| 17463 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 17464 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p2"> | |
| 17465 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that wisdom is not practical but merely speculative. For the gift of wisdom is more excellent than the wisdom | |
| 17466 which is an intellectual virtue. But wisdom, as an intellectual virtue, is merely speculative. Much more therefore is wisdom, | |
| 17467 as a gift, speculative and not practical. | |
| 17468 </p> | |
| 17469 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p3"> | |
| 17470 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the practical intellect is about matters of operation which are contingent. But wisdom is about Divine things which | |
| 17471 are eternal and necessary. Therefore wisdom cannot be practical. | |
| 17472 </p> | |
| 17473 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p4"> | |
| 17474 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Gregory says (Moral. vi, 37) that "in contemplation we seek the Beginning which is God, but in action we labor under | |
| 17475 a mighty bundle of wants." Now wisdom regards the vision of Divine things, in which there is no toiling under a load, since | |
| 17476 according to | |
| 17477 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A3-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.8.16" target="asv"> Wis. 8:16, </a> "her conversation hath no bitterness, nor her company any tediousness." Therefore wisdom is merely contemplative, and not | |
| 17478 practical or active. | |
| 17479 </p> | |
| 17480 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p5"> | |
| 17481 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17482 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Col.4.5" target="asv">Col. 4:5</a>): "Walk with wisdom towards them that are without." Now this pertains to action. Therefore wisdom is not merely speculative, | |
| 17483 but also practical. | |
| 17484 </p> | |
| 17485 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p6"> | |
| 17486 <b>I answer that,</b> As Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 14), the higher part of the reason is the province of wisdom, while the lower part is the | |
| 17487 domain of knowledge. Now the higher reason according to the same authority (De Trin. xii, 7) "is intent on the consideration | |
| 17488 and consultation of the heavenly," i.e. Divine, "types" [*Cf. | |
| 17489 <a id="SS_Q45_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A9.html">FP, Q[79], A[9]</a>; | |
| 17490 <a id="SS_Q45_A3-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q74_A7.html">FS, Q[74], A[7]</a>]; it considers them, in so far as it contemplates Divine things in | |
| 17491 themselves, and it consults them, in so far as it judges of human acts by Divine things, and directs human acts according | |
| 17492 to Divine rules. | |
| 17493 </p> | |
| 17494 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p7"> Accordingly wisdom as a gift, is not merely speculative but also practical.</p> | |
| 17495 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p8"> | |
| 17496 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The higher a virtue is, the greater the number of things to which it extends, as stated in De Causis, prop. x, xvii. Wherefore | |
| 17497 from the very fact that wisdom as a gift is more excellent than wisdom as an intellectual virtue, since it attains to God | |
| 17498 more intimately by a kind of union of the soul with Him, it is able to direct us not only in contemplation but also in action. | |
| 17499 </p> | |
| 17500 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p9"> | |
| 17501 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Divine things are indeed necessary and eternal in themselves, yet they are the rules of the contingent things which are the | |
| 17502 subject-matter of human actions. | |
| 17503 </p> | |
| 17504 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p10"> | |
| 17505 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A thing is considered in itself before being compared with something else. Wherefore to wisdom belongs first of all contemplation | |
| 17506 which is the vision of the Beginning, and afterwards the direction of human acts according to the Divine rules. Nor from the | |
| 17507 direction of wisdom does there result any bitterness or toil in human acts; on the contrary the result of wisdom is to make | |
| 17508 the bitter sweet, and labor a rest. | |
| 17509 </p> | |
| 17510 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 17511 <p id="SS_Q45_A3-p12"></p> | |
| 17512 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17513 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17514 </div> | |
| 17515 <div id="SS_Q45_A4" class="div4"> | |
| 17516 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17517 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17518 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A4-p0.1">Whether wisdom can be without grace, and with mortal sin?</h4> | |
| 17519 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p1"></p> | |
| 17520 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p2"> | |
| 17521 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that wisdom can be without grace and with mortal sin. For saints glory chiefly in such things as are incompatible | |
| 17522 with mortal sin, according to | |
| 17523 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.1.12" target="asv">2 Cor. 1:12</a>: "Our glory is this, the testimony of our conscience." Now one ought not to glory in one's wisdom, according to | |
| 17524 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Jer.9.23" target="asv"> Jer. 9:23</a>: "Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom." Therefore wisdom can be without grace and with mortal sin. | |
| 17525 </p> | |
| 17526 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p3"> | |
| 17527 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, wisdom denotes knowledge of Divine things, as stated above | |
| 17528 <a id="SS_Q45_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Now one in mortal sin may have knowledge of the Divine truth, according to | |
| 17529 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.1.18" target="asv"> Rom. 1:18</a>: "(Those men that) detain the truth of God in injustice." Therefore wisdom is compatible with mortal sin. | |
| 17530 </p> | |
| 17531 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p4"> | |
| 17532 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Trin. xv, 18) while speaking of charity: "Nothing surpasses this gift of God, it is this alone | |
| 17533 that divides the children of the eternal kingdom from the children of eternal perdition." But wisdom is distinct from charity. | |
| 17534 Therefore it does not divide the children of the kingdom from the children of perdition. Therefore it is compatible with mortal | |
| 17535 sin. | |
| 17536 </p> | |
| 17537 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p5"> | |
| 17538 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17539 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.1.4" target="asv">Wis. 1:4</a>): "Wisdom will not enter into a malicious soul, nor dwell in a body subject to sins." | |
| 17540 </p> | |
| 17541 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p6"> | |
| 17542 <b>I answer that,</b> The wisdom which is a gift of the Holy Ghost, as stated above | |
| 17543 <a id="SS_Q45_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, enables us to judge aright of Divine things, or of other things according to Divine rules, by reason of a certain connaturalness | |
| 17544 or union with Divine things, which is the effect of charity, as stated above | |
| 17545 <a id="SS_Q45_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A2.html">(A[2];</a> Q[23], A[5]). Hence the wisdom of which we are speaking presupposes charity. Now charity is incompatible with mortal sin, | |
| 17546 as | |
| 17547 shown above (Q[24], A[12]). Therefore it follows that the wisdom of which we are speaking cannot be together with mortal sin. | |
| 17548 </p> | |
| 17549 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p7"> | |
| 17550 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> These words are to be understood as referring to worldly wisdom, or to wisdom in Divine things acquired through human reasons. | |
| 17551 In such wisdom the saints do not glory, according to | |
| 17552 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p7.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.30.2" target="asv"> Prov. 30:2</a>: "The wisdom of men is not with Me": But they do glory in Divine wisdom according to | |
| 17553 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A4-p7.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.1.30" target="asv">1 Cor. 1:30</a>: "(Who) of God is made unto us wisdom." | |
| 17554 </p> | |
| 17555 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p8"> | |
| 17556 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument considers, not the wisdom of which we speak but that which is acquired by the study and research of reason, | |
| 17557 and is compatible with mortal sin. | |
| 17558 </p> | |
| 17559 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p9"> | |
| 17560 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although wisdom is distinct from charity, it presupposes it, and for that very reason divides the children of perdition from | |
| 17561 the children of the kingdom. | |
| 17562 </p> | |
| 17563 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p10"></p> | |
| 17564 <p id="SS_Q45_A4-p11"></p> | |
| 17565 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17566 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17567 </div> | |
| 17568 <div id="SS_Q45_A5" class="div4"> | |
| 17569 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17570 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17571 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A5-p0.1">Whether wisdom is in all who have grace?</h4> | |
| 17572 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p1"></p> | |
| 17573 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p2"> | |
| 17574 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that wisdom is not in all who have grace. For it is more to have wisdom than to hear wisdom. Now it is only | |
| 17575 for the perfect to hear wisdom, according to | |
| 17576 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.6" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:6</a>: "We speak wisdom among the perfect." Since then not all who have grace are perfect, it seems that much less all who have | |
| 17577 grace have wisdom. | |
| 17578 </p> | |
| 17579 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p3"> | |
| 17580 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "The wise man sets things in order," as the Philosopher states (Metaph. i, 2): and it is written ( | |
| 17581 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.3.17" target="asv">James 3:17</a>) that the wise man "judges without dissimulation [*Vulg.: 'The wisdom that is from above . . . is . . . without judging, | |
| 17582 without dissimulation']". Now it is not for all that have grace, to judge, or put others in order, but only for those in authority. | |
| 17583 Therefore wisdom is not in all that have grace. | |
| 17584 </p> | |
| 17585 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p4"> | |
| 17586 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "Wisdom is a remedy against folly," as Gregory says (Moral. ii, 49). Now many that have grace are naturally foolish, | |
| 17587 for instance madmen who are baptized or those who without being guilty of mortal sin have become insane. Therefore wisdom | |
| 17588 is not in all that have grace. | |
| 17589 </p> | |
| 17590 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p5"> | |
| 17591 <b>On the contrary,</b> Whoever is without mortal sin, is beloved of God; since he has charity, whereby he loves God, and God loves them that love | |
| 17592 Him ( | |
| 17593 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.8.17" target="asv">Prov. 8:17</a>). Now it is written ( | |
| 17594 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Wis.7.28" target="asv">Wis. 7:28</a>) that "God loveth none but him that dwelleth with wisdom." Therefore wisdom is in all those who have charity and are without | |
| 17595 mortal sin. | |
| 17596 </p> | |
| 17597 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p6"> | |
| 17598 <b>I answer that,</b> The wisdom of which we are speaking, as stated above | |
| 17599 <a id="SS_Q45_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, denotes a certain rectitude of judgment in the contemplation and consultation of Divine things, and as to both of these | |
| 17600 men obtain various degrees of wisdom through union with Divine things. For the measure of right judgment attained by some, | |
| 17601 whether in the contemplation of Divine things or in directing human affairs according to Divine rules, is no more than suffices | |
| 17602 for | |
| 17603 their salvation. This measure is wanting to none who is without mortal sin through having sanctifying grace, since if nature | |
| 17604 does not fail in necessaries, much less does grace fail: wherefore it is written ( | |
| 17605 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iJohn.2.27" target="asv">1 Jn. 2:27</a>): "(His) unction teacheth you of all things." | |
| 17606 </p> | |
| 17607 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p7"> Some, however, receive a higher degree of the gift of wisdom, both as to the contemplation of Divine things (by both knowing | |
| 17608 more exalted mysteries and being able to impart this knowledge to others) and as to the direction of human affairs according | |
| 17609 to Divine rules (by being able to direct not only themselves but also others according to those rules). This degree of wisdom | |
| 17610 is not common to all that have sanctifying grace, but belongs rather to the gratuitous graces, which the | |
| 17611 Holy Ghost dispenses as He will, according to | |
| 17612 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p7.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.12.8" target="asv">1 Cor. 12:8</a>: "To one indeed by the Spirit is given the word of wisdom," etc. | |
| 17613 </p> | |
| 17614 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p8"> | |
| 17615 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Apostle speaks there of wisdom, as extending to the hidden mysteries of Divine things, as indeed he says himself ( | |
| 17616 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A5-p8.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.1.7" target="asv">2 Cor. 1:7</a>): "We speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, a wisdom which is hidden." | |
| 17617 </p> | |
| 17618 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p9"> | |
| 17619 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although it belongs to those alone who are in authority to direct and judge other men, yet every man is competent to direct | |
| 17620 and judge his own actions, as Dionysius declares (Ep. ad Demophil.). | |
| 17621 </p> | |
| 17622 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p10"> | |
| 17623 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Baptized idiots, like little children, have the habit of wisdom, which is a gift of the Holy Ghost, but they have not the | |
| 17624 act, on account of the bodily impediment which hinders the use of reason in them. | |
| 17625 </p> | |
| 17626 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p11"></p> | |
| 17627 <p id="SS_Q45_A5-p12"></p> | |
| 17628 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A4.html"></a> | |
| 17629 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17630 </div> | |
| 17631 <div id="SS_Q45_A6" class="div4"> | |
| 17632 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17633 <a href="summa.SS_Q46.html"></a> | |
| 17634 <h4 id="SS_Q45_A6-p0.1">Whether the seventh beatitude corresponds to the gift of wisdom?</h4> | |
| 17635 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p1"></p> | |
| 17636 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p2"> | |
| 17637 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that the seventh beatitude does not correspond to the gift of wisdom. For the seventh beatitude is: "Blessed are | |
| 17638 the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God." Now both these things belong to charity: since of peace it | |
| 17639 is written ( | |
| 17640 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.165" target="asv">Ps. 118:165</a>): "Much peace have they that love Thy law," and, as the Apostle says ( | |
| 17641 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.5.5" target="asv">Rom. 5:5</a>), "the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Ghost Who is given to us," and | |
| 17642 Who is "the Spirit of adoption of sons, whereby we cry: Abba [Father]" ( | |
| 17643 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p2.3" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.15" target="asv">Rom. 8:15</a>). Therefore the seventh beatitude ought to be ascribed to charity rather than to wisdom. | |
| 17644 </p> | |
| 17645 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p3"> | |
| 17646 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, a thing is declared by its proximate effect rather than by its remote effect. Now the proximate effect of wisdom | |
| 17647 seems to be charity, according to | |
| 17648 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.7.27" target="asv"> Wis. 7:27</a>: "Through nations she conveyeth herself into holy souls; she maketh the friends of God and prophets": whereas peace and the | |
| 17649 adoption of sons seem to be remote effects, since they result from charity, as stated above ( | |
| 17650 <a id="SS_Q45_A6-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q29_A3.html">Q[29], A[3]</a>). Therefore the | |
| 17651 beatitude corresponding to wisdom should be determined in respect of the love of charity rather than in respect of peace. | |
| 17652 </p> | |
| 17653 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p4"> | |
| 17654 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is written ( | |
| 17655 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.3.17" target="asv">James 3:17</a>): "The wisdom, that is from above, first indeed is chaste, then peaceable, modest, easy to be persuaded, consenting to the | |
| 17656 good, full of mercy and good fruits, judging without dissimulation [*Vulg.: 'without judging, without dissimulation']." Therefore | |
| 17657 the beatitude corresponding to wisdom should not refer to peace rather than to the other effects of heavenly wisdom. | |
| 17658 </p> | |
| 17659 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p5"> | |
| 17660 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 4) that "wisdom is becoming to peacemakers, in whom there is no movement of rebellion, | |
| 17661 but only obedience to reason." | |
| 17662 </p> | |
| 17663 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p6"> | |
| 17664 <b>I answer that,</b> The seventh beatitude is fittingly ascribed to the gift of wisdom, both as to the merit and as to the reward. The merit is | |
| 17665 denoted in the words, "Blessed are the peacemakers." Now a peacemaker is one who makes peace, either in himself, or in others: | |
| 17666 and in both cases this is the result of setting in due order those things in which peace is established, for "peace is the | |
| 17667 tranquillity of order," according to Augustine (De Civ. Dei xix, 13). Now it belongs to | |
| 17668 wisdom to set things in order, as the Philosopher declares (Metaph. i, 2), wherefore peaceableness is fittingly ascribed to | |
| 17669 wisdom. The reward is expressed in the words, "they shall be called the children of God." Now men are called the children | |
| 17670 of God in so far as they participate in the likeness of the only-begotten and natural Son of God, according to | |
| 17671 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q45_A6-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.8.29" target="asv"> Rom. 8:29, </a> "Whom He foreknew . . . to be made conformable to the image of His Son," Who is Wisdom Begotten. Hence by | |
| 17672 participating in the gift of wisdom, man attains to the sonship of God. | |
| 17673 </p> | |
| 17674 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p7"> | |
| 17675 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It belongs to charity to be at peace, but it belongs to wisdom to make peace by setting things in order. Likewise the Holy | |
| 17676 Ghost is called the "Spirit of adoption" in so far as we receive from Him the likeness of the natural Son, Who is the Begotten | |
| 17677 Wisdom. | |
| 17678 </p> | |
| 17679 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p8"> | |
| 17680 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> These words refer to the Uncreated Wisdom, which in the first place unites itself to us by the gift of charity, and consequently | |
| 17681 reveals to us the mysteries the knowledge of which is infused wisdom. Hence, the infused wisdom which is a gift, is not the | |
| 17682 cause but the effect of charity. | |
| 17683 </p> | |
| 17684 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p9"> | |
| 17685 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above | |
| 17686 <a id="SS_Q45_A6-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A3.html">(A[3])</a> it belongs to wisdom, as a gift, not only to contemplate Divine things, but also to regulate human acts. Now the first thing, | |
| 17687 to be effected in this direction of human acts is the removal of evils opposed to wisdom: wherefore fear is said to be "the | |
| 17688 beginning of wisdom," because it makes us shun evil, while the last thing is like an end, whereby all things are reduced to | |
| 17689 their right order; and it is this | |
| 17690 that constitutes peace. Hence James said with reason that "the wisdom that is from above" (and this is the gift of the Holy | |
| 17691 Ghost) "first indeed is chaste," because it avoids the corruption of sin, and "then peaceable," wherein lies the ultimate | |
| 17692 effect of wisdom, for which reason peace is numbered among the beatitudes. As to the things that follow, they declare in becoming | |
| 17693 order the means whereby wisdom leads to peace. For when a man, by chastity, avoids the corruption of sin, the first thing | |
| 17694 he has to do is, as far as he can, to be moderate in all things, and in this respect wisdom is said to be modest. Secondly, | |
| 17695 in those matters in which he is not sufficient by himself, he should be guided by the advice of others, and as to this we | |
| 17696 are told further that wisdom is "easy to be persuaded." These two are conditions required that man may be at peace with himself. | |
| 17697 But in order that man may be at peace with others it is furthermore required, first that he should not be opposed to their | |
| 17698 good; this is what is meant by "consenting to the good." Secondly, that he should bring to his neighbor's deficiencies, sympathy | |
| 17699 in his heart, and succor in his actions, and this is denoted by the words "full of mercy and good fruits." Thirdly, he should | |
| 17700 strive in all charity to correct the sins of others, and this is indicated by the words "judging without dissimulation [*Vulg.: | |
| 17701 'The wisdom that is from above . . . is . . . without judging, without dissimulation']," lest he should purpose to | |
| 17702 sate his hatred under cover of correction. | |
| 17703 </p> | |
| 17704 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p10"></p> | |
| 17705 <p id="SS_Q45_A6-p11"></p> | |
| 17706 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A5.html"></a> | |
| 17707 <a href="summa.SS_Q46.html"></a> | |
| 17708 </div> | |
| 17709 <a href="summa.SS_Q44_A8.html"></a> | |
| 17710 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17711 </div> | |
| 17712 <div id="SS_Q46" class="div3"> | |
| 17713 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17714 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17715 <h3 id="SS_Q46-p0.1">OF FOLLY WHICH IS OPPOSED TO WISDOM (THREE ARTICLES)</h3> | |
| 17716 <p id="SS_Q46-p1"></p> | |
| 17717 <p id="SS_Q46-p2"> We must now consider folly which is opposed to wisdom; and under this head there are three points of inquiry:</p> | |
| 17718 <p id="SS_Q46-p3"> (1) Whether folly is contrary to wisdom?</p> | |
| 17719 <p id="SS_Q46-p4"> (2) Whether folly is a sin?</p> | |
| 17720 <p id="SS_Q46-p5"> (3) To which capital sin is it reducible?</p> | |
| 17721 <div id="SS_Q46_A1" class="div4"> | |
| 17722 <a href="summa.SS_Q46.html"></a> | |
| 17723 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17724 <h4 id="SS_Q46_A1-p0.1">Whether folly is contrary to wisdom?</h4> | |
| 17725 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p1"></p> | |
| 17726 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p2"> | |
| 17727 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that folly is not contrary to wisdom. For seemingly unwisdom is directly opposed to wisdom. But folly does | |
| 17728 not seem to be the same as unwisdom, for the latter is apparently about Divine things alone, whereas folly is about both Divine | |
| 17729 and human things. Therefore folly is not contrary to wisdom. | |
| 17730 </p> | |
| 17731 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p3"> | |
| 17732 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, one contrary is not the way to arrive at the other. But folly is the way to arrive at wisdom, for it is written | |
| 17733 ( | |
| 17734 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.18" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:18</a>): "If any man among you seem to be wise in this world, let him become a fool, that he may be wise." Therefore folly is not | |
| 17735 opposed to wisdom. | |
| 17736 </p> | |
| 17737 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p4"> | |
| 17738 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one contrary is not the cause of the other. But wisdom is the cause of folly; for it is written ( | |
| 17739 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Jer.10.14" target="asv">Jer. 10:14</a>): "Every man is become a fool for knowledge," and wisdom is a kind of knowledge. Moreover, it is written ( | |
| 17740 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A1-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Isa.47.10" target="asv">Is. 47:10</a>): "Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, this hath deceived thee." Now it belongs to folly to be deceived. Therefore folly is not | |
| 17741 contrary to wisdom. | |
| 17742 </p> | |
| 17743 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p5"> | |
| 17744 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, Isidore says (Etym. x, under the letter S) that "a fool is one whom shame does not incite to sorrow, and who is | |
| 17745 unconcerned when he is injured." But this pertains to spiritual wisdom, according to Gregory (Moral. x, 49). Therefore folly | |
| 17746 is not opposed to wisdom. | |
| 17747 </p> | |
| 17748 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p6"> | |
| 17749 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says (Moral. ii, 26) that "the gift of wisdom is given as a remedy against folly." | |
| 17750 </p> | |
| 17751 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p7"> | |
| 17752 <b>I answer that,</b> Stultitia [Folly] seems to take its name from "stupor"; wherefore Isidore says (Etym. x, under the letter of S): "A fool | |
| 17753 is one who through dullness [stuporem] remains unmoved." And folly differs from fatuity, according to the same authority (Etym. | |
| 17754 x), in that folly implies apathy in the heart and dullness in the senses, while fatuity denotes entire privation of the spiritual | |
| 17755 sense. Therefore folly is fittingly opposed to wisdom. | |
| 17756 </p> | |
| 17757 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p8"> For "sapiens" [wise] as Isidore says (Etym. x) "is so named from sapor [savor], because just as the taste is quick to distinguish | |
| 17758 between savors of meats, so is a wise man in discerning things and causes." Wherefore it is manifest that "folly" is opposed | |
| 17759 to "wisdom" as its contrary, while "fatuity" is opposed to it as a pure negation: since the fatuous man lacks the sense of | |
| 17760 judgment, while the fool has the sense, though dulled, whereas the wise man has the sense acute and | |
| 17761 penetrating. | |
| 17762 </p> | |
| 17763 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p9"> | |
| 17764 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> According to Isidore (Etym. x), "unwisdom is contrary to wisdom because it lacks the savor of discretion and sense"; so that | |
| 17765 unwisdom is seemingly the same as folly. Yet a man would appear to be a fool chiefly through some deficiency in the verdict | |
| 17766 of that judgment, which is according to the highest cause, for if a man fails in judgment about some trivial matter, he is | |
| 17767 not for that reason called a fool. | |
| 17768 </p> | |
| 17769 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p10"> | |
| 17770 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as there is an evil wisdom, as stated above ( | |
| 17771 <a id="SS_Q46_A1-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q45_A1.html">Q[45], A[1]</a>, ad 1), called "worldly wisdom," because it takes for the highest cause and last end some worldly good, so too there is a | |
| 17772 good folly opposed to this evil wisdom, whereby man despises worldly things: and it is of this folly that the Apostle speaks. | |
| 17773 </p> | |
| 17774 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p11"> | |
| 17775 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is the wisdom of the world that deceives and makes us foolish in God's sight, as is evident from the Apostle's words ( | |
| 17776 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A1-p11.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.19" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:19</a>). | |
| 17777 </p> | |
| 17778 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p12"> | |
| 17779 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> To be unconcerned when one is injured is sometimes due to the fact that one has no taste for worldly things, but only for | |
| 17780 heavenly things. Hence this belongs not to worldly but to Divine wisdom, as Gregory declares (Moral. x, 49). Sometimes however | |
| 17781 it is the result of a man's being simply stupid about everything, as may be seen in idiots, who do not discern what is injurious | |
| 17782 to them, and this belongs to folly simply. | |
| 17783 </p> | |
| 17784 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p13"></p> | |
| 17785 <p id="SS_Q46_A1-p14"></p> | |
| 17786 <a href="summa.SS_Q46.html"></a> | |
| 17787 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17788 </div> | |
| 17789 <div id="SS_Q46_A2" class="div4"> | |
| 17790 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17791 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17792 <h4 id="SS_Q46_A2-p0.1">Whether folly is a sin?</h4> | |
| 17793 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p1"></p> | |
| 17794 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p2"> | |
| 17795 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that folly is not a sin. For no sin arises in us from nature. But some are fools naturally. Therefore folly | |
| 17796 is not a sin. | |
| 17797 </p> | |
| 17798 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p3"> | |
| 17799 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "Every sin is voluntary," according to Augustine (De Vera Relig. xiv). But folly is not voluntary. Therefore it | |
| 17800 is not a sin. | |
| 17801 </p> | |
| 17802 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p4"> | |
| 17803 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every sin is contrary to a Divine precept. But folly is not contrary to any precept. Therefore folly is not a sin. | |
| 17804 </p> | |
| 17805 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p5"> | |
| 17806 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17807 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.1.32" target="asv">Prov. 1:32</a>): "The prosperity of fools shall destroy them." But no man is destroyed save for sin. Therefore folly is a sin. | |
| 17808 </p> | |
| 17809 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p6"> | |
| 17810 <b>I answer that,</b> Folly, as stated above | |
| 17811 <a id="SS_Q46_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q46_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, denotes dullness of sense in judging, and chiefly as regards the highest cause, which is the last end and the sovereign | |
| 17812 good. Now a man may in this respect contract dullness in judgment in two ways. First, from a natural indisposition, as in | |
| 17813 the case of idiots, and such like folly is no sin. Secondly, by plunging his sense into earthly things, whereby his sense | |
| 17814 is rendered incapable of perceiving Divine | |
| 17815 things, according to | |
| 17816 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A2-p6.2" href="./asv.html#iCor.2.14" target="asv">1 Cor. 2:14, </a> "The sensual man perceiveth not these things that are of the Spirit of God," even as sweet things have no savor for a man | |
| 17817 whose taste is infected with an evil humor: and such like folly is a sin. | |
| 17818 </p> | |
| 17819 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p7"> This suffices for the Reply to the First Objection.</p> | |
| 17820 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p8"> | |
| 17821 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Though no man wishes to be a fool, yet he wishes those things of which folly is a consequence, viz. to withdraw his sense | |
| 17822 from spiritual things and to plunge it into earthly things. The same thing happens in regard to other sins; for the lustful | |
| 17823 man desires pleasure, without which there is no sin, although he does not desire sin simply, for he would wish to enjoy the | |
| 17824 pleasure without sin. | |
| 17825 </p> | |
| 17826 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p9"> | |
| 17827 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Folly is opposed to the precepts about the contemplation of truth, of which we have spoken above ( | |
| 17828 <a id="SS_Q46_A2-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q16.html">Q[16])</a> when we were treating of knowledge and understanding. | |
| 17829 </p> | |
| 17830 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p10"></p> | |
| 17831 <p id="SS_Q46_A2-p11"></p> | |
| 17832 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17833 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A3.html"></a> | |
| 17834 </div> | |
| 17835 <div id="SS_Q46_A3" class="div4"> | |
| 17836 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17837 <a href="summa.SS.ii.html"></a> | |
| 17838 <h4 id="SS_Q46_A3-p0.1">Whether folly is a daughter of lust?</h4> | |
| 17839 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p1"></p> | |
| 17840 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p2"> | |
| 17841 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that folly is not a daughter of lust. For Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) enumerates the daughters of lust, among | |
| 17842 which however he makes no mention of folly. Therefore folly does not proceed from lust. | |
| 17843 </p> | |
| 17844 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p3"> | |
| 17845 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Apostle says ( | |
| 17846 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.3.19" target="asv">1 Cor. 3:19</a>): "The wisdom of this world is foolishness with God." Now, according to Gregory (Moral. x, 29) "the wisdom of this world | |
| 17847 consists in covering the heart with crafty devices;" and this savors of duplicity. Therefore folly is a daughter of duplicity | |
| 17848 rather than of lust. | |
| 17849 </p> | |
| 17850 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p4"> | |
| 17851 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, anger especially is the cause of fury and madness in some persons; and this pertains to folly. Therefore folly arises | |
| 17852 from anger rather than from lust. | |
| 17853 </p> | |
| 17854 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p5"> | |
| 17855 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written ( | |
| 17856 <a class="scripRef" id="SS_Q46_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.7.22" target="asv">Prov. 7:22</a>): "Immediately he followeth her," i.e. the harlot . . . "not knowing that he is drawn like a fool to bonds." | |
| 17857 </p> | |
| 17858 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p6"> | |
| 17859 <b>I answer that,</b> As already stated | |
| 17860 <a id="SS_Q46_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.SS_Q46_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, folly, in so far as it is a sin, is caused by the spiritual sense being dulled, so as to be incapable of judging spiritual | |
| 17861 things. Now man's sense is plunged into earthly things chiefly by lust, which is about the greatest of pleasures; and these | |
| 17862 absorb the mind more than any others. Therefore the folly which is a sin, arises chiefly from lust. | |
| 17863 </p> | |
| 17864 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p7"> | |
| 17865 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is part of folly that a man should have a distaste for God and His gifts. Hence Gregory mentions two daughters of lust, | |
| 17866 pertaining to folly, namely, "hatred of God" and "despair of the life to come"; thus he divides folly into two parts as it | |
| 17867 were. | |
| 17868 </p> | |
| 17869 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p8"> | |
| 17870 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> These words of the Apostle are to be understood, not causally but essentially, because, to wit, worldly wisdom itself is | |
| 17871 folly with God. Hence it does not follow that whatever belongs to worldly wisdom, is a cause of this folly. | |
| 17872 </p> | |
| 17873 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p9"> | |
| 17874 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Anger by reason of its keenness, as stated above ( | |
| 17875 <a id="SS_Q46_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q48_A2.html">FS, Q[48] , AA[2]</a>,3,4), produces a great change in the nature of the body, wherefore it conduces very much to the folly which results from | |
| 17876 a bodily impediment. On the other hand the folly which is caused by a spiritual impediment, viz. by the mind being plunged | |
| 17877 into earthly things, arises chiefly from lust, as stated above. | |
| 17878 </p> | |
| 17879 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p10"></p> | |
| 17880 <p id="SS_Q46_A3-p11"></p> | |
| 17881 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A2.html"></a> | |
| 17882 <a href="summa.SS.ii.html"></a> | |
| 17883 </div> | |
| 17884 <a href="summa.SS_Q45_A6.html"></a> | |
| 17885 <a href="summa.SS_Q46_A1.html"></a> | |
| 17886 </div> | |
| 17887 <a href="summa.SS.html"></a> | |
| 17888 <a href="summa.SS_Q1.html"></a> | |
| 17889 ` | |
| 17890 </div> |