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1 <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><div xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" id="FS.ii" class="div2">
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2 <a href="summa.FS_Q5_A8.html"></a>
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3 <a href="summa.FS_Q6.html"></a>
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4 <h2 id="FS.ii-p0.1">TREATISE ON HUMAN ACTS: ACTS PECULIAR TO MAN (QQ[6]-21)</h2>
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5 <div id="FS_Q6" class="div3">
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6 <a href="summa.FS.ii.html"></a>
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7 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html"></a>
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8 <h3 id="FS_Q6-p0.1">OF THE VOLUNTARY AND THE INVOLUNTARY (EIGHT ARTICLES)</h3>
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9 <p id="FS_Q6-p1"></p>
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10 <p id="FS_Q6-p2"> Since therefore Happiness is to be gained by means of certain acts, we must in due sequence consider human acts, in order
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11 to know by what acts we may obtain Happiness, and by what acts we are prevented from obtaining it. But because operations
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12 and acts are concerned with things singular, consequently all practical knowledge is incomplete unless it take account of
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13 things in detail. The study of Morals, therefore, since it treats of human acts, should consider first the general
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14 principles; and secondly matters of detail.
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15 </p>
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16 <p id="FS_Q6-p3"> In treating of the general principles, the points that offer themselves for our consideration are (1) human acts themselves;
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17 (2) their principles. Now of human acts some are proper to man; others are common to man and animals. And since Happiness
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18 is man's proper good, those acts which are proper to man have a closer connection with Happiness than have those which are
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19 common to man and the other animals. First, then, we must consider those acts which are proper to man; secondly,
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20 those acts which are common to man and the other animals, and are called Passions. The first of these points offers a twofold
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21 consideration: (1) What makes a human act? (2) What distinguishes human acts?
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22 </p>
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23 <p id="FS_Q6-p4"> And since those acts are properly called human which are voluntary, because the will is the rational appetite, which is proper
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24 to man; we must consider acts in so far as they are voluntary.
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25 </p>
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26 <p id="FS_Q6-p5"> First, then, we must consider the voluntary and involuntary in general; secondly, those acts which are voluntary, as being
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27 elicited by the will, and as issuing from the will immediately; thirdly, those acts which are voluntary, as being commanded
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28 by the will, which issue from the will through the medium of the other powers.
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29 </p>
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30 <p id="FS_Q6-p6"> And because voluntary acts have certain circumstances, according to which we form our judgment concerning them, we must first
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31 consider the voluntary and the involuntary, and afterwards, the circumstances of those acts which are found to be voluntary
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32 or involuntary. Under the first head there are eight points of inquiry:
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33 </p>
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34 <p id="FS_Q6-p7"> (1) Whether there is anything voluntary in human acts?</p>
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35 <p id="FS_Q6-p8"> (2) Whether in irrational animals?</p>
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36 <p id="FS_Q6-p9"> (3) Whether there can be voluntariness without any action?</p>
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37 <p id="FS_Q6-p10"> (4) Whether violence can be done to the will?</p>
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38 <p id="FS_Q6-p11"> (5) Whether violence causes involuntariness?</p>
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39 <p id="FS_Q6-p12"> (6) Whether fear causes involuntariness?</p>
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40 <p id="FS_Q6-p13"> (7) Whether concupiscence causes involuntariness?</p>
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41 <p id="FS_Q6-p14"> (8) Whether ignorance causes involuntariness?</p>
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42 <div id="FS_Q6_A1" class="div4">
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43 <a href="summa.FS_Q6.html"></a>
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44 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A2.html"></a>
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45 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A1-p0.1">Whether there is anything voluntary in human acts?</h4>
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46 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p1"></p>
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47 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p2">
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48 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is nothing voluntary in human acts. For that is voluntary "which has its principle within itself."
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49 as Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Natura Hom. xxxii.], Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 24), and Aristotle (Ethic. iii, 1) declare.
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50 But the principle of human acts is not in man himself, but outside him: since man's appetite is moved to act, by the appetible
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51 object which is outside him, and is as a "mover unmoved" (De Anima iii, 10).
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52 Therefore there is nothing voluntary in human acts.
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53 </p>
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54 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p3">
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55 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Philosopher (Phys. viii, 2) proves that in animals no new movement arises that is not preceded by a motion from
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56 without. But all human acts are new, since none is eternal. Consequently, the principle of all human acts is from without:
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57 and therefore there is nothing voluntary in them.
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58 </p>
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59 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p4">
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60 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, he that acts voluntarily, can act of himself. But this is not true of man; for it is written (
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61 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q6_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#John.15.5" target="asv">Jn. 15:5</a>): "Without Me you can do nothing." Therefore there is nothing voluntary in human acts.
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62 </p>
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63 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p5">
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64 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii) that "the voluntary is an act consisting in a rational operation." Now such are human acts.
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65 Therefore there is something voluntary in human acts.
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66 </p>
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67 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p6">
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68 <b>I answer that,</b> There must needs be something voluntary in human acts. In order to make this clear, we must take note that the principle
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69 of some acts or movements is within the agent, or that which is moved; whereas the principle of some movements or acts is
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70 outside. For when a stone is moved upwards, the principle of this movement is outside the stone: whereas when it is moved
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71 downwards, the principle of this movement is in the stone. Now of those things that are moved by
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72 an intrinsic principle, some move themselves, some not. For since every agent or thing moved, acts or is moved for an end,
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73 as stated above (
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74 <a id="FS_Q6_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A2.html">Q[1], A[2]</a>); those are perfectly moved by an intrinsic principle, whose intrinsic principle is one not only of movement but of movement
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75 for an end. Now in order for a thing to be done for an end, some knowledge of the end is necessary. Therefore, whatever so
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76 acts or is moved by an intrinsic principle, that it has some knowledge of
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77 the end, has within itself the principle of its act, so that it not only acts, but acts for an end. On the other hand, if
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78 a thing has no knowledge of the end, even though it have an intrinsic principle of action or movement, nevertheless the principle
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79 of acting or being moved for an end is not in that thing, but in something else, by which the principle of its action towards
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80 an end is not in that thing, but in something else, by which the principle of its action towards an end is imprinted on
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81 it. Wherefore such like things are not said to move themselves, but to be moved by others. But those things which have a knowledge
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82 of the end are said to move themselves because there is in them a principle by which they not only act but also act for an
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83 end. And consequently, since both are from an intrinsic principle, to wit, that they act and that they act for an end, the
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84 movements of such things are said to be voluntary: for the word "voluntary" implies that their movements and acts are from
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85 their own inclination. Hence it is that, according to the definitions of Aristotle, Gregory of Nyssa, and Damascene [*See
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86 Objection 1], the voluntary is defined not only as having "a principle within" the agent, but also as implying "knowledge."
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87 Therefore, since man especially knows the end of his work, and moves himself, in his acts especially is the voluntary to be
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88 found.
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89 </p>
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90 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p7">
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91 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Not every principle is a first principle. Therefore, although it is essential to the voluntary act that its principle be
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92 within the agent, nevertheless it is not contrary to the nature of the voluntary act that this intrinsic principle be caused
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93 or moved by an extrinsic principle: because it is not essential to the voluntary act that its intrinsic principle be a first
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94 principle. Yet again it must be observed that a principle of movement may happen to
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95 be first in a genus, but not first simply: thus in the genus of things subject to alteration, the first principle of alteration
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96 is a heavenly body, which is nevertheless, is not the first mover simply, but is moved locally by a higher mover. And so the
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97 intrinsic principle of the voluntary act, i.e. the cognitive and appetitive power, is the first principle in the genus of
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98 appetitive movement, although it is moved by an extrinsic principle according to other species of movement.
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99 </p>
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100 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p8">
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101 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> New movements in animals are indeed preceded by a motion from without; and this in two respects. First, in so far as by means
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102 of an extrinsic motion an animal's senses are confronted with something sensible, which, on being apprehended, moves the appetite.
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103 Thus a lion, on seeing a stag in movement and coming towards him, begins to be moved towards the stag. Secondly, in so far
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104 as some extrinsic motion produces a physical change in an animal's body, as
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105 in the case of cold or heat; and through the body being affected by the motion of an outward body, the sensitive appetite
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106 which is the power of a bodily organ, is also moved indirectly; thus it happens that through some alteration in the body the
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107 appetite is roused to the desire of something. But this is not contrary to the nature of voluntariness, as stated above (ad
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108 1), for such movements caused by an extrinsic principle are of another genus of movement.
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109 </p>
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110 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p9">
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111 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God moves man to act, not only by proposing the appetible to the senses, or by effecting a change in his body, but also by
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112 moving the will itself; because every movement either of the will or of nature, proceeds from God as the First Mover. And
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113 just as it is not incompatible with nature that the natural movement be from God as the First Mover, inasmuch as nature is
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114 an instrument of God moving it: so it is not contrary to the essence of a voluntary
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115 act, that it proceed from God, inasmuch as the will is moved by God. Nevertheless both natural and voluntary movements have
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116 this in common, that it is essential that they should proceed from a principle within the agent.
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117 </p>
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118 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p10"></p>
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119 <p id="FS_Q6_A1-p11"></p>
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120 <a href="summa.FS_Q6.html"></a>
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121 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A2.html"></a>
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122 </div>
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123 <div id="FS_Q6_A2" class="div4">
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124 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html"></a>
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125 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html"></a>
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126 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A2-p0.1">Whether there is anything voluntary in irrational animals?</h4>
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127 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p1"></p>
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128 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p2">
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129 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that there is nothing voluntary in irrational animals. For a thing is called "voluntary" from "voluntas" [will].
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130 Now since the will is in the reason (De Anima iii, 9), it cannot be in irrational animals. Therefore neither is there anything
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131 voluntary in them.
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132 </p>
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133 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p3">
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134 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according as human acts are voluntary, man is said to be master of his actions. But irrational animals are not masters
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135 of their actions; for "they act not; rather are they acted upon," as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 27). Therefore there
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136 is no such thing as a voluntary act in irrational animals.
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137 </p>
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138 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p4">
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139 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Damascene says (De Fide Orth. 24) that "voluntary acts lead to praise and blame." But neither praise nor blame is
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140 due to the acts of irrational minds. Therefore such acts are not voluntary.
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141 </p>
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142 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p5">
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143 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "both children and irrational animals participate in the voluntary." The same is
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144 said by Damascene (De Fide Orth. 24) and Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxii.].
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145 </p>
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146 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p6">
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147 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
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148 <a id="FS_Q6_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it is essential to the voluntary act that its principle be within the agent, together with some knowledge of the end. Now
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149 knowledge of the end is twofold; perfect and imperfect. Perfect knowledge of the end consists in not only apprehending the
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150 thing which is the end, but also in knowing it under the aspect of end, and the relationship of the means to that end. And
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151 such knowledge belongs to none but the
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152 rational nature. But imperfect knowledge of the end consists in mere apprehension of the end, without knowing it under the
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153 aspect of end, or the relationship of an act to the end. Such knowledge of the end is exercised by irrational animals, through
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154 their senses and their natural estimative power.
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155 </p>
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156 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p7"> Consequently perfect knowledge of the end leads to the perfect voluntary; inasmuch as, having apprehended the end, a man
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157 can, from deliberating about the end and the means thereto, be moved, or not, to gain that end. But imperfect knowledge of
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158 the end leads to the imperfect voluntary; inasmuch as the agent apprehends the end, but does not deliberate, and is moved
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159 to the end at once. Wherefore the voluntary in its perfection belongs to none but the rational nature: whereas the
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160 imperfect voluntary is within the competency of even irrational animals.
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161 </p>
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162 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p8">
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163 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The will is the name of the rational appetite; and consequently it cannot be in things devoid of reason. But the word "voluntary"
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164 is derived from "voluntas" [will], and can be extended to those things in which there is some participation of will, by way
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165 of likeness thereto. It is thus that voluntary action is attributed to irrational animals, in so far as they are moved to
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166 an end, through some kind of knowledge.
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167 </p>
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168 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p9">
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169 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The fact that man is master of his actions, is due to his being able to deliberate about them: for since the deliberating
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170 reason is indifferently disposed to opposite things, the will can be inclined to either. But it is not thus that voluntariness
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171 is in irrational animals, as stated above.
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172 </p>
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173 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p10">
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174 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Praise and blame are the result of the voluntary act, wherein is the perfect voluntary; such as is not to be found in irrational
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175 animals.
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176 </p>
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177 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p11"></p>
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178 <p id="FS_Q6_A2-p12"></p>
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179 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html"></a>
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180 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html"></a>
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181 </div>
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182 <div id="FS_Q6_A3" class="div4">
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183 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A2.html"></a>
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184 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html"></a>
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185 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A3-p0.1">Whether there can be voluntariness without any act?</h4>
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186 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p1"></p>
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187 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p2">
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188 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that voluntariness cannot be without any act. For that is voluntary which proceeds from the will. But nothing
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189 can proceed from the will, except through some act, at least an act of the will. Therefore there cannot be voluntariness without
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190 act.
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191 </p>
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192 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p3">
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193 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as one is said to wish by an act of the will, so when the act of the will ceases, one is said not to wish.
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194 But not to wish implies involuntariness, which is contrary to voluntariness. Therefore there can be nothing voluntary when
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195 the act of the will ceases.
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196 </p>
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197 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p4">
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198 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, knowledge is essential to the voluntary, as stated above (
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199 <a id="FS_Q6_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2). But knowledge involves an act. Therefore voluntariness cannot be without some act.
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200 </p>
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201 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p5">
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202 <b>On the contrary,</b> The word "voluntary" is applied to that of which we are masters. Now we are masters in respect of to act and not to act,
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203 to will and not to will. Therefore just as to act and to will are voluntary, so also are not to act and not to will.
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204 </p>
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205 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p6">
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206 <b>I answer that,</b> Voluntary is what proceeds from the will. Now one thing proceeds from another in two ways. First, directly; in which sense
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207 something proceeds from another inasmuch as this other acts; for instance, heating from heat. Secondly, indirectly; in which
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208 sense something proceeds from another through this other not acting; thus the sinking of a ship is set down to the helmsman,
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209 from his having ceased to steer. But we must take note that the cause of what follows
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210 from want of action is not always the agent as not acting; but only then when the agent can and ought to act. For if the helmsman
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211 were unable to steer the ship or if the ship's helm be not entrusted to him, the sinking of the ship would not be set down
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212 to him, although it might be due to his absence from the helm.
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213 </p>
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214 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p7"> Since, then, the will by willing and acting, is able, and sometimes ought, to hinder not-willing and not-acting; this not-willing
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215 and not-acting is imputed to, as though proceeding from, the will. And thus it is that we can have the voluntary without an
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216 act; sometimes without outward act, but with an interior act; for instance, when one wills not to act; and sometimes without
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217 even an interior act, as when one does not will to act.
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218 </p>
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219 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p8">
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220 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We apply the word "voluntary" not only to that which proceeds from the will directly, as from its action; but also to that
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221 which proceeds from it indirectly as from its inaction.
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222 </p>
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223 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p9">
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224 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> "Not to wish" is said in two senses. First, as though it were one word, and the infinitive of "I-do-not-wish." Consequently
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225 just as when I say "I do not wish to read," the sense is, "I wish not to read"; so "not to wish to read" is the same as "to
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226 wish not to read," and in this sense "not to wish" implies involuntariness. Secondly it is taken as a sentence: and then no
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227 act of the will is affirmed. And in this sense "not to wish" does not imply
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228 involuntariness.
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229 </p>
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230 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p10">
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231 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Voluntariness requires an act of knowledge in the same way as it requires an act of will; namely, in order that it be in
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232 one's power to consider, to wish and to act. And then, just as not to wish, and not to act, when it is time to wish and to
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233 act, is voluntary, so is it voluntary not to consider.
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234 </p>
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235 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p11"></p>
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236 <p id="FS_Q6_A3-p12"></p>
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237 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A2.html"></a>
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238 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html"></a>
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239 </div>
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240 <div id="FS_Q6_A4" class="div4">
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241 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html"></a>
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242 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A5.html"></a>
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243 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A4-p0.1">Whether violence can be done to the will?</h4>
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244 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p1"></p>
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245 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p2">
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246 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that violence can be done to the will. For everything can be compelled by that which is more powerful. But
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247 there is something, namely, God, that is more powerful than the human will. Therefore it can be compelled, at least by Him.
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248 </p>
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249 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p3">
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250 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every passive subject is compelled by its active principle, when it is changed by it. But the will is a passive
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251 force: for it is a "mover moved" (De Anima iii, 10). Therefore, since it is sometimes moved by its active principle, it seems
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252 that sometimes it is compelled.
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253 </p>
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254 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p4">
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255 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, violent movement is that which is contrary to nature. But the movement of the will is sometimes contrary to nature;
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256 as is clear of the will's movement to sin, which is contrary to nature, as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. iv, 20). Therefore
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257 the movement of the will can be compelled.
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258 </p>
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259 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p5">
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260 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Civ. Dei v, 10) that what is done by the will is not done of necessity. Now, whatever is done under compulsion
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261 is done of necessity: consequently what is done by the will, cannot be compelled. Therefore the will cannot be compelled to
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262 act.
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263 </p>
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264 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p6">
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265 <b>I answer that,</b> The act of the will is twofold: one is its immediate act, as it were, elicited by it, namely, "to wish"; the other is an
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266 act of the will commanded by it, and put into execution by means of some other power, such as "to walk" and "to speak," which
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267 are commanded by the will to be executed by means of the motive power.
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268 </p>
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269 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p7"> As regards the commanded acts of the will, then, the will can suffer violence, in so far as violence can prevent the exterior
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270 members from executing the will's command. But as to the will's own proper act, violence cannot be done to the will.
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271 </p>
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272 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p8"> The reason of this is that the act of the will is nothing else than an inclination proceeding from the interior principle
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273 of knowledge: just as the natural appetite is an inclination proceeding from an interior principle without knowledge. Now
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274 what is compelled or violent is from an exterior principle. Consequently it is contrary to the nature of the will's own act,
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275 that it should be subject to compulsion and violence: just as it is also contrary to the nature of a natural
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276 inclination or movement. For a stone may have an upward movement from violence, but that this violent movement be from its
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277 natural inclination is impossible. In like manner a man may be dragged by force: but it is contrary to the very notion of
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278 violence, that he be dragged of his own will.
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279 </p>
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280 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p9">
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281 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> God Who is more powerful than the human will, can move the will of man, according to
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282 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q6_A4-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.21.1" target="asv"> Prov. 21:1</a>: "The heart of the king is in the hand of the Lord; whithersoever He will He shall turn it." But if this were by compulsion,
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283 it would no longer be by an act of the will, nor would the will itself be moved, but something else against the will.
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284 </p>
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285 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p10">
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286 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is not always a violent movement, when a passive subject is moved by its active principle; but only when this is done
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287 against the interior inclination of the passive subject. Otherwise every alteration and generation of simply bodies would
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288 be unnatural and violent: whereas they are natural by reason of the natural interior aptitude of the matter or subject to
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289 such a disposition. In like manner when the will is moved, according to its own
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290 inclination, by the appetible object, this movement is not violent but voluntary.
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291 </p>
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292 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p11">
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293 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That to which the will tends by sinning, although in reality it is evil and contrary to the rational nature, nevertheless
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294 is apprehended as something good and suitable to nature, in so far as it is suitable to man by reason of some pleasurable
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295 sensation or some vicious habit.
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296 </p>
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297 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p12"></p>
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298 <p id="FS_Q6_A4-p13"></p>
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299 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html"></a>
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300 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A5.html"></a>
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301 </div>
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302 <div id="FS_Q6_A5" class="div4">
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303 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html"></a>
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304 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A6.html"></a>
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305 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A5-p0.1">Whether violence causes involuntariness?</h4>
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306 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p1"></p>
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307 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p2">
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308 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that violence does not cause involuntariness. For we speak of voluntariness and involuntariness in respect
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309 of the will. But violence cannot be done to the will, as shown above
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310 <a id="FS_Q6_A5-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Therefore violence cannot cause involuntariness.
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311 </p>
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312 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p3">
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313 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is done involuntarily is done with grief, as Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 24) and the Philosopher (Ethic.
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314 iii, 5) say. But sometimes a man suffers compulsion without being grieved thereby. Therefore violence does not cause involuntariness.
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315 </p>
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316 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p4">
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317 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, what is from the will cannot be involuntary. But some violent actions proceed from the will: for instance, when
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318 a man with a heavy body goes upwards; or when a man contorts his limbs in a way contrary to their natural flexibility. Therefore
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319 violence does not cause involuntariness.
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320 </p>
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321 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p5">
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322 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher (Ethic. iii, 1) and Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 24) say that "things done under compulsion are involuntary."
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323 </p>
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324 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p6">
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325 <b>I answer that,</b> Violence is directly opposed to the voluntary, as likewise to the natural. For the voluntary and the natural have this in
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326 common, that both are from an intrinsic principle; whereas violence is from an extrinsic principle. And for this reason, just
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327 as in things devoid of knowledge, violence effects something against nature: so in things endowed with knowledge, it effects
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328 something against the will. Now that which is against nature is said to be "unnatural";
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329 and in like manner that which is against the will is said to be "involuntary." Therefore violence causes involuntariness.
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330 </p>
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331 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p7">
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332 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The involuntary is opposed to the voluntary. Now it has been said
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333 <a id="FS_Q6_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html">(A[4])</a> that not only the act, which proceeds immediately from the will, is called voluntary, but also the act commanded by the will.
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334 Consequently, as to the act which proceeds immediately from the will, violence cannot be done to the will, as stated above
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335
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336 <a id="FS_Q6_A5-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html">(A[4])</a>: wherefore violence cannot make that act involuntary. But as to the commanded
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337 act, the will can suffer violence: and consequently in this respect violence causes involuntariness.
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338 </p>
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339 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p8">
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340 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As that is said to be natural, which is according to the inclination of nature; so that is said to be voluntary, which is
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341 according to the inclination of the will. Now a thing is said to be natural in two ways. First, because it is from nature
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342 as from an active principle: thus it is natural for fire to produce heat. Secondly, according to a passive principle; because,
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343 to wit, there is in nature an inclination to receive an action from an extrinsic
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344 principle: thus the movement of the heavens is said to be natural, by reason of the natural aptitude in a heavenly body to
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345 receive such movement; although the cause of that movement is a voluntary agent. In like manner an act is said to be voluntary
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346 in two ways. First, in regard to action, for instance, when one wishes to be passive to another. Hence when action is brought
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347 to bear on something, by an extrinsic agent, as long as the will to suffer that action remains in the passive subject,
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348 there is not violence simply: for although the patient does nothing by way of action, he does something by being willing to
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349 suffer. Consequently this cannot be called involuntary.
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350 </p>
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351 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p9">
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352 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As the Philosopher says (Phys. viii, 4) the movement of an animal, whereby at times an animal is moved against the natural
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353 inclination of the body, although it is not natural to the body, is nevertheless somewhat natural to the animal, to which
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354 it is natural to be moved according to its appetite. Accordingly this is violent, not simply but in a certain respect. The
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355 same remark applies in the case of one who contorts his limbs in a way that is contrary
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356 to their natural disposition. For this is violent in a certain respect, i.e. as to that particular limb; but not simply, i.e.
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357 as to the man himself.
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358 </p>
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359 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p10"></p>
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360 <p id="FS_Q6_A5-p11"></p>
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361 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html"></a>
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362 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A6.html"></a>
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363 </div>
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364 <div id="FS_Q6_A6" class="div4">
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365 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A5.html"></a>
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366 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A7.html"></a>
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367 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A6-p0.1">Whether fear causes involuntariness simply?</h4>
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368 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p1"></p>
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369 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p2">
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370 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that fear causes involuntariness simply. For just as violence regards that which is contrary to the will at
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371 the time, so fear regards a future evil which is repugnant to the will. But violence causes involuntariness simply. Therefore
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372 fear too causes involuntariness simply.
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373 </p>
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374 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p3">
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375 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is such of itself, remains such, whatever be added to it: thus what is hot of itself, as long as it remains,
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376 is still hot, whatever be added to it. But that which is done through fear, is involuntary in itself. Therefore, even with
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377 the addition of fear, it is involuntary.
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378 </p>
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379 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p4">
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380 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which is such, subject to a condition, is such in a certain respect; whereas what is such, without any condition,
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381 is such simply: thus what is necessary, subject to a condition, is necessary in some respect: but what is necessary absolutely,
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382 is necessary simply. But that which is done through fear, is absolutely involuntary; and is not voluntary, save under a condition,
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383 namely, in order that the evil feared may be avoided. Therefore that which is
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384 done through fear, is involuntary simply.
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385 </p>
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386 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p5">
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387 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxx.] and the Philosopher (Ethic. iii, 1) say that such things as are done through
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388 fear are "voluntary rather than involuntary."
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389 </p>
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390 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p6">
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391 <b>I answer that,</b> As the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii) and likewise Gregory of Nyssa in his book on Man (Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxx), such
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392 things are done through fear "are of a mixed character," being partly voluntary and partly involuntary. For that which is
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393 done through fear, considered in itself, is not voluntary; but it becomes voluntary in this particular case, in order, namely,
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394 to avoid the evil feared.
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395 </p>
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396 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p7"> But if the matter be considered aright, such things are voluntary rather than involuntary; for they are voluntary simply,
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397 but involuntary in a certain respect. For a thing is said to be simply, according as it is in act; but according as it is
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398 only in apprehension, it is not simply, but in a certain respect. Now that which is done through fear, is in act in so far
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399 as it is done. For, since acts are concerned with singulars; and the singular, as such, is here and now; that which
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400 is done is in act, in so far as it is here and now and under other individuating circumstances. And that which is done through
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401 fear is voluntary, inasmuch as it is here and now, that is to say, in so far as, under the circumstances, it hinders a greater
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402 evil which was feared; thus the throwing of the cargo into the sea becomes voluntary during the storm, through fear of the
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403 danger: wherefore it is clear that it is voluntary simply. And hence it is that what is done out of fear is essentially
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404 voluntary, because its principle is within. But if we consider what is done through fear, as outside this particular case,
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405 and inasmuch as it is repugnant to the will, this is merely a consideration of the mind. And consequently what is done through
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406 fear is involuntary, considered in that respect, that is to say, outside the actual circumstances of the case.
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407 </p>
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408 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p8">
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409 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Things done through fear and compulsion differ not only according to present and future time, but also in this, that the
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410 will does not consent, but is moved entirely counter to that which is done through compulsion: whereas what is done through
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411 fear, becomes voluntary, because the will is moved towards it, albeit not for its own sake, but on account of something else,
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412 that is, in order to avoid an evil which is feared. For the conditions of a
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413 voluntary act are satisfied, if it be done on account of something else voluntary: since the voluntary is not only what we
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414 wish, for its own sake, as an end, but also what we wish for the sake of something else, as an end. It is clear therefore
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415 that in what is done from compulsion, the will does nothing inwardly; whereas in what is done through fear, the will does
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416 something. Accordingly, as Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxx.] says, in order to exclude things done through fear,
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417 a
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418 violent action is defined as not only one, "the principal whereof is from without," but with the addition, "in which he that
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419 suffers violence concurs not at all"; because the will of him that is in fear, does concur somewhat in that which he does
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420 through fear.
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421 </p>
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422 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p9">
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423 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Things that are such absolutely, remain such, whatever be added to them; for instance, a cold thing, or a white thing: but
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424 things that are such relatively, vary according as they are compared with different things. For what is big in comparison
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425 with one thing, is small in comparison with another. Now a thing is said to be voluntary, not only for its own sake, as it
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426 were absolutely; but also for the sake of something else, as it were relatively.
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427 Accordingly, nothing prevents a thing which was not voluntary in comparison with one thing, from becoming voluntary when compared
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428 with another.
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429 </p>
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430 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p10">
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431 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That which is done through fear, is voluntary without any condition, that is to say, according as it is actually done: but
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432 it is involuntary, under a certain condition, that is to say, if such a fear were not threatening. Consequently, this argument
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433 proves rather the opposite.
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434 </p>
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435 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p11"></p>
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436 <p id="FS_Q6_A6-p12"></p>
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437 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A5.html"></a>
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438 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A7.html"></a>
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439 </div>
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440 <div id="FS_Q6_A7" class="div4">
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441 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A6.html"></a>
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442 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html"></a>
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443 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A7-p0.1">Whether concupiscence causes involuntariness?</h4>
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444 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p1"></p>
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445 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p2">
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446 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that concupiscence causes involuntariness. For just as fear is a passion, so is concupiscence. But fear causes
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447 involuntariness to a certain extent. Therefore concupiscence does so too.
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448 </p>
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449 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p3">
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450 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as the timid man through fear acts counter to that which he proposed, so does the incontinent, through concupiscence.
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451 But fear causes involuntariness to a certain extent. Therefore concupiscence does so also.
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452 </p>
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453 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p4">
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454 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, knowledge is necessary for voluntariness. But concupiscence impairs knowledge; for the Philosopher says (Ethic.
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455 vi, 5) that "delight," or the lust of pleasure, "destroys the judgment of prudence." Therefore concupiscence causes involuntariness.
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456 </p>
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457 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p5">
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458 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 24): "The involuntary act deserves mercy or indulgence, and is done with regret." But neither
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459 of these can be said of that which is done out of concupiscence. Therefore concupiscence does not cause involuntariness.
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460 </p>
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461 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p6">
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462 <b>I answer that,</b> Concupiscence does not cause involuntariness, but on the contrary makes something to be voluntary. For a thing is said to
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463 be voluntary, from the fact that the will is moved to it. Now concupiscence inclines the will to desire the object of concupiscence.
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464 Therefore the effect of concupiscence is to make something to be voluntary rather than involuntary.
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465 </p>
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466 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p7">
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467 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Fear regards evil, but concupiscence regards good. Now evil of itself is counter to the will, whereas good harmonizes with
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468 the will. Therefore fear has a greater tendency than concupiscence to cause involuntariness.
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469 </p>
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470 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p8">
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471 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> He who acts from fear retains the repugnance of the will to that which he does, considered in itself. But he that acts from
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472 concupiscence, e.g. an incontinent man, does not retain his former will whereby he repudiated the object of his concupiscence;
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473 for his will is changed so that he desires that which previously he repudiated. Accordingly, that which is done out of fear
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474 is involuntary, to a certain extent, but that which is done from concupiscence
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475 is nowise involuntary. For the man who yields to concupiscence acts counter to that which he purposed at first, but not counter
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476 to that which he desires now; whereas the timid man acts counter to that which in itself he desires now.
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477 </p>
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478 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p9">
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479 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If concupiscence were to destroy knowledge altogether, as happens with those whom concupiscence has rendered mad, it would
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480 follow that concupiscence would take away voluntariness. And yet properly speaking it would not result in the act being involuntary,
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481 because in things bereft of reason, there is neither voluntary nor involuntary. But sometimes in those actions which are done
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482 from concupiscence, knowledge is not completely destroyed, because the
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483 power of knowing is not taken away entirely, but only the actual consideration in some particular possible act. Nevertheless,
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484 this itself is voluntary, according as by voluntary we mean that which is in the power of the will, for example "not to act"
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485 or "not to will," and in like manner "not to consider"; for the will can resist the passion, as we shall state later on (
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486 <a id="FS_Q6_A7-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q10_A3.html">Q[10], A[3]</a>;
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487 <a id="FS_Q6_A7-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q77_A7.html"> Q[77], A[7]</a>).
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488 </p>
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489 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p10"></p>
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490 <p id="FS_Q6_A7-p11"></p>
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491 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A6.html"></a>
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492 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html"></a>
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493 </div>
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494 <div id="FS_Q6_A8" class="div4">
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495 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A7.html"></a>
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496 <a href="summa.FS_Q7.html"></a>
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497 <h4 id="FS_Q6_A8-p0.1">Whether ignorance causes involuntariness?</h4>
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498 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p1"></p>
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499 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p2">
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500 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that ignorance does not cause involuntariness. For "the involuntary act deserves pardon," as Damascene says
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501 (De Fide Orth. ii, 24). But sometimes that which is done through ignorance does not deserve pardon, according to
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502 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q6_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.14.38" target="asv">1 Cor. 14:38</a>: "If any man know not, he shall not be known." Therefore ignorance does not cause involuntariness.
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503 </p>
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504 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p3">
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505 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, every sin implies ignorance; according to
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506 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q6_A8-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Prov.14.22" target="asv"> Prov. 14: 22</a>: "They err, that work evil." If, therefore, ignorance causes involuntariness, it would follow that every sin is involuntary:
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507 which is opposed to the saying of Augustine, that "every sin is voluntary" (De Vera Relig. xiv).
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508 </p>
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509 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p4">
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510 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "involuntariness is not without sadness," as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 24). But some things are done out
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511 of ignorance, but without sadness: for instance, a man may kill a foe, whom he wishes to kill, thinking at the time that he
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512 is killing a stag. Therefore ignorance does not cause involuntariness.
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513 </p>
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514 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p5">
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515 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 24) and the Philosopher (Ethic. iii, 1) say that "what is done through ignorance is involuntary."
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516 </p>
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517 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p6">
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518 <b>I answer that,</b> If ignorance causes involuntariness, it is in so far as it deprives one of knowledge, which is a necessary condition of voluntariness,
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519 as was declared above
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520 <a id="FS_Q6_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But it is not every ignorance that deprives one of this knowledge. Accordingly, we must take note that ignorance has a threefold
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521 relationship to the act of the will: in one way, "concomitantly"; in another, "consequently"; in a third way, "antecedently."
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522 "Concomitantly,"
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523 when there is ignorance of what is done; but, so that even if it were known, it would be done. For then, ignorance does not
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524 induce one to wish this to be done, but it just happens that a thing is at the same time done, and not known: thus in the
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525 example given (OBJ 3) a man did indeed wish to kill his foe, but killed him in ignorance, thinking to kill a stag. And ignorance
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526 of this kind, as the Philosopher states (Ethic. iii, 1), does not cause involuntariness, since it is not the cause of
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527 anything that is repugnant to the will: but it causes "non-voluntariness," since that which is unknown cannot be actually
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528 willed. Ignorance is "consequent" to the act of the will, in so far as ignorance itself is voluntary: and this happens in
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529 two ways, in accordance with the two aforesaid modes of voluntary
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530 <a id="FS_Q6_A8-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. First, because the act of the will is brought to bear on the ignorance: as when a man wishes not to know, that he may have
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531 an excuse for sin, or that he may
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532 not be withheld from sin; according to
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533 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q6_A8-p6.3" href="./asv.html#Job.21.14" target="asv"> Job 21:14</a>: "We desire not the knowledge of Thy ways." And this is called "affected ignorance." Secondly, ignorance is said to be voluntary,
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534 when it regards that which one can and ought to know: for in this sense "not to act" and "not to will" are said to be voluntary,
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535 as stated above
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536 <a id="FS_Q6_A8-p6.4" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. And ignorance of this kind happens, either when one does not actually consider what one can and ought to consider; this
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537 is
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538 called "ignorance of evil choice," and arises from some passion or habit: or when one does not take the trouble to acquire
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539 the knowledge which one ought to have; in which sense, ignorance of the general principles of law, which one to know, is voluntary,
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540 as being due to negligence. Accordingly, if in either of these ways, ignorance is voluntary, it cannot cause involuntariness
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541 simply. Nevertheless it causes involuntariness in a certain respect, inasmuch as it precedes the movement of the will
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542 towards the act, which movement would not be, if there were knowledge. Ignorance is "antecedent" to the act of the will, when
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543 it is not voluntary, and yet is the cause of man's willing what he would not will otherwise. Thus a man may be ignorant of
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544 some circumstance of his act, which he was not bound to know, the result being that he does that which he would not do, if
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545 he knew of that circumstance; for instance, a man, after taking proper precaution, may not know that someone is coming along
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546 the road, so that he shoots an arrow and slays a passer-by. Such ignorance causes involuntariness simply.
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547 </p>
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548 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p7"> From this may be gathered the solution of the objections. For the first objection deals with ignorance of what a man is bound
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549 to know. The second, with ignorance of choice, which is voluntary to a certain extent, as stated above. The third, with that
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550 ignorance which is concomitant with the act of the will.
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551 </p>
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552 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p8"></p>
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553 <p id="FS_Q6_A8-p9"></p>
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554 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A7.html"></a>
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555 <a href="summa.FS_Q7.html"></a>
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556 </div>
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557 <a href="summa.FS.ii.html"></a>
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558 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A1.html"></a>
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559 </div>
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560 <div id="FS_Q7" class="div3">
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561 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html"></a>
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562 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html"></a>
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563 <h3 id="FS_Q7-p0.1">OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF HUMAN ACTS (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
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564 <p id="FS_Q7-p1"></p>
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565 <p id="FS_Q7-p2"> We must now consider the circumstances of human acts: under which head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
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566 <p id="FS_Q7-p3"> (1) What is a circumstance?</p>
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567 <p id="FS_Q7-p4"> (2) Whether a theologian should take note of the circumstances of human acts?</p>
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568 <p id="FS_Q7-p5"> (3) How many circumstances are there?</p>
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569 <p id="FS_Q7-p6"> (4) Which are the most important of them?</p>
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570 <div id="FS_Q7_A1" class="div4">
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571 <a href="summa.FS_Q7.html"></a>
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572 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A2.html"></a>
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573 <h4 id="FS_Q7_A1-p0.1">Whether a circumstance is an accident of a human act?</h4>
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574 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p1"></p>
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575 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p2">
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576 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a circumstance is not an accident of a human act. For Tully says (De Invent. Rhetor. i) that a circumstance
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577 is that from "which an orator adds authority and strength to his argument." But oratorical arguments are derived principally
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578 from things pertaining to the essence of a thing, such as the definition, the genus, the species, and the like, from which
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579 also Tully declares that an orator should draw his arguments. Therefore a circumstance is
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580 not an accident of a human act.
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581 </p>
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582 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p3">
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583 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "to be in" is proper to an accident. But that which surrounds [circumstat] is rather out than in. Therefore the
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584 circumstances are not accidents of human acts.
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585 </p>
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586 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p4">
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587 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, an accident has no accident. But human acts themselves are accidents. Therefore the circumstances are not accidents
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588 of acts.
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589 </p>
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590 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p5">
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591 <b>On the contrary,</b> The particular conditions of any singular thing are called its individuating accidents. But the Philosopher (Ethic. iii,
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592 1) calls the circumstances particular things [*{ta kath' ekasta}], i.e. the particular conditions of each act. Therefore the
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593 circumstances are individual accidents of human acts.
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594 </p>
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595 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p6">
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596 <b>I answer that,</b> Since, according to the Philosopher (Peri Herm. i), "words are the signs of what we understand," it must needs be that in
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597 naming things we follow the process of intellectual knowledge. Now our intellectual knowledge proceeds from the better known
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598 to the less known. Accordingly with us, names of more obvious things are transferred so as to signify things less obvious:
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599 and hence it is that, as stated in Metaph. x, 4, "the notion of distance has been
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600 transferred from things that are apart locally, to all kinds of opposition": and in like manner words that signify local movement
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601 are employed to designate all other movements, because bodies which are circumscribed by place, are best known to us. And
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602 hence it is that the word "circumstance" has passed from located things to human acts.
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603 </p>
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604 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p7"> Now in things located, that is said to surround something, which is outside it, but touches it, or is placed near it. Accordingly,
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605 whatever conditions are outside the substance of an act, and yet in some way touch the human act, are called circumstances.
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606 Now what is outside a thing's substance, while it belongs to that thing, is called its accident. Wherefore the circumstances
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607 of human acts should be called their accidents.
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608 </p>
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609 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p8">
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610 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The orator gives strength to his argument, in the first place, from the substance of the act; and secondly, from the circumstances
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611 of the act. Thus a man becomes indictable, first, through being guilty of murder; secondly, through having done it fraudulently,
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612 or from motives of greed or at a holy time or place, and so forth. And so in the passage quoted, it is said pointedly that
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613 the orator "adds strength to his argument," as though this were
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614 something secondary.
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615 </p>
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616 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p9">
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617 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A thing is said to be an accident of something in two ways. First, from being in that thing: thus, whiteness is said to be
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618 an accident of Socrates. Secondly, because it is together with that thing in the same subject: thus, whiteness is an accident
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619 of the art of music, inasmuch as they meet in the same subject, so as to touch one another, as it were. And in this sense
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620 circumstances are said to be the accidents of human acts.
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621 </p>
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622 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p10">
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623 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above (ad 2), an accident is said to be the accident of an accident, from the fact that they meet in the same subject.
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624 But this happens in two ways. First, in so far as two accidents are both related to the same subject, without any relation
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625 to one another; as whiteness and the art of music in Socrates. Secondly, when such accidents are related to one another; as
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626 when the subject receives one accident by means of the other; for instance, a
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627 body receives color by means of its surface. And thus also is one accident said to be in another; for we speak of color as
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628 being in the surface.
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629 </p>
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630 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p11"> Accordingly, circumstances are related to acts in both these ways. For some circumstances that have a relation to acts, belong
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631 to the agent otherwise than through the act; as place and condition of person; whereas others belong to the agent by reason
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632 of the act, as the manner in which the act is done.
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633 </p>
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634 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p12"></p>
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635 <p id="FS_Q7_A1-p13"></p>
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636 <a href="summa.FS_Q7.html"></a>
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637 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A2.html"></a>
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638 </div>
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639 <div id="FS_Q7_A2" class="div4">
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640 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html"></a>
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641 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A3.html"></a>
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642 <h4 id="FS_Q7_A2-p0.1">Whether theologians should take note of the circumstances of human acts?</h4>
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643 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p1"></p>
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644 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p2">
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645 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that theologians should not take note of the circumstances of human acts. Because theologians do not consider
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646 human acts otherwise than according to their quality of good or evil. But it seems that circumstances cannot give quality
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647 to human acts; for a thing is never qualified, formally speaking, by that which is outside it; but by that which is in it.
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648 Therefore theologians should not take note of the circumstances of acts.
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649 </p>
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650 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p3">
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651 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, circumstances are the accidents of acts. But one thing may be subject to an infinity of accidents; hence the Philosopher
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652 says (Metaph. vi, 2) that "no art or science considers accidental being, except only the art of sophistry." Therefore the
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653 theologian has not to consider circumstances.
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654 </p>
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655 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p4">
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656 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the consideration of circumstances belongs to the orator. But oratory is not a part of theology. Therefore it is
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657 not a theologian's business to consider circumstances.
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658 </p>
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659 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p5">
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660 <b>On the contrary,</b> Ignorance of circumstances causes an act to be involuntary, according to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 24) and Gregory of
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661 Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxi.]. But involuntariness excuses from sin, the consideration of which belongs to the theologian.
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662 Therefore circumstances also should be considered by the theologian.
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663 </p>
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664 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p6">
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665 <b>I answer that,</b> Circumstances come under the consideration of the theologian, for a threefold reason. First, because the theologian considers
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666 human acts, inasmuch as man is thereby directed to Happiness. Now, everything that is directed to an end should be proportionate
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667 to that end. But acts are made proportionate to an end by means of a certain commensurateness, which results from the due
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668 circumstances. Hence the theologian has to consider the circumstances. Secondly,
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669 because the theologian considers human acts according as they are found to be good or evil, better or worse: and this diversity
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670 depends on circumstances, as we shall see further on (
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671 <a id="FS_Q7_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html">Q[18], AA[10]</a>,11;
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672 <a id="FS_Q7_A2-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q73_A7.html"> Q[73], A[7]</a>). Thirdly, because the theologian considers human acts under the aspect of merit and demerit, which is proper to human acts;
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673 and for this it is requisite that they be voluntary. Now a human act is deemed to be voluntary or involuntary,
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674 according to knowledge or ignorance of circumstances, as stated above (
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675 <a id="FS_Q7_A2-p6.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html">Q[6], A[8]</a>). Therefore the theologian has to consider circumstances.
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676 </p>
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677 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p7">
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678 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Good directed to the end is said to be useful; and this implies some kind of relation: wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic.
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679 i, 6) that "the good in the genus 'relation' is the useful." Now, in the genus "relation" a thing is denominated not only
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680 according to that which is inherent in the thing, but also according to that which is extrinsic to it: as may be seen in the
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681 expressions "right" and "left," "equal" and "unequal," and such like. Accordingly,
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682 since the goodness of acts consists in their utility to the end, nothing hinders their being called good or bad according
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683 to their proportion to extrinsic things that are adjacent to them.
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684 </p>
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685 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p8">
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686 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Accidents which are altogether accidental are neglected by every art, by reason of their uncertainty and infinity. But such
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687 like accidents are not what we call circumstances; because circumstances although, as stated above
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688 <a id="FS_Q7_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, they are extrinsic to the act, nevertheless are in a kind of contact with it, by being related to it. Proper accidents,
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689 however, come under the consideration of art.
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690 </p>
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691 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p9">
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692 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The consideration of circumstances belongs to the moralist, the politician, and the orator. To the moralist, in so far as
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693 with respect to circumstances we find or lose the mean of virtue in human acts and passions. To the politician and to the
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694 orator, in so far as circumstances make acts to be worthy of praise or blame, of excuse or indictment. In different ways,
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695 however: because where the orator persuades, the politician judges. To the theologian
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696 this consideration belongs, in all the aforesaid ways: since to him all the other arts are subservient: for he has to consider
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697 virtuous and vicious acts, just as the moralist does; and with the orator and politician he considers acts according as they
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698 are deserving of reward or punishment.
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699 </p>
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700 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p10"></p>
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701 <p id="FS_Q7_A2-p11"></p>
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702 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html"></a>
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703 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A3.html"></a>
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704 </div>
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705 <div id="FS_Q7_A3" class="div4">
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706 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A2.html"></a>
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707 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A4.html"></a>
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708 <h4 id="FS_Q7_A3-p0.1">Whether the circumstances are properly set forth in the third book of Ethics?</h4>
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709 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p1"></p>
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710 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p2">
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711 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the circumstances are not properly set forth in Ethic. iii, 1. For a circumstance of an act is described
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712 as something outside the act. Now time and place answer to this description. Therefore there are only two circumstances, to
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713 wit, "when" and "where."
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714 </p>
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715 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p3">
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716 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, we judge from the circumstances whether a thing is well or ill done. But this belongs to the mode of an act. Therefore
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717 all the circumstances are included under one, which is the "mode of acting."
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718 </p>
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719 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p4">
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720 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, circumstances are not part of the substance of an act. But the causes of an act seem to belong to its substance.
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721 Therefore no circumstance should be taken from the cause of the act itself. Accordingly, neither "who," nor "why," nor "about
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722 what," are circumstances: since "who" refers to the efficient cause, "why" to the final cause, and "about what" to the material
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723 cause.
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724 </p>
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101
|
725 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p5"> <b>On the contrary,</b> is the authority of the Philosopher in Ethic. iii, 1.</p>
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64
|
726 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p6">
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727 <b>I answer that,</b> Tully, in his Rhetoric (De Invent. Rhetor. i), gives seven circumstances, which are contained in this verse:
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728 </p>
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729 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p7"> "Quis, quid, ubi, quibus auxiliis, cur, quomodo, quando---</p>
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730 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p8"> Who, what, where, by what aids, why, how, and when."</p>
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731 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p9">For in acts we must take note of "who" did it, "by what aids" or "instruments" he did it, "what" he did, "where" he did it,
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732 "why" he did it, "how" and "when" he did it. But Aristotle in Ethic. iii, 1 adds yet another, to wit, "about what," which
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733 Tully includes in the circumstance "what."
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734 </p>
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735 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p10"> The reason of this enumeration may be set down as follows. For a circumstance is described as something outside the substance
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736 of the act, and yet in a way touching it. Now this happens in three ways: first, inasmuch as it touches the act itself; secondly,
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737 inasmuch as it touches the cause of the act; thirdly, inasmuch as it touches the effect. It touches the act itself, either
|
|
|
738 by way of measure, as "time" and "place"; or by qualifying the act as the "mode of acting." It touches
|
|
|
739 the effect when we consider "what" is done. It touches the cause of the act, as to the final cause, by the circumstance "why";
|
|
|
740 as to the material cause, or object, in the circumstance "about what"; as to the principal efficient cause, in the circumstance
|
|
|
741 "who"; and as to the instrumental efficient cause, in the circumstance "by what aids."
|
|
|
742 </p>
|
|
|
743 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p11">
|
|
|
744 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Time and place surround [circumstant] the act by way of measure; but the others surround the act by touching it in any other
|
|
|
745 way, while they are extrinsic to the substance of the act.
|
|
|
746 </p>
|
|
|
747 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p12">
|
|
|
748 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This mode "well" or "ill" is not a circumstance, but results from all the circumstances. But the mode which refers to a quality
|
|
|
749 of the act is a special circumstance; for instance, that a man walk fast or slowly; that he strike hard or gently, and so
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|
|
750 forth.
|
|
|
751 </p>
|
|
|
752 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p13">
|
|
|
753 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A condition of the cause, on which the substance of the act depends, is not a circumstance; it must be an additional condition.
|
|
|
754 Thus, in regard to the object, it is not a circumstance of theft that the object is another's property, for this belongs to
|
|
|
755 the substance of the act; but that it be great or small. And the same applies to the other circumstances which are considered
|
|
|
756 in reference to the other causes. For the end that specifies the act is not a
|
|
|
757 circumstance, but some additional end. Thus, that a valiant man act "valiantly for the sake of" the good of the virtue or
|
|
|
758 fortitude, is not a circumstance; but if he act valiantly for the sake of the delivery of the state, or of Christendom, or
|
|
|
759 some such purpose. The same is to be said with regard to the circumstance "what"; for that a man by pouring water on someone
|
|
|
760 should happen to wash him, is not a circumstance of the washing; but that in doing so he give him a chill, or scald him; heal
|
|
|
761 him
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|
762 or harm him, these are circumstances.
|
|
|
763 </p>
|
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|
764 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p14"></p>
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|
765 <p id="FS_Q7_A3-p15"></p>
|
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|
766 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A2.html"></a>
|
|
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767 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
768 </div>
|
|
|
769 <div id="FS_Q7_A4" class="div4">
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770 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
771 <a href="summa.FS_Q8.html"></a>
|
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|
772 <h4 id="FS_Q7_A4-p0.1">Whether the most important circumstances are "why" and "in what the act consists"?</h4>
|
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|
773 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
774 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p2">
|
|
|
775 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that these are not the most important circumstances, namely, "why" and those "in which the act is, [*hen ois
|
|
|
776 e praxis]" as stated in Ethic. iii, 1. For those in which the act is seem to be place and time: and these do not seem to be
|
|
|
777 the most important of the circumstances, since, of them all, they are the most extrinsic to the act. Therefore those things
|
|
|
778 in which the act is are not the most important circumstances.
|
|
|
779 </p>
|
|
|
780 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p3">
|
|
|
781 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the end of a thing is extrinsic to it. Therefore it is not the most important circumstance.
|
|
|
782 </p>
|
|
|
783 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p4">
|
|
|
784 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which holds the foremost place in regard to each thing, is its cause and its form. But the cause of an act
|
|
|
785 is the person that does it; while the form of an act is the manner in which it is done. Therefore these two circumstances
|
|
|
786 seem to be of the greatest importance.
|
|
|
787 </p>
|
|
|
788 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p5">
|
|
|
789 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxi.] says that "the most important circumstances" are "why it is done" and "what
|
|
|
790 is done."
|
|
|
791 </p>
|
|
|
792 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p6">
|
|
|
793 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
794 <a id="FS_Q7_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>), acts are properly called human, inasmuch as they are voluntary. Now, the motive and object of the will is the end. Therefore
|
|
|
795 that circumstance is the most important of all which touches the act on the part of the end, viz. the circumstance "why":
|
|
|
796 and the second in importance, is that which touches the very substance of the act, viz. the circumstance "what he did." As
|
|
|
797 to the other circumstances, they are
|
|
|
798 more or less important, according as they more or less approach to these.
|
|
|
799 </p>
|
|
|
800 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p7">
|
|
|
801 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> By those things "in which the act is" the Philosopher does not mean time and place, but those circumstances that are affixed
|
|
|
802 to the act itself. Wherefore Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxi], as though he were explaining the dictum of the
|
|
|
803 Philosopher, instead of the latter's term---"in which the act is"---said, "what is done."
|
|
|
804 </p>
|
|
|
805 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p8">
|
|
|
806 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although the end is not part of the substance of the act, yet it is the most important cause of the act, inasmuch as it moves
|
|
|
807 the agent to act. Wherefore the moral act is specified chiefly by the end.
|
|
|
808 </p>
|
|
|
809 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p9">
|
|
|
810 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The person that does the act is the cause of that act, inasmuch as he is moved thereto by the end; and it is chiefly in this
|
|
|
811 respect that he is directed to the act; while other conditions of the person have not such an important relation to the act.
|
|
|
812 As to the mode, it is not the substantial form of the act, for in an act the substantial form depends on the object and term
|
|
|
813 or end; but it is, as it were, a certain accidental quality of the act.
|
|
|
814 </p>
|
|
|
815 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
816 <p id="FS_Q7_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
817 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
818 <a href="summa.FS_Q8.html"></a>
|
|
|
819 </div>
|
|
|
820 <a href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
821 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
822 </div>
|
|
|
823 <div id="FS_Q8" class="div3">
|
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|
824 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A4.html"></a>
|
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|
825 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
826 <h3 id="FS_Q8-p0.1">OF THE WILL, IN REGARD TO WHAT IT WILLS (THREE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
827 <p id="FS_Q8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
828 <p id="FS_Q8-p2"> We must now consider the different acts of the will; and in the first place, those acts which belong to the will itself immediately,
|
|
|
829 as being elicited by the will; secondly, those acts which are commanded by the will.
|
|
|
830 </p>
|
|
|
831 <p id="FS_Q8-p3"> Now the will is moved to the end, and to the means to the end; we must therefore consider: (1) those acts of the will whereby
|
|
|
832 it is moved to the end; and (2) those whereby it is moved to the means. And since it seems that there are three acts of the
|
|
|
833 will in reference to the end; viz. "volition," "enjoyment," and "intention"; we must consider: (1) volition; (2) enjoyment;
|
|
|
834 (3) intention. Concerning the first, three things must be considered: (1) Of what things is the will? (2) By
|
|
|
835 what is the will moved? (3) How is it moved?
|
|
|
836 </p>
|
|
|
837 <p id="FS_Q8-p4"> Under the first head there are three points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
838 <p id="FS_Q8-p5"> (1) Whether the will is of good only?</p>
|
|
|
839 <p id="FS_Q8-p6"> (2) Whether it is of the end only, or also of the means?</p>
|
|
|
840 <p id="FS_Q8-p7"> (3) If in any way it be of the means, whether it be moved to the end and to the means, by the same movement?</p>
|
|
|
841 <div id="FS_Q8_A1" class="div4">
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842 <a href="summa.FS_Q8.html"></a>
|
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|
843 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
844 <h4 id="FS_Q8_A1-p0.1">Whether the will is of good only?</h4>
|
|
|
845 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
846 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p2">
|
|
|
847 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not of good only. For the same power regards opposites; for instance, sight regards white
|
|
|
848 and black. But good and evil are opposites. Therefore the will is not only of good, but also of evil.
|
|
|
849 </p>
|
|
|
850 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p3">
|
|
|
851 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, rational powers can be directed to opposite purposes, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. ix, 2). But the will
|
|
|
852 is a rational power, since it is "in the reason," as is stated in De Anima iii, 9. Therefore the will can be directed to opposites;
|
|
|
853 and consequently its volition is not confined to good, but extends to evil.
|
|
|
854 </p>
|
|
|
855 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p4">
|
|
|
856 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, good and being are convertible. But volition is directed not only to beings, but also to non-beings. For sometimes
|
|
|
857 we wish "not to walk," or "not to speak"; and again at times we wish for future things, which are not actual beings. Therefore
|
|
|
858 the will is not of good only.
|
|
|
859 </p>
|
|
|
860 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p5">
|
|
|
861 <b>On the contrary,</b> Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that "evil is outside the scope of the will," and that "all things desire good."
|
|
|
862 </p>
|
|
|
863 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p6">
|
|
|
864 <b>I answer that,</b> The will is a rational appetite. Now every appetite is only of something good. The reason of this is that the appetite is
|
|
|
865 nothing else than an inclination of a person desirous of a thing towards that thing. Now every inclination is to something
|
|
|
866 like and suitable to the thing inclined. Since, therefore, everything, inasmuch as it is being and substance, is a good, it
|
|
|
867 must needs be that every inclination is to something good. And hence it is that the
|
|
|
868 Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 1) that "the good is that which all desire."
|
|
|
869 </p>
|
|
|
870 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p7"> But it must be noted that, since every inclination results from a form, the natural appetite results from a form existing
|
|
|
871 in the nature of things: while the sensitive appetite, as also the intellective or rational appetite, which we call the will,
|
|
|
872 follows from an apprehended form. Therefore, just as the natural appetite tends to good existing in a thing; so the animal
|
|
|
873 or voluntary appetite tends to a good which is apprehended. Consequently, in order that the will tend to
|
|
|
874 anything, it is requisite, not that this be good in very truth, but that it be apprehended as good. Wherefore the Philosopher
|
|
|
875 says (Phys. ii, 3) that "the end is a good, or an apparent good."
|
|
|
876 </p>
|
|
|
877 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p8">
|
|
|
878 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The same power regards opposites, but it is not referred to them in the same way. Accordingly, the will is referred both
|
|
|
879 to good and evil: but to good by desiring it: to evil, by shunning it. Wherefore the actual desire of good is called "volition"
|
|
|
880 [*In Latin, 'voluntas'. To avoid confusion with "voluntas" (the will) St. Thomas adds a word of explanation, which in the
|
|
|
881 translation may appear superfluous], meaning thereby the act of the will; for it is
|
|
|
882 in this sense that we are now speaking of the will. On the other hand, the shunning of evil is better described as "nolition":
|
|
|
883 wherefore, just as volition is of good, so nolition is of evil.
|
|
|
884 </p>
|
|
|
885 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p9">
|
|
|
886 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A rational power is not to be directed to all opposite purposes, but to those which are contained under its proper object;
|
|
|
887 for no power seeks other than its proper object. Now, the object of the will is good. Wherefore the will can be directed to
|
|
|
888 such opposite purposes as are contained under good, such as to be moved or to be at rest, to speak or to be silent, and such
|
|
|
889 like: for the will can be directed to either under the aspect of good.
|
|
|
890 </p>
|
|
|
891 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p10">
|
|
|
892 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> That which is not a being in nature, is considered as a being in the reason, wherefore negations and privations are said
|
|
|
893 to be "beings of reason." In this way, too, future things, in so far as they are apprehended, are beings. Accordingly, in
|
|
|
894 so far as such like are beings, they are apprehended under the aspect of good; and it is thus that the will is directed to
|
|
|
895 them. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 1) that "to lack evil is considered as a
|
|
|
896 good."
|
|
|
897 </p>
|
|
|
898 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
899 <p id="FS_Q8_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
900 <a href="summa.FS_Q8.html"></a>
|
|
|
901 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
902 </div>
|
|
|
903 <div id="FS_Q8_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
904 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
905 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
906 <h4 id="FS_Q8_A2-p0.1">Whether volition is of the end only, or also of the means?</h4>
|
|
|
907 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
908 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p2">
|
|
|
909 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that volition is not of the means, but of the end only. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "volition
|
|
|
910 is of the end, while choice is of the means."
|
|
|
911 </p>
|
|
|
912 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p3">
|
|
|
913 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "For objects differing in genus there are corresponding different powers of the soul" (Ethic. vi, 1). Now, the end
|
|
|
914 and the means are in different genera of good: because the end, which is a good either of rectitude or of pleasure, is in
|
|
|
915 the genus "quality," or "action," or "passion"; whereas the good which is useful, and is directed to and end, is in the genus
|
|
|
916 "relation" (Ethic. i, 6). Therefore, if volition is of the end, it is not of the means.
|
|
|
917 </p>
|
|
|
918 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p4">
|
|
|
919 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, habits are proportionate to powers, since they are perfections thereof. But in those habits which are called practical
|
|
|
920 arts, the end belongs to one, and the means to another art; thus the use of a ship, which is its end, belongs to the (art
|
|
|
921 of the) helmsman; whereas the building of the ship, which is directed to the end, belongs to the art of the shipwright. Therefore,
|
|
|
922 since volition is of the end, it is not of the means.
|
|
|
923 </p>
|
|
|
924 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p5">
|
|
|
925 <b>On the contrary,</b> In natural things, it is by the same power that a thing passes through the middle space, and arrives at the terminus. But
|
|
|
926 the means are a kind of middle space, through which one arrives at the end or terminus. Therefore, if volition is of the end,
|
|
|
927 it is also of the means.
|
|
|
928 </p>
|
|
|
929 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p6">
|
|
|
930 <b>I answer that,</b> The word "voluntas" sometimes designates the power of the will, sometimes its act [*See note: above A[1], Reply OBJ[1]].
|
|
|
931 Accordingly, if we speak of the will as a power, thus it extends both to the end and to the means. For every power extends
|
|
|
932 to those things in which may be considered the aspect of the object of that power in any way whatever: thus the sight extends
|
|
|
933 to all things whatsoever that are in any way colored. Now the aspect of good, which is the
|
|
|
934 object of the power of the will, may be found not only in the end, but also in the means.
|
|
|
935 </p>
|
|
|
936 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p7"> If, however, we speak of the will in regard to its act, then, properly speaking, volition is of the end only. Because every
|
|
|
937 act denominated from a power, designates the simple act of that power: thus "to understand" designates the simple act of the
|
|
|
938 understanding. Now the simple act of a power is referred to that which is in itself the object of that power. But that which
|
|
|
939 is good and willed in itself is the end. Wherefore volition, properly speaking, is of the end itself. On the
|
|
|
940 other hand, the means are good and willed, not in themselves, but as referred to the end. Wherefore the will is directed to
|
|
|
941 them, only in so far as it is directed to the end: so that what it wills in them, is the end. Thus, to understand, is properly
|
|
|
942 directed to things that are known in themselves, i.e. first principles: but we do not speak of understanding with regard to
|
|
|
943 things known through first principles, except in so far as we see the principles in those things. For in morals the end is
|
|
|
944 what principles are in speculative science (Ethic. viii, 8).
|
|
|
945 </p>
|
|
|
946 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p8">
|
|
|
947 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Philosopher is speaking of the will in reference to the simple act of the will; not in reference to the power of the
|
|
|
948 will.
|
|
|
949 </p>
|
|
|
950 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p9">
|
|
|
951 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> There are different powers for objects that differ in genus and are on an equality; for instance, sound and color are different
|
|
|
952 genera of sensibles, to which are referred hearing and sight. But the useful and the righteous are not on an equality, but
|
|
|
953 are as that which is of itself, and that which is in relation to another. Now such like objects are always referred to the
|
|
|
954 same power; for instance, the power of sight perceives both color and light by
|
|
|
955 which color is seen.
|
|
|
956 </p>
|
|
|
957 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p10">
|
|
|
958 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Not everything that diversifies habits, diversifies the powers: since habits are certain determinations of powers to certain
|
|
|
959 special acts. Moreover, every practical art considers both the end and the means. For the art of the helmsman does indeed
|
|
|
960 consider the end, as that which it effects; and the means, as that which it commands. On the other hand, the ship-building
|
|
|
961 art considers the means as that which it effects; but it considers that which is the
|
|
|
962 end, as that to which it refers what it effects. And again, in every practical art there is an end proper to it and means
|
|
|
963 that belong properly to that art.
|
|
|
964 </p>
|
|
|
965 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
966 <p id="FS_Q8_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
967 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
968 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
969 </div>
|
|
|
970 <div id="FS_Q8_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
971 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
972 <a href="summa.FS_Q9.html"></a>
|
|
|
973 <h4 id="FS_Q8_A3-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by the same act to the end and to the means?</h4>
|
|
|
974 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
975 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p2">
|
|
|
976 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is moved by the same act, to the end and to the means. Because according to the Philosopher (Topic.
|
|
|
977 iii, 2) "where one thing is on account of another there is only one." But the will does not will the means save on account
|
|
|
978 of the end. Therefore it is moved to both by the same act.
|
|
|
979 </p>
|
|
|
980 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p3">
|
|
|
981 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the end is the reason for willing the means, just as light is the reason of seeing colors. But light and colors
|
|
|
982 are seen by the same act. Therefore it is the same movement of the will, whereby it wills the end and the means.
|
|
|
983 </p>
|
|
|
984 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p4">
|
|
|
985 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, it is one and the same natural movement which tends through the middle space to the terminus. But the means are
|
|
|
986 in comparison to the end, as the middle space is to the terminus. Therefore it is the same movement of the will whereby it
|
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|
987 is directed to the end and to the means.
|
|
|
988 </p>
|
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|
989 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p5">
|
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|
990 <b>On the contrary,</b> Acts are diversified according to their objects. But the end is a different species of good from the means, which are a useful
|
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|
991 good. Therefore the will is not moved to both by the same act.
|
|
|
992 </p>
|
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|
993 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p6">
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|
994 <b>I answer that,</b> Since the end is willed in itself, whereas the means, as such, are only willed for the end, it is evident that the will can
|
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|
995 be moved to the end, without being moved to the means; whereas it cannot be moved to the means, as such, unless it is moved
|
|
|
996 to the end. Accordingly the will is moved to the end in two ways: first, to the end absolutely and in itself; secondly, as
|
|
|
997 the reason for willing the means. Hence it is evident that the will is moved by one and the
|
|
|
998 same movement, to the end, as the reason for willing the means; and to the means themselves. But it is another act whereby
|
|
|
999 the will is moved to the end absolutely. And sometimes this act precedes the other in time; for example when a man first wills
|
|
|
1000 to have health, and afterwards deliberating by what means to be healed, wills to send for the doctor to heal him. The same
|
|
|
1001 happens in regard to the intellect: for at first a man understands the principles in themselves; but afterwards he understands
|
|
|
1002 them in the conclusions, inasmuch as he assents to the conclusions on account of the principles.
|
|
|
1003 </p>
|
|
|
1004 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p7">
|
|
|
1005 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument holds in respect of the will being moved to the end as the reason for willing the means.
|
|
|
1006 </p>
|
|
|
1007 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p8">
|
|
|
1008 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Whenever color is seen, by the same act the light is seen; but the light can be seen without the color being seen. In like
|
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|
1009 manner whenever a man wills the means, by the same act he wills the end; but not the conversely.
|
|
|
1010 </p>
|
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|
1011 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p9">
|
|
|
1012 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In the execution of a work, the means are as the middle space, and the end, as the terminus. Wherefore just as natural movement
|
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|
1013 sometimes stops in the middle and does not reach the terminus; so sometimes one is busy with the means, without gaining the
|
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|
1014 end. But in willing it is the reverse: the will through (willing) the end comes to will the means; just as the intellect arrives
|
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|
1015 at the conclusions through the principles which are called "means." Hence
|
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|
1016 it is that sometimes the intellect understands a mean, and does not proceed thence to the conclusion. And in like manner the
|
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1017 will sometimes wills the end, and yet does not proceed to will the means.
|
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|
1018 </p>
|
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|
1019 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p10"> The solution to the argument in the contrary sense is clear from what has been said above (A[2], ad 2). For the useful and
|
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|
1020 the righteous are not species of good in an equal degree, but are as that which is for its own sake and that which is for
|
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|
1021 the sake of something else: wherefore the act of the will can be directed to one and not to the other; but not conversely.
|
|
|
1022 </p>
|
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|
1023 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p11"></p>
|
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|
1024 <p id="FS_Q8_A3-p12"></p>
|
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1025 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A2.html"></a>
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1026 <a href="summa.FS_Q9.html"></a>
|
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1027 </div>
|
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1028 <a href="summa.FS_Q7_A4.html"></a>
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1029 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A1.html"></a>
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1030 </div>
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1031 <div id="FS_Q9" class="div3">
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1032 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A3.html"></a>
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1033 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html"></a>
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1034 <h3 id="FS_Q9-p0.1">OF THAT WHICH MOVES THE WILL (SIX ARTICLES)</h3>
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1035 <p id="FS_Q9-p1"></p>
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1036 <p id="FS_Q9-p2"> We must now consider what moves the will: and under this head there are six points of inquiry:</p>
|
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|
1037 <p id="FS_Q9-p3"> (1) Whether the will is moved by the intellect?</p>
|
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|
1038 <p id="FS_Q9-p4"> (2) Whether it is moved by the sensitive appetite?</p>
|
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1039 <p id="FS_Q9-p5"> (3) Whether the will moves itself?</p>
|
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1040 <p id="FS_Q9-p6"> (4) Whether it is moved by an extrinsic principle?</p>
|
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|
1041 <p id="FS_Q9-p7"> (5) Whether it is moved by a heavenly body?</p>
|
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|
1042 <p id="FS_Q9-p8"> (6) Whether the will is moved by God alone as by an extrinsic principle?</p>
|
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1043 <div id="FS_Q9_A1" class="div4">
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1044 <a href="summa.FS_Q9.html"></a>
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1045 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html"></a>
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1046 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A1-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by the intellect?</h4>
|
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1047 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p1"></p>
|
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|
1048 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p2">
|
|
|
1049 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not moved by the intellect. For Augustine says on
|
|
|
1050 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q9_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.118.20" target="asv"> Ps. 118:20</a>: "My soul hath coveted to long for Thy justifications: The intellect flies ahead, the desire follows sluggishly or not at
|
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|
1051 all: we know what is good, but deeds delight us not." But it would not be so, if the will were moved by the intellect: because
|
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|
1052 movement of the movable results from motion of the mover. Therefore the intellect does not move the
|
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1053 will.
|
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|
1054 </p>
|
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1055 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p3">
|
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|
1056 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the intellect in presenting the appetible object to the will, stands in relation to the will, as the imagination
|
|
|
1057 in representing the appetible will to the sensitive appetite. But the imagination, does not remove the sensitive appetite:
|
|
|
1058 indeed sometimes our imagination affects us no more than what is set before us in a picture, and moves us not at all (De Anima
|
|
|
1059 ii, 3). Therefore neither does the intellect move the will.
|
|
|
1060 </p>
|
|
|
1061 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p4">
|
|
|
1062 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the same is not mover and moved in respect of the same thing. But the will moves the intellect; for we exercise
|
|
|
1063 the intellect when we will. Therefore the intellect does not move the will.
|
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|
1064 </p>
|
|
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1065 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p5">
|
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|
1066 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Anima iii, 10) that "the appetible object is a mover not moved, whereas the will is a mover moved."
|
|
|
1067 </p>
|
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1068 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p6">
|
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|
1069 <b>I answer that,</b> A thing requires to be moved by something in so far as it is in potentiality to several things; for that which is in potentiality
|
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|
1070 needs to be reduced to act by something actual; and to do this is to move. Now a power of the soul is seen to be in potentiality
|
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|
1071 to different things in two ways: first, with regard to acting and not acting; secondly, with regard to this or that action.
|
|
|
1072 Thus the sight sometimes sees actually, and sometimes sees not: and sometimes
|
|
|
1073 it sees white, and sometimes black. It needs therefore a mover in two respects, viz. as to the exercise or use of the act,
|
|
|
1074 and as to the determination of the act. The first of these is on the part of the subject, which is sometimes acting, sometimes
|
|
|
1075 not acting: while the other is on the part of the object, by reason of which the act is specified.
|
|
|
1076 </p>
|
|
|
1077 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p7"> The motion of the subject itself is due to some agent. And since every agent acts for an end, as was shown above (
|
|
|
1078 <a id="FS_Q9_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A2.html">Q[1], A[2]</a>), the principle of this motion lies in the end. And hence it is that the art which is concerned with the end, by its command
|
|
|
1079 moves the art which is concerned with the means; just as the "art of sailing commands the art of shipbuilding" (Phys. ii,
|
|
|
1080 2). Now good in general, which has the nature of an end, is the object of the will.
|
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|
1081 Consequently, in this respect, the will moves the other powers of the soul to their acts, for we make use of the other powers
|
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|
1082 when we will. For the end and perfection of every other power, is included under the object of the will as some particular
|
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1083 good: and always the art or power to which the universal end belongs, moves to their acts the arts or powers to which belong
|
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|
1084 the particular ends included in the universal end. Thus the leader of an army, who intends the common good---i.e. the order
|
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|
1085 of the whole army---by his command moves one of the captains, who intends the order of one company.
|
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|
1086 </p>
|
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|
1087 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p8"> On the other hand, the object moves, by determining the act, after the manner of a formal principle, whereby in natural things
|
|
|
1088 actions are specified, as heating by heat. Now the first formal principle is universal "being" and "truth," which is the object
|
|
|
1089 of the intellect. And therefore by this kind of motion the intellect moves the will, as presenting its object to it.
|
|
|
1090 </p>
|
|
|
1091 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p9">
|
|
|
1092 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The passage quoted proves, not that the intellect does not move, but that it does not move of necessity.
|
|
|
1093 </p>
|
|
|
1094 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p10">
|
|
|
1095 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as the imagination of a form without estimation of fitness or harmfulness, does not move the sensitive appetite; so
|
|
|
1096 neither does the apprehension of the true without the aspect of goodness and desirability. Hence it is not the speculative
|
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|
1097 intellect that moves, but the practical intellect (De Anima iii, 9).
|
|
|
1098 </p>
|
|
|
1099 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p11">
|
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|
1100 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will moves the intellect as to the exercise of its act; since even the true itself which is the perfection of the intellect,
|
|
|
1101 is included in the universal good, as a particular good. But as to the determination of the act, which the act derives from
|
|
|
1102 the object, the intellect moves the will; since the good itself is apprehended under a special aspect as contained in the
|
|
|
1103 universal true. It is therefore evident that the same is not mover and moved in
|
|
|
1104 the same respect.
|
|
|
1105 </p>
|
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|
1106 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p12"></p>
|
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1107 <p id="FS_Q9_A1-p13"></p>
|
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|
1108 <a href="summa.FS_Q9.html"></a>
|
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|
1109 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1110 </div>
|
|
|
1111 <div id="FS_Q9_A2" class="div4">
|
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1112 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1113 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1114 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A2-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by the sensitive appetite?</h4>
|
|
|
1115 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1116 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p2">
|
|
|
1117 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will cannot be moved by the sensitive appetite. For "to move and to act is more excellent than to
|
|
|
1118 be passive," as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. xii, 16). But the sensitive appetite is less excellent than the will which is
|
|
|
1119 the intellectual appetite; just as sense is less excellent than intellect. Therefore the sensitive appetite does not move
|
|
|
1120 the will.
|
|
|
1121 </p>
|
|
|
1122 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p3">
|
|
|
1123 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no particular power can produce a universal effect. But the sensitive appetite is a particular power, because it
|
|
|
1124 follows the particular apprehension of sense. Therefore it cannot cause the movement of the will, which movement is universal,
|
|
|
1125 as following the universal apprehension of the intellect.
|
|
|
1126 </p>
|
|
|
1127 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p4">
|
|
|
1128 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as is proved in Phys. viii, 5, the mover is not moved by that which it moves, in such a way that there be reciprocal
|
|
|
1129 motion. But the will moves the sensitive appetite, inasmuch as the sensitive appetite obeys the reason. Therefore the sensitive
|
|
|
1130 appetite does not move the will.
|
|
|
1131 </p>
|
|
|
1132 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p5">
|
|
|
1133 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
1134 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q9_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Jas.1.14" target="asv">James 1:14</a>): "Every man is tempted by his own concupiscence, being drawn away and allured." But man would not be drawn away by his concupiscence,
|
|
|
1135 unless his will were moved by the sensitive appetite, wherein concupiscence resides. Therefore the sensitive appetite moves
|
|
|
1136 the will.
|
|
|
1137 </p>
|
|
|
1138 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p6">
|
|
|
1139 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
1140 <a id="FS_Q9_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, that which is apprehended as good and fitting, moves the will by way of object. Now, that a thing appear to be good and
|
|
|
1141 fitting, happens from two causes: namely, from the condition, either of the thing proposed, or of the one to whom it is proposed.
|
|
|
1142 For fitness is spoken of by way of relation; hence it depends on both extremes. And hence it is that taste, according as it
|
|
|
1143 is variously disposed, takes to a thing
|
|
|
1144 in various ways, as being fitting or unfitting. Wherefore as the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 5): "According as a man is,
|
|
|
1145 such does the end seem to him."
|
|
|
1146 </p>
|
|
|
1147 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p7"> Now it is evident that according to a passion of the sensitive appetite man is changed to a certain disposition. Wherefore
|
|
|
1148 according as man is affected by a passion, something seems to him fitting, which does not seem so when he is not so affected:
|
|
|
1149 thus that seems good to a man when angered, which does not seem good when he is calm. And in this way, the sensitive appetite
|
|
|
1150 moves the will, on the part of the object.
|
|
|
1151 </p>
|
|
|
1152 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p8">
|
|
|
1153 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nothing hinders that which is better simply and in itself, from being less excellent in a certain respect. Accordingly the
|
|
|
1154 will is simply more excellent than the sensitive appetite: but in respect of the man in whom a passion is predominant, in
|
|
|
1155 so far as he is subject to that passion, the sensitive appetite is more excellent.
|
|
|
1156 </p>
|
|
|
1157 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p9">
|
|
|
1158 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Men's acts and choices are in reference to singulars. Wherefore from the very fact that the sensitive appetite is a particular
|
|
|
1159 power, it has great influence in disposing man so that something seems to him such or otherwise, in particular cases.
|
|
|
1160 </p>
|
|
|
1161 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p10">
|
|
|
1162 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 2), the reason, in which resides the will, moves, by its command, the irascible and concupiscible
|
|
|
1163 powers, not, indeed, "by a despotic sovereignty," as a slave is moved by his master, but by a "royal and politic sovereignty,"
|
|
|
1164 as free men are ruled by their governor, and can nevertheless act counter to his commands. Hence both irascible and concupiscible
|
|
|
1165 can move counter to the will: and accordingly nothing hinders the
|
|
|
1166 will from being moved by them at times.
|
|
|
1167 </p>
|
|
|
1168 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1169 <p id="FS_Q9_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1170 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1171 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1172 </div>
|
|
|
1173 <div id="FS_Q9_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
1174 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1175 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1176 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A3-p0.1">Whether the will moves itself?</h4>
|
|
|
1177 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1178 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p2">
|
|
|
1179 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will does not move itself. For every mover, as such, is in act: whereas what is moved, is in potentiality;
|
|
|
1180 since "movement is the act of that which is in potentiality, as such" [*Aristotle, Phys. iii, 1]. Now the same is not in potentiality
|
|
|
1181 and in act, in respect of the same. Therefore nothing moves itself. Neither, therefore, can the will move itself.
|
|
|
1182 </p>
|
|
|
1183 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p3">
|
|
|
1184 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the movable is moved on the mover being present. But the will is always present to itself. If, therefore, it moved
|
|
|
1185 itself, it would always be moving itself, which is clearly false.
|
|
|
1186 </p>
|
|
|
1187 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p4">
|
|
|
1188 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the will is moved by the intellect, as stated above
|
|
|
1189 <a id="FS_Q9_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. If, therefore, the will move itself, it would follow that the same thing is at once moved immediately by two movers; which
|
|
|
1190 seems unreasonable. Therefore the will does not move itself.
|
|
|
1191 </p>
|
|
|
1192 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p5">
|
|
|
1193 <b>On the contrary,</b> The will is mistress of its own act, and to it belongs to will and not to will. But this would not be so, had it not the
|
|
|
1194 power to move itself to will. Therefore it moves itself.
|
|
|
1195 </p>
|
|
|
1196 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p6">
|
|
|
1197 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
1198 <a id="FS_Q9_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, it belongs to the will to move the other powers, by reason of the end which is the will's object. Now, as stated above (Q[8],
|
|
|
1199 A[2]), the end is in things appetible, what the principle is in things intelligible. But it is evident that the intellect,
|
|
|
1200 through its knowledge of the principle, reduces itself from potentiality to act, as to its knowledge of the conclusions; and
|
|
|
1201 thus it moves itself. And, in like
|
|
|
1202 manner, the will, through its volition of the end, moves itself to will the means.
|
|
|
1203 </p>
|
|
|
1204 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p7">
|
|
|
1205 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is not in respect of the same that the will moves itself and is moved: wherefore neither is it in act and in potentiality
|
|
|
1206 in respect of the same. But forasmuch as it actually wills the end, it reduces itself from potentiality to act, in respect
|
|
|
1207 of the means, so as, in a word, to will them actually.
|
|
|
1208 </p>
|
|
|
1209 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p8">
|
|
|
1210 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The power of the will is always actually present to itself; but the act of the will, whereby it wills an end, is not always
|
|
|
1211 in the will. But it is by this act that it moves itself. Accordingly it does not follow that it is always moving itself.
|
|
|
1212 </p>
|
|
|
1213 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p9">
|
|
|
1214 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will is moved by the intellect, otherwise than by itself. By the intellect it is moved on the part of the object: whereas
|
|
|
1215 it is moved by itself, as to the exercise of its act, in respect of the end.
|
|
|
1216 </p>
|
|
|
1217 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1218 <p id="FS_Q9_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1219 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1220 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1221 </div>
|
|
|
1222 <div id="FS_Q9_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
1223 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1224 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1225 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A4-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by an exterior principle?</h4>
|
|
|
1226 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1227 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p2">
|
|
|
1228 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not moved by anything exterior. For the movement of the will is voluntary. But it is essential
|
|
|
1229 to the voluntary act that it be from an intrinsic principle, just as it is essential to the natural act. Therefore the movement
|
|
|
1230 of the will is not from anything exterior.
|
|
|
1231 </p>
|
|
|
1232 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p3">
|
|
|
1233 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the will cannot suffer violence, as was shown above (
|
|
|
1234 <a id="FS_Q9_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A4.html">Q[6], A[4]</a>). But the violent act is one "the principle of which is outside the agent" [*Aristotle, Ethic. iii, 1]. Therefore the will
|
|
|
1235 cannot be moved by anything exterior.
|
|
|
1236 </p>
|
|
|
1237 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p4">
|
|
|
1238 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which is sufficiently moved by one mover, needs not to be moved by another. But the will moves itself sufficiently.
|
|
|
1239 Therefore it is not moved by anything exterior.
|
|
|
1240 </p>
|
|
|
1241 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p5">
|
|
|
1242 <b>On the contrary,</b> The will is moved by the object, as stated above (A[1] ). But the object of the will can be something exterior, offered to
|
|
|
1243 the sense. Therefore the will can be moved by something exterior.
|
|
|
1244 </p>
|
|
|
1245 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p6">
|
|
|
1246 <b>I answer that,</b> As far as the will is moved by the object, it is evident that it can be moved by something exterior. But in so far as it
|
|
|
1247 is moved in the exercise of its act, we must again hold it to be moved by some exterior principle.
|
|
|
1248 </p>
|
|
|
1249 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p7"> For everything that is at one time an agent actually, and at another time an agent in potentiality, needs to be moved by
|
|
|
1250 a mover. Now it is evident that the will begins to will something, whereas previously it did not will it. Therefore it must,
|
|
|
1251 of necessity, be moved by something to will it. And, indeed, it moves itself, as stated above
|
|
|
1252 <a id="FS_Q9_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, in so far as through willing the end it reduces itself to the act of willing the means. Now it cannot do this
|
|
|
1253 without the aid of counsel: for when a man wills to be healed, he begins to reflect how this can be attained, and through
|
|
|
1254 this reflection he comes to the conclusion that he can be healed by a physician: and this he wills. But since he did not always
|
|
|
1255 actually will to have health, he must, of necessity, have begun, through something moving him, to will to be healed. And if
|
|
|
1256 the will moved itself to will this, it must, of necessity, have done this with the aid of counsel following some previous
|
|
|
1257 volition. But this process could not go on to infinity. Wherefore we must, of necessity, suppose that the will advanced to
|
|
|
1258 its first movement in virtue of the instigation of some exterior mover, as Aristotle concludes in a chapter of the Eudemian
|
|
|
1259 Ethics (vii, 14).
|
|
|
1260 </p>
|
|
|
1261 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p8">
|
|
|
1262 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> It is essential to the voluntary act that its principle be within the agent: but it is not necessary that this inward principle
|
|
|
1263 be the first principle unmoved by another. Wherefore though the voluntary act has an inward proximate principle, nevertheless
|
|
|
1264 its first principle is from without. Thus, too, the first principle of the natural movement is from without, that, to wit,
|
|
|
1265 which moves nature.
|
|
|
1266 </p>
|
|
|
1267 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p9">
|
|
|
1268 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> For an act to be violent it is not enough that its principle be extrinsic, but we must add "without the concurrence of him
|
|
|
1269 that suffers violence." This does not happen when the will is moved by an exterior principle: for it is the will that wills,
|
|
|
1270 though moved by another. But this movement would be violent, if it were counter to the movement of the will: which in the
|
|
|
1271 present case is impossible; since then the will would will and not will the same
|
|
|
1272 thing.
|
|
|
1273 </p>
|
|
|
1274 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p10">
|
|
|
1275 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will moves itself sufficiently in one respect, and in its own order, that is to say as proximate agent; but it cannot
|
|
|
1276 move itself in every respect, as we have shown. Wherefore it needs to be moved by another as first mover.
|
|
|
1277 </p>
|
|
|
1278 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1279 <p id="FS_Q9_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1280 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1281 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1282 </div>
|
|
|
1283 <div id="FS_Q9_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
1284 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1285 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1286 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A5-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by a heavenly body?</h4>
|
|
|
1287 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1288 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p2">
|
|
|
1289 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human will is moved by a heavenly body. For all various and multiform movements are reduced, as to
|
|
|
1290 their cause, to a uniform movement which is that of the heavens, as is proved in Phys. viii, 9. But human movements are various
|
|
|
1291 and multiform, since they begin to be, whereas previously they were not. Therefore they are reduced, as to their cause, to
|
|
|
1292 the movement of the heavens, which is uniform according to its nature.
|
|
|
1293 </p>
|
|
|
1294 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p3">
|
|
|
1295 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Augustine (De Trin. iii, 4) "the lower bodies are moved by the higher." But the movements of the human
|
|
|
1296 body, which are caused by the will, could not be reduced to the movement of the heavens, as to their cause, unless the will
|
|
|
1297 too were moved by the heavens. Therefore the heavens move the human will.
|
|
|
1298 </p>
|
|
|
1299 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p4">
|
|
|
1300 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by observing the heavenly bodies astrologers foretell the truth about future human acts, which are caused by the
|
|
|
1301 will. But this would not be so, if the heavenly bodies could not move man's will. Therefore the human will is moved by a heavenly
|
|
|
1302 body.
|
|
|
1303 </p>
|
|
|
1304 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p5">
|
|
|
1305 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 7) that "the heavenly bodies are not the causes of our acts." But they would be, if the
|
|
|
1306 will, which is the principle of human acts, were moved by the heavenly bodies. Therefore the will is not moved by the heavenly
|
|
|
1307 bodies.
|
|
|
1308 </p>
|
|
|
1309 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p6">
|
|
|
1310 <b>I answer that,</b> It is evident that the will can be moved by the heavenly bodies in the same way as it is moved by its object; that is to
|
|
|
1311 say, in so far as exterior bodies, which move the will, through being offered to the senses, and also the organs themselves
|
|
|
1312 of the sensitive powers, are subject to the movements of the heavenly bodies.
|
|
|
1313 </p>
|
|
|
1314 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p7"> But some have maintained that heavenly bodies have an influence on the human will, in the same way as some exterior agent
|
|
|
1315 moves the will, as to the exercise of its act. But this is impossible. For the "will," as stated in De Anima iii, 9, "is in
|
|
|
1316 the reason." Now the reason is a power of the soul, not bound to a bodily organ: wherefore it follows that the will is a power
|
|
|
1317 absolutely incorporeal and immaterial. But it is evident that no body can act on what is incorporeal, but
|
|
|
1318 rather the reverse: because things incorporeal and immaterial have a power more formal and more universal than any corporeal
|
|
|
1319 things whatever. Therefore it is impossible for a heavenly body to act directly on the intellect or will. For this reason
|
|
|
1320 Aristotle (De Anima iii, 3) ascribed to those who held that intellect differs not from sense, the theory that "such is the
|
|
|
1321 will of men, as is the day which the father of men and of gods bring on" [*Odyssey xviii. 135] (referring to Jupiter, by whom
|
|
|
1322 they understand the entire heavens). For all the sensitive powers, since they are acts of bodily organs, can be moved accidentally,
|
|
|
1323 by the heavenly bodies, i.e. through those bodies being moved, whose acts they are.
|
|
|
1324 </p>
|
|
|
1325 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p8"> But since it has been stated
|
|
|
1326 <a id="FS_Q9_A5-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html">(A[2])</a> that the intellectual appetite is moved, in a fashion, by the sensitive appetite, the movements of the heavenly bodies have
|
|
|
1327 an indirect bearing on the will; in so far as the will happens to be moved by the passions of the sensitive appetite.
|
|
|
1328 </p>
|
|
|
1329 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p9">
|
|
|
1330 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The multiform movements of the human will are reduced to some uniform cause, which, however, is above the intellect and will.
|
|
|
1331 This can be said, not of any body, but of some superior immaterial substance. Therefore there is no need for the movement
|
|
|
1332 of the will to be referred to the movement of the heavens, as to its cause.
|
|
|
1333 </p>
|
|
|
1334 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p10">
|
|
|
1335 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The movements of the human body are reduced, as to their cause, to the movement of a heavenly body, in so far as the disposition
|
|
|
1336 suitable to a particular movement, is somewhat due to the influence of heavenly bodies; also, in so far as the sensitive appetite
|
|
|
1337 is stirred by the influence of heavenly bodies; and again, in so far as exterior bodies are moved in accordance with the movement
|
|
|
1338 of heavenly bodies, at whose presence, the will begins to will or
|
|
|
1339 not to will something; for instance, when the body is chilled, we begin to wish to make the fire. But this movement of the
|
|
|
1340 will is on the part of the object offered from without: not on the part of an inward instigation.
|
|
|
1341 </p>
|
|
|
1342 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p11">
|
|
|
1343 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above (Cf.
|
|
|
1344 <a id="FS_Q9_A5-p11.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q84_A6.html">FP, Q[84], AA[6]</a>,7) the sensitive appetite is the act of a bodily organ. Wherefore there is no reason why man should not be prone to anger
|
|
|
1345 or concupiscence, or some like passion, by reason of the influence of heavenly bodies, just as by reason of his natural complexion.
|
|
|
1346 But the majority of men are led by the passions, which the wise alone resist. Consequently, in the majority of cases predictions
|
|
|
1347 about
|
|
|
1348 human acts, gathered from the observation of heavenly bodies, are fulfilled. Nevertheless, as Ptolemy says (Centiloquium v),
|
|
|
1349 "the wise man governs the stars"; which is a though to say that by resisting his passions, he opposes his will, which is free
|
|
|
1350 and nowise subject to the movement of the heavens, to such like effects of the heavenly bodies.
|
|
|
1351 </p>
|
|
|
1352 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p12"> Or, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. ii, 15): "We must confess that when the truth is foretold by astrologers, this is due
|
|
|
1353 to some most hidden inspiration, to which the human mind is subject without knowing it. And since this is done in order to
|
|
|
1354 deceive man, it must be the work of the lying spirits."
|
|
|
1355 </p>
|
|
|
1356 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p13"></p>
|
|
|
1357 <p id="FS_Q9_A5-p14"></p>
|
|
|
1358 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1359 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1360 </div>
|
|
|
1361 <div id="FS_Q9_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
1362 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1363 <a href="summa.FS_Q10.html"></a>
|
|
|
1364 <h4 id="FS_Q9_A6-p0.1">Whether the will is moved by God alone, as exterior principle?</h4>
|
|
|
1365 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1366 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p2">
|
|
|
1367 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not moved by God alone as exterior principle. For it is natural that the inferior be moved
|
|
|
1368 by its superior: thus the lower bodies are moved by the heavenly bodies. But there is something which is higher than the will
|
|
|
1369 of man and below God, namely, the angel. Therefore man's will can be moved by an angel also, as exterior principle.
|
|
|
1370 </p>
|
|
|
1371 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p3">
|
|
|
1372 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the act of the will follows the act of the intellect. But man's intellect is reduced to act, not by God alone, but
|
|
|
1373 also by the angel who enlightens it, as Dionysius says (Coel. Hier. iv). For the same reason, therefore, the will also is
|
|
|
1374 moved by an angel.
|
|
|
1375 </p>
|
|
|
1376 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p4">
|
|
|
1377 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, God is not the cause of other than good things, according to
|
|
|
1378 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q9_A6-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.1.31" target="asv"> Gn. 1:31</a>: "God saw all the things that He had made, and they were very good." If, therefore man's will were moved by God alone, it
|
|
|
1379 would never be moved to evil: and yet it is the will whereby "we sin and whereby we do right," as Augustine says (Retract.
|
|
|
1380 i, 9).
|
|
|
1381 </p>
|
|
|
1382 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p5">
|
|
|
1383 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
1384 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q9_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.2.13" target="asv">Phil. 2:13</a>): "It is God Who worketh in us" [Vulg.'you'] "both to will and to accomplish."
|
|
|
1385 </p>
|
|
|
1386 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p6">
|
|
|
1387 <b>I answer that,</b> The movement of the will is from within, as also is the movement of nature. Now although it is possible for something to
|
|
|
1388 move a natural thing, without being the cause of the thing moved, yet that alone, which is in some way the cause of a thing's
|
|
|
1389 nature, can cause a natural movement in that thing. For a stone is moved upwards by a man, who is not the cause of the stone's
|
|
|
1390 nature, but this movement is not natural to the stone; but the natural movement of the
|
|
|
1391 stone is caused by no other than the cause of its nature. Wherefore it is said in Phys. vii, 4, that the generator moves locally
|
|
|
1392 heavy and light things. Accordingly man endowed with a will is sometimes moved by something that is not his cause; but that
|
|
|
1393 his voluntary movement be from an exterior principle that is not the cause of his will, is impossible.
|
|
|
1394 </p>
|
|
|
1395 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p7"> Now the cause of the will can be none other than God. And this is evident for two reasons. First, because the will is a power
|
|
|
1396 of the rational soul, which is caused by God alone, by creation, as was stated in the
|
|
|
1397 <a id="FS_Q9_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q90_A2.html">FP, Q[90], A[2]</a>. Secondly, it is evident from the fact that the will is ordained to the universal good. Wherefore nothing else can be the
|
|
|
1398 cause of the will, except God Himself, Who is the universal good: while every other good is good by
|
|
|
1399 participation, and is some particular good, and a particular cause does not give a universal inclination. Hence neither can
|
|
|
1400 primary matter, which is potentiality to all forms, be created by some particular agent.
|
|
|
1401 </p>
|
|
|
1402 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p8">
|
|
|
1403 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> An angel is not above man in such a way as to be the cause of his will, as the heavenly bodies are the causes of natural
|
|
|
1404 forms, from which result the natural movements of natural bodies.
|
|
|
1405 </p>
|
|
|
1406 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p9">
|
|
|
1407 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Man's intellect is moved by an angel, on the part of the object, which by the power of the angelic light is proposed to man's
|
|
|
1408 knowledge. And in this way the will also can be moved by a creature from without, as stated above
|
|
|
1409 <a id="FS_Q9_A6-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html">(A[4])</a>.
|
|
|
1410 </p>
|
|
|
1411 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p10">
|
|
|
1412 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> God moves man's will, as the Universal Mover, to the universal object of the will, which is good. And without this universal
|
|
|
1413 motion, man cannot will anything. But man determines himself by his reason to will this or that, which is true or apparent
|
|
|
1414 good. Nevertheless, sometimes God moves some specially to the willing of something determinate, which is good; as in the case
|
|
|
1415 of those whom He moves by grace, as we shall state later on (
|
|
|
1416 <a id="FS_Q9_A6-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q109_A2.html">Q[109], A[2]</a>).
|
|
|
1417 </p>
|
|
|
1418 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1419 <p id="FS_Q9_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1420 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
1421 <a href="summa.FS_Q10.html"></a>
|
|
|
1422 </div>
|
|
|
1423 <a href="summa.FS_Q8_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1424 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1425 </div>
|
|
|
1426 <div id="FS_Q10" class="div3">
|
|
|
1427 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1428 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1429 <h3 id="FS_Q10-p0.1">OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE WILL IS MOVED (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
1430 <p id="FS_Q10-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1431 <p id="FS_Q10-p2"> We must now consider the manner in which the will is moved. Under this head there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
1432 <p id="FS_Q10-p3"> (1) Whether the will is moved to anything naturally?</p>
|
|
|
1433 <p id="FS_Q10-p4"> (2) Whether it is moved of necessity by its object?</p>
|
|
|
1434 <p id="FS_Q10-p5"> (3) Whether it is moved of necessity by the lower appetite?</p>
|
|
|
1435 <p id="FS_Q10-p6"> (4) Whether it is moved of necessity by the exterior mover which is God?</p>
|
|
|
1436 <div id="FS_Q10_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
1437 <a href="summa.FS_Q10.html"></a>
|
|
|
1438 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1439 <h4 id="FS_Q10_A1-p0.1">Whether the will is moved to anything naturally?</h4>
|
|
|
1440 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1441 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p2">
|
|
|
1442 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not moved to anything naturally. For the natural agent is condivided with the voluntary agent,
|
|
|
1443 as stated at the beginning of Phys. ii, 1. Therefore the will is not moved to anything naturally.
|
|
|
1444 </p>
|
|
|
1445 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p3">
|
|
|
1446 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is natural is in a thing always: as "being hot" is in fire. But no movement is always in the will. Therefore
|
|
|
1447 no movement is natural to the will.
|
|
|
1448 </p>
|
|
|
1449 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p4">
|
|
|
1450 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, nature is determinate to one thing: whereas the will is referred to opposites. Therefore the will wills nothing
|
|
|
1451 naturally.
|
|
|
1452 </p>
|
|
|
1453 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p5">
|
|
|
1454 <b>On the contrary,</b> The movement of the will follows the movement of the intellect. But the intellect understands some things naturally. Therefore
|
|
|
1455 the will, too, wills some things naturally.
|
|
|
1456 </p>
|
|
|
1457 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p6">
|
|
|
1458 <b>I answer that,</b> As Boethius says (De Duabus Nat.) and the Philosopher also (Metaph. v, 4) the word "nature" is used in a manifold sense.
|
|
|
1459 For sometimes it stands for the intrinsic principle in movable things. In this sense nature is either matter or the material
|
|
|
1460 form, as stated in Phys. ii, 1. In another sense nature stands for any substance, or even for any being. And in this sense,
|
|
|
1461 that is said to be natural to a thing which befits it in respect of its substance. And this
|
|
|
1462 is that which of itself is in a thing. Now all things that do not of themselves belong to the thing in which they are, are
|
|
|
1463 reduced to something which belongs of itself to that thing, as to their principle. Wherefore, taking nature in this sense,
|
|
|
1464 it is necessary that the principle of whatever belongs to a thing, be a natural principle. This is evident in regard to the
|
|
|
1465 intellect: for the principles of intellectual knowledge are naturally known. In like manner the principle of voluntary movements
|
|
|
1466 must be something naturally willed.
|
|
|
1467 </p>
|
|
|
1468 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p7"> Now this is good in general, to which the will tends naturally, as does each power to its object; and again it is the last
|
|
|
1469 end, which stands in the same relation to things appetible, as the first principles of demonstrations to things intelligible:
|
|
|
1470 and, speaking generally, it is all those things which belong to the willer according to his nature. For it is not only things
|
|
|
1471 pertaining to the will that the will desires, but also that which pertains to each power, and to the entire
|
|
|
1472 man. Wherefore man wills naturally not only the object of the will, but also other things that are appropriate to the other
|
|
|
1473 powers; such as the knowledge of truth, which befits the intellect; and to be and to live and other like things which regard
|
|
|
1474 the natural well-being; all of which are included in the object of the will, as so many particular goods.
|
|
|
1475 </p>
|
|
|
1476 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p8">
|
|
|
1477 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The will is distinguished from nature as one kind of cause from another; for some things happen naturally and some are done
|
|
|
1478 voluntarily. There is, however, another manner of causing that is proper to the will, which is mistress of its act, besides
|
|
|
1479 the manner proper to nature, which is determinate to one thing. But since the will is founded on some nature, it is necessary
|
|
|
1480 that the movement proper to nature be shared by the will, to some extent: just as
|
|
|
1481 what belongs to a previous cause is shared by a subsequent cause. Because in every thing, being itself, which is from nature,
|
|
|
1482 precedes volition, which is from the will. And hence it is that the will wills something naturally.
|
|
|
1483 </p>
|
|
|
1484 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p9">
|
|
|
1485 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In the case of natural things, that which is natural, as a result of the form only, is always in them actually, as heat is
|
|
|
1486 in fire. But that which is natural as a result of matter, is not always in them actually, but sometimes only in potentiality:
|
|
|
1487 because form is act, whereas matter is potentiality. Now movement is "the act of that which is in potentiality" (Aristotle,
|
|
|
1488 Phys. iii, 1). Wherefore that which belongs to, or results from, movement, in
|
|
|
1489 regard to natural things, is not always in them. Thus fire does not always move upwards, but only when it is outside its own
|
|
|
1490 place. [*The Aristotelian theory was that fire's proper place is the fiery heaven, i.e. the Empyrean.] And in like manner
|
|
|
1491 it is not necessary that the will (which is reduced from potentiality to act, when it wills something), should always be in
|
|
|
1492 the act of volition; but only when it is in a certain determinate disposition. But God's will, which is pure act, is always
|
|
|
1493 in
|
|
|
1494 the act of volition.
|
|
|
1495 </p>
|
|
|
1496 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p10">
|
|
|
1497 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> To every nature there is one thing corresponding, proportionate, however, to that nature. For to nature considered as a genus,
|
|
|
1498 there corresponds something one generically; and to nature as species there corresponds something one specifically; and to
|
|
|
1499 the individualized nature there corresponds some one individual. Since, therefore, the will is an immaterial power like the
|
|
|
1500 intellect, some one general thing corresponds to it, naturally which is the good;
|
|
|
1501 just as to the intellect there corresponds some one general thing, which is the true, or being, or "what a thing is." And
|
|
|
1502 under good in general are included many particular goods, to none of which is the will determined.
|
|
|
1503 </p>
|
|
|
1504 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1505 <p id="FS_Q10_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1506 <a href="summa.FS_Q10.html"></a>
|
|
|
1507 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1508 </div>
|
|
|
1509 <div id="FS_Q10_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
1510 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1511 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1512 <h4 id="FS_Q10_A2-p0.1">Whether the will is moved, of necessity, by its object?</h4>
|
|
|
1513 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1514 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p2">
|
|
|
1515 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that the will is moved, of necessity, by its object. For the object of the will is compared to the will as mover
|
|
|
1516 to movable, as stated in De Anima iii, 10. But a mover, if it be sufficient, moves the movable of necessity. Therefore the
|
|
|
1517 will can be moved of necessity by its object.
|
|
|
1518 </p>
|
|
|
1519 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p3">
|
|
|
1520 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as the will is an immaterial power, so is the intellect: and both powers are ordained to a universal object,
|
|
|
1521 as stated above (A[1], ad 3). But the intellect is moved, of necessity, by its object: therefore the will also, by its object.
|
|
|
1522 </p>
|
|
|
1523 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p4">
|
|
|
1524 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever one wills, is either the end, or something ordained to an end. But, seemingly, one wills an end necessarily:
|
|
|
1525 because it is like the principle in speculative matters, to which principle one assents of necessity. Now the end is the reason
|
|
|
1526 for willing the means; and so it seems that we will the means also necessarily. Therefore the will is moved of necessity by
|
|
|
1527 its object.
|
|
|
1528 </p>
|
|
|
1529 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p5">
|
|
|
1530 <b>On the contrary,</b> The rational powers, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. ix, 2) are directed to opposites. But the will is a rational power,
|
|
|
1531 since it is in the reason, as stated in De Anima iii, 9. Therefore the will is directed to opposites. Therefore it is not
|
|
|
1532 moved, of necessity, to either of the opposites.
|
|
|
1533 </p>
|
|
|
1534 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p6">
|
|
|
1535 <b>I answer that,</b> The will is moved in two ways: first, as to the exercise of its act; secondly, as to the specification of its act, derived
|
|
|
1536 from the object. As to the first way, no object moves the will necessarily, for no matter what the object be, it is in man's
|
|
|
1537 power not to think of it, and consequently not to will it actually. But as to the second manner of motion, the will is moved
|
|
|
1538 by one object necessarily, by another not. For in the movement of a power by its object,
|
|
|
1539 we must consider under what aspect the object moves the power. For the visible moves the sight, under the aspect of color
|
|
|
1540 actually visible. Wherefore if color be offered to the sight, it moves the sight necessarily: unless one turns one's eyes
|
|
|
1541 away; which belongs to the exercise of the act. But if the sight were confronted with something not in all respects colored
|
|
|
1542 actually, but only so in some respects, and in other respects not, the sight would not of necessity see such an object: for
|
|
|
1543 it
|
|
|
1544 might look at that part of the object which is not actually colored, and thus it would not see it. Now just as the actually
|
|
|
1545 colored is the object of sight, so is good the object of the will. Wherefore if the will be offered an object which is good
|
|
|
1546 universally and from every point of view, the will tends to it of necessity, if it wills anything at all; since it cannot
|
|
|
1547 will the opposite. If, on the other hand, the will is offered an object that is not good from every point of view, it will
|
|
|
1548 not
|
|
|
1549 tend to it of necessity. And since lack of any good whatever, is a non-good, consequently, that good alone which is perfect
|
|
|
1550 and lacking in nothing, is such a good that the will cannot not-will it: and this is Happiness. Whereas any other particular
|
|
|
1551 goods, in so far as they are lacking in some good, can be regarded as non-goods: and from this point of view, they can be
|
|
|
1552 set aside or approved by the will, which can tend to one and the same thing from various points of view.
|
|
|
1553 </p>
|
|
|
1554 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p7">
|
|
|
1555 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The sufficient mover of a power is none but that object that in every respect presents the aspect of the mover of that power.
|
|
|
1556 If, on the other hand, it is lacking in any respect, it will not move of necessity, as stated above.
|
|
|
1557 </p>
|
|
|
1558 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p8">
|
|
|
1559 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The intellect is moved, of necessity, by an object which is such as to be always and necessarily true: but not by that which
|
|
|
1560 may be either true or false---viz. by that which is contingent: as we have said of the good.
|
|
|
1561 </p>
|
|
|
1562 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p9">
|
|
|
1563 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The last end moves the will necessarily, because it is the perfect good. In like manner whatever is ordained to that end,
|
|
|
1564 and without which the end cannot be attained, such as "to be" and "to live," and the like. But other things without which
|
|
|
1565 the end can be gained, are not necessarily willed by one who wills the end: just as he who assents to the principle, does
|
|
|
1566 not necessarily assent to the conclusions, without which the principles can still be
|
|
|
1567 true.
|
|
|
1568 </p>
|
|
|
1569 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1570 <p id="FS_Q10_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1571 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1572 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1573 </div>
|
|
|
1574 <div id="FS_Q10_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
1575 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1576 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1577 <h4 id="FS_Q10_A3-p0.1">Whether the will is moved, of necessity, by the lower appetite?</h4>
|
|
|
1578 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1579 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p2">
|
|
|
1580 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is moved of necessity by a passion of the lower appetite. For the Apostle says (
|
|
|
1581 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q10_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.19" target="asv">Rom. 7:19</a>): "The good which I will I do not; but the evil which I will not, that I do": and this is said by reason of concupiscence,
|
|
|
1582 which is a passion. Therefore the will is moved of necessity by a passion.
|
|
|
1583 </p>
|
|
|
1584 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p3">
|
|
|
1585 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as stated in Ethic. iii, 5, "according as a man is, such does the end seem to him." But it is not in man's power
|
|
|
1586 to cast aside a passion once. Therefore it is not in man's power not to will that to which the passion inclines him.
|
|
|
1587 </p>
|
|
|
1588 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p4">
|
|
|
1589 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a universal cause is not applied to a particular effect, except by means of a particular cause: wherefore the universal
|
|
|
1590 reason does not move save by means of a particular estimation, as stated in De Anima iii, 11. But as the universal reason
|
|
|
1591 is to the particular estimation, so is the will to the sensitive appetite. Therefore the will is not moved to will something
|
|
|
1592 particular, except through the sensitive appetite. Therefore, if the sensitive appetite
|
|
|
1593 happen to be disposed to something, by reason of a passion, the will cannot be moved in a contrary sense.
|
|
|
1594 </p>
|
|
|
1595 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p5">
|
|
|
1596 <b>On the contrary,</b>
|
|
|
1597 It is written (
|
|
|
1598 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q10_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Gen.4.7" target="asv">Gn. 4:7</a>):
|
|
|
1599 "Thy lust [Vulg. 'The lust thereof'] shall be
|
|
|
1600 under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over
|
|
|
1601 it." Therefore man's will is not moved of necessity by the lower appetite.
|
|
|
1602 </p>
|
|
|
1603 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p6">
|
|
|
1604 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
1605 <a id="FS_Q10_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A2.html">Q[9], A[2]</a>), the passion of the sensitive appetite moves the will, in so far as the will is moved by its object: inasmuch as, to wit,
|
|
|
1606 man through being disposed in such and such a way by a passion, judges something to be fitting and good, which he would not
|
|
|
1607 judge thus were it not for the passion. Now this influence of a passion on man occurs in two ways. First, so that his reason
|
|
|
1608 is wholly bound, so that he has not
|
|
|
1609 the use of reason: as happens in those who through a violent access of anger or concupiscence become furious or insane, just
|
|
|
1610 as they may from some other bodily disorder; since such like passions do not take place without some change in the body. And
|
|
|
1611 of such the same is to be said as of irrational animals, which follow, of necessity, the impulse of their passions: for in
|
|
|
1612 them there is neither movement of reason, nor, consequently, of will.
|
|
|
1613 </p>
|
|
|
1614 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p7"> Sometimes, however, the reason is not entirely engrossed by the passion, so that the judgment of reason retains, to a certain
|
|
|
1615 extent, its freedom: and thus the movement of the will remains in a certain degree. Accordingly in so far as the reason remains
|
|
|
1616 free, and not subject to the passion, the will's movement, which also remains, does not tend of necessity to that whereto
|
|
|
1617 the passion inclines it. Consequently, either there is no movement of the will in that man, and the passion
|
|
|
1618 alone holds its sway: or if there be a movement of the will, it does not necessarily follow the passion.
|
|
|
1619 </p>
|
|
|
1620 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p8">
|
|
|
1621 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the will cannot prevent the movement of concupiscence from arising, of which the Apostle says: "The evil which I
|
|
|
1622 will not, that I do---i.e. I desire"; yet it is in the power of the will not to will to desire or not to consent to concupiscence.
|
|
|
1623 And thus it does not necessarily follow the movement of concupiscence.
|
|
|
1624 </p>
|
|
|
1625 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p9">
|
|
|
1626 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since there is in man a twofold nature, intellectual and sensitive; sometimes man is such and such uniformly in respect of
|
|
|
1627 his whole soul: either because the sensitive part is wholly subject to this reason, as in the virtuous; or because reason
|
|
|
1628 is entirely engrossed by passion, as in a madman. But sometimes, although reason is clouded by passion, yet something of this
|
|
|
1629 reason remains free. And in respect of this, man can either repel the passion
|
|
|
1630 entirely, or at least hold himself in check so as not to be led away by the passion. For when thus disposed, since man is
|
|
|
1631 variously disposed according to the various parts of the soul, a thing appears to him otherwise according to his reason, than
|
|
|
1632 it does according to a passion.
|
|
|
1633 </p>
|
|
|
1634 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p10">
|
|
|
1635 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will is moved not only by the universal good apprehended by the reason, but also by good apprehended by sense. Wherefore
|
|
|
1636 he can be moved to some particular good independently of a passion of the sensitive appetite. For we will and do many things
|
|
|
1637 without passion, and through choice alone; as is most evident in those cases wherein reason resists passion.
|
|
|
1638 </p>
|
|
|
1639 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1640 <p id="FS_Q10_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1641 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1642 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1643 </div>
|
|
|
1644 <div id="FS_Q10_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
1645 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1646 <a href="summa.FS_Q11.html"></a>
|
|
|
1647 <h4 id="FS_Q10_A4-p0.1">Whether the will is moved of necessity by the exterior mover which is God?</h4>
|
|
|
1648 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1649 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p2">
|
|
|
1650 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is moved of necessity by God. For every agent that cannot be resisted moves of necessity. But
|
|
|
1651 God cannot be resisted, because His power is infinite; wherefore it is written (
|
|
|
1652 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q10_A4-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.9.19" target="asv">Rom. 9:19</a>): "Who resisteth His will?" Therefore God moves the will of necessity.
|
|
|
1653 </p>
|
|
|
1654 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p3">
|
|
|
1655 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the will is moved of necessity to whatever it wills naturally, as stated above (A[2], ad 3). But "whatever God does
|
|
|
1656 in a thing is natural to it," as Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxvi, 3). Therefore the will wills of necessity everything
|
|
|
1657 to which God moves it.
|
|
|
1658 </p>
|
|
|
1659 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p4">
|
|
|
1660 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a thing is possible, if nothing impossible follows from its being supposed. But something impossible follows from
|
|
|
1661 the supposition that the will does not will that to which God moves it: because in that case God's operation would be ineffectual.
|
|
|
1662 Therefore it is not possible for the will not to will that to which God moves it. Therefore it wills it of necessity.
|
|
|
1663 </p>
|
|
|
1664 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p5">
|
|
|
1665 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
1666 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q10_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Sir.15.14" target="asv">Ecclus. 15:14</a>): "God made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his own counsel." Therefore He does not of necessity move
|
|
|
1667 man's will.
|
|
|
1668 </p>
|
|
|
1669 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p6">
|
|
|
1670 <b>I answer that,</b> As Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) "it belongs to Divine providence, not to destroy but to preserve the nature of things."
|
|
|
1671 Wherefore it moves all things in accordance with their conditions; so that from necessary causes through the Divine motion,
|
|
|
1672 effects follow of necessity; but from contingent causes, effects follow contingently. Since, therefore, the will is an active
|
|
|
1673 principle, not determinate to one thing, but having an indifferent relation to many things,
|
|
|
1674 God so moves it, that He does not determine it of necessity to one thing, but its movement remains contingent and not necessary,
|
|
|
1675 except in those things to which it is moved naturally.
|
|
|
1676 </p>
|
|
|
1677 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p7">
|
|
|
1678 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The Divine will extends not only to the doing of something by the thing which He moves, but also to its being done in a way
|
|
|
1679 which is fitting to the nature of that thing. And therefore it would be more repugnant to the Divine motion, for the will
|
|
|
1680 to be moved of necessity, which is not fitting to its nature; than for it to be moved freely, which is becoming to its nature.
|
|
|
1681 </p>
|
|
|
1682 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p8">
|
|
|
1683 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> That is natural to a thing, which God so works in it that it may be natural to it: for thus is something becoming to a thing,
|
|
|
1684 according as God wishes it to be becoming. Now He does not wish that whatever He works in things should be natural to them,
|
|
|
1685 for instance, that the dead should rise again. But this He does wish to be natural to each thing---that it be subject to the
|
|
|
1686 Divine power.
|
|
|
1687 </p>
|
|
|
1688 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p9">
|
|
|
1689 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If God moves the will to anything, it is incompatible with this supposition, that the will be not moved thereto. But it is
|
|
|
1690 not impossible simply. Consequently it does not follow that the will is moved by God necessarily.
|
|
|
1691 </p>
|
|
|
1692 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1693 <p id="FS_Q10_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1694 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1695 <a href="summa.FS_Q11.html"></a>
|
|
|
1696 </div>
|
|
|
1697 <a href="summa.FS_Q9_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
1698 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1699 </div>
|
|
|
1700 <div id="FS_Q11" class="div3">
|
|
|
1701 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1702 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1703 <h3 id="FS_Q11-p0.1">OF ENJOYMENT [*Or, Fruition], WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
1704 <p id="FS_Q11-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1705 <p id="FS_Q11-p2"> We must now consider enjoyment: concerning which there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
1706 <p id="FS_Q11-p3"> (1) Whether to enjoy is an act of the appetitive power?</p>
|
|
|
1707 <p id="FS_Q11-p4"> (2) Whether it belongs to the rational creature alone, or also to irrational animals?</p>
|
|
|
1708 <p id="FS_Q11-p5"> (3) Whether enjoyment is only of the last end?</p>
|
|
|
1709 <p id="FS_Q11-p6"> (4) Whether it is only of the end possessed?</p>
|
|
|
1710 <div id="FS_Q11_A1" class="div4">
|
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|
1711 <a href="summa.FS_Q11.html"></a>
|
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|
1712 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
1713 <h4 id="FS_Q11_A1-p0.1">Whether to enjoy is an act of the appetitive power?</h4>
|
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1714 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1715 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p2">
|
|
|
1716 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that to enjoy belongs not only to the appetitive power. For to enjoy seems nothing else than to receive the
|
|
|
1717 fruit. But it is the intellect, in whose act Happiness consists, as shown above (
|
|
|
1718 <a id="FS_Q11_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q3_A4.html">Q[3], A[4]</a>), that receives the fruit of human life, which is Happiness. Therefore to enjoy is not an act of the appetitive power, but
|
|
|
1719 of the intellect.
|
|
|
1720 </p>
|
|
|
1721 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p3">
|
|
|
1722 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, each power has its proper end, which is its perfection: thus the end of sight is to know the visible; of the hearing,
|
|
|
1723 to perceive sounds; and so forth. But the end of a thing is its fruit. Therefore to enjoy belongs to each power, and not only
|
|
|
1724 to the appetite.
|
|
|
1725 </p>
|
|
|
1726 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p4">
|
|
|
1727 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, enjoyment implies a certain delight. But sensible delight belongs to sense, which delights in its object: and for
|
|
|
1728 the same reason, intellectual delight belongs to the intellect. Therefore enjoyment belongs to the apprehensive, and not to
|
|
|
1729 the appetitive power.
|
|
|
1730 </p>
|
|
|
1731 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p5">
|
|
|
1732 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 4; and De Trin. x, 10,11): "To enjoy is to adhere lovingly to something for its own
|
|
|
1733 sake." But love belongs to the appetitive power. Therefore also to enjoy is an act of the appetitive power.
|
|
|
1734 </p>
|
|
|
1735 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p6">
|
|
|
1736 <b>I answer that,</b> "Fruitio" [enjoyment] and "fructus" [fruit] seem to refer to the same, one being derived from the other; which from which,
|
|
|
1737 matters not for our purpose; though it seems probable that the one which is more clearly known, was first named. Now those
|
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|
1738 things are most manifest to us which appeal most to the senses: wherefore it seems that the word "fruition" is derived from
|
|
|
1739 sensible fruits. But sensible fruit is that which we expect the tree to produce in the last
|
|
|
1740 place, and in which a certain sweetness is to be perceived. Hence fruition seems to have relation to love, or to the delight
|
|
|
1741 which one has in realizing the longed-for term, which is the end. Now the end and the good is the object of the appetitive
|
|
|
1742 power. Wherefore it is evident that fruition is the act of the appetitive power.
|
|
|
1743 </p>
|
|
|
1744 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p7">
|
|
|
1745 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Nothing hinders one and the same thing from belonging, under different aspects, to different powers. Accordingly the vision
|
|
|
1746 of God, as vision, is an act of the intellect, but as a good and an end, is the object of the will. And as such is the fruition
|
|
|
1747 thereof: so that the intellect attains this end, as the executive power, but the will as the motive power, moving (the powers)
|
|
|
1748 towards the end and enjoying the end attained.
|
|
|
1749 </p>
|
|
|
1750 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p8">
|
|
|
1751 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The perfection and end of every other power is contained in the object of the appetitive power, as the proper is contained
|
|
|
1752 in the common, as stated above (
|
|
|
1753 <a id="FS_Q11_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Hence the perfection and end of each power, in so far as it is a good, belongs to the appetitive power. Wherefore the appetitive
|
|
|
1754 power moves the other powers to their ends; and itself realizes the end, when each of them reaches the end.
|
|
|
1755 </p>
|
|
|
1756 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p9">
|
|
|
1757 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In delight there are two things: perception of what is becoming; and this belongs to the apprehensive power; and complacency
|
|
|
1758 in that which is offered as becoming: and this belongs to the appetitive power, in which power delight is formally completed.
|
|
|
1759 </p>
|
|
|
1760 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1761 <p id="FS_Q11_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1762 <a href="summa.FS_Q11.html"></a>
|
|
|
1763 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1764 </div>
|
|
|
1765 <div id="FS_Q11_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
1766 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1767 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1768 <h4 id="FS_Q11_A2-p0.1">Whether to enjoy belongs to the rational creature alone, or also to irrational animals?</h4>
|
|
|
1769 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1770 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p2">
|
|
|
1771 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that to enjoy belongs to men alone. For Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 22) that "it is given to us men
|
|
|
1772 to enjoy and to use." Therefore other animals cannot enjoy.
|
|
|
1773 </p>
|
|
|
1774 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p3">
|
|
|
1775 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to enjoy relates to the last end. But irrational animals cannot obtain the last end. Therefore it is not for them
|
|
|
1776 to enjoy.
|
|
|
1777 </p>
|
|
|
1778 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p4">
|
|
|
1779 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as the sensitive appetite is beneath the intellectual appetite, so is the natural appetite beneath the sensitive.
|
|
|
1780 If, therefore, to enjoy belongs to the sensitive appetite, it seems that for the same reason it can belong to the natural
|
|
|
1781 appetite. But this is evidently false, since the latter cannot delight in anything. Therefore the sensitive appetite cannot
|
|
|
1782 enjoy: and accordingly enjoyment is not possible for irrational animals.
|
|
|
1783 </p>
|
|
|
1784 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p5">
|
|
|
1785 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 30): "It is not so absurd to suppose that even beasts enjoy their food and any bodily pleasure."
|
|
|
1786 </p>
|
|
|
1787 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p6">
|
|
|
1788 <b>I answer that,</b> As was stated above
|
|
|
1789 <a id="FS_Q11_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html">(A[1])</a> to enjoy is not the act of the power that achieves the end as executor, but of the power that commands the achievement; for
|
|
|
1790 it has been said to belong to the appetitive power. Now things void of reason have indeed a power of achieving an end by way
|
|
|
1791 of execution, as that by which a heavy body has a downward tendency, whereas a light body has an upward tendency. Yet the
|
|
|
1792 power of command in respect of the end
|
|
|
1793 is not in them, but in some higher nature, which moves all nature by its command, just as in things endowed with knowledge,
|
|
|
1794 the appetite moves the other powers to their acts. Wherefore it is clear that things void of knowledge, although they attain
|
|
|
1795 an end, have no enjoyment of the end: this is only for those that are endowed with knowledge.
|
|
|
1796 </p>
|
|
|
1797 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p7"> Now knowledge of the end is twofold: perfect and imperfect. Perfect knowledge of the end, is that whereby not only is that
|
|
|
1798 known which is the end and the good, but also the universal formality of the end and the good; and such knowledge belongs
|
|
|
1799 to the rational nature alone. On the other hand, imperfect knowledge is that by which the end and the good are known in the
|
|
|
1800 particular. Such knowledge is in irrational animals: whose appetitive powers do not command with freedom, but are
|
|
|
1801 moved according to a natural instinct to whatever they apprehend. Consequently, enjoyment belongs to the rational nature,
|
|
|
1802 in a perfect degree; to irrational animals, imperfectly; to other creatures, not at all.
|
|
|
1803 </p>
|
|
|
1804 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p8">
|
|
|
1805 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking there of perfect enjoyment.
|
|
|
1806 </p>
|
|
|
1807 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p9">
|
|
|
1808 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Enjoyment need not be of the last end simply; but of that which each one chooses for his last end.
|
|
|
1809 </p>
|
|
|
1810 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p10">
|
|
|
1811 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The sensitive appetite follows some knowledge; not so the natural appetite, especially in things void of knowledge.
|
|
|
1812 </p>
|
|
|
1813 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p11">
|
|
|
1814 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Augustine is speaking there of imperfect enjoyment. This is clear from his way of speaking: for he says that "it is not so
|
|
|
1815 absurd to suppose that even beasts enjoy," that is, as it would be, if one were to say that they "use."
|
|
|
1816 </p>
|
|
|
1817 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
1818 <p id="FS_Q11_A2-p13"></p>
|
|
|
1819 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1820 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1821 </div>
|
|
|
1822 <div id="FS_Q11_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
1823 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1824 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1825 <h4 id="FS_Q11_A3-p0.1">Whether enjoyment is only of the last end?</h4>
|
|
|
1826 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1827 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p2">
|
|
|
1828 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that enjoyment is not only of the last end. For the Apostle says (
|
|
|
1829 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q11_A3-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Phlm.1.20" target="asv">Philem. 20</a>): "Yea, brother, may I enjoy thee in the Lord." But it is evident that Paul had not placed his last end in a man. Therefore
|
|
|
1830 to enjoy is not only of the last end.
|
|
|
1831 </p>
|
|
|
1832 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p3">
|
|
|
1833 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, what we enjoy is the fruit. But the Apostle says (
|
|
|
1834 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q11_A3-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Gal.5.22" target="asv">Gal. 5:22</a>): "The fruit of the Spirit is charity, joy, peace," and other like things, which are not in the nature of the last end. Therefore
|
|
|
1835 enjoyment is not only of the last end.
|
|
|
1836 </p>
|
|
|
1837 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p4">
|
|
|
1838 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the acts of the will reflect on one another; for I will to will, and I love to love. But to enjoy is an act of the
|
|
|
1839 will: since "it is the will with which we enjoy," as Augustine says (De Trin. x, 10). Therefore a man enjoys his enjoyment.
|
|
|
1840 But the last end of man is not enjoyment, but the uncreated good alone, which is God. Therefore enjoyment is not only of the
|
|
|
1841 last end.
|
|
|
1842 </p>
|
|
|
1843 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p5">
|
|
|
1844 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11): "A man does not enjoy that which he desires for the sake of something else." But the last
|
|
|
1845 end alone is that which man does not desire for the sake of something else. Therefore enjoyment is of the last end alone.
|
|
|
1846 </p>
|
|
|
1847 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p6">
|
|
|
1848 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
1849 <a id="FS_Q11_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html">(A[1])</a> the notion of fruit implies two things: first that it should come last; second, that it should calm the appetite with a certain
|
|
|
1850 sweetness and delight. Now a thing is last either simply or relatively; simply, if it be referred to nothing else; relatively,
|
|
|
1851 if it is the last in a particular series. Therefore that which is last simply, and in which one delights as in the last end,
|
|
|
1852 is properly called fruit; and this
|
|
|
1853 it is that one is properly said to enjoy. But that which is delightful not in itself, but is desired, only as referred to
|
|
|
1854 something else, e.g. a bitter potion for the sake of health, can nowise be called fruit. And that which has something delightful
|
|
|
1855 about it, to which a number of preceding things are referred, may indeed by called fruit in a certain manner; but we cannot
|
|
|
1856 be said to enjoy it properly or as though it answered perfectly to the notion of fruit. Hence Augustine says (De Trin. x,
|
|
|
1857 10) that "we enjoy what we know, when the delighted will is at rest therein." But its rest is not absolute save in the possession
|
|
|
1858 of the last end: for as long as something is looked for, the movement of the will remains in suspense, although it has reached
|
|
|
1859 something. Thus in local movement, although any point between the two terms is a beginning and an end, yet it is not considered
|
|
|
1860 as an actual end, except when the movement stops there.
|
|
|
1861 </p>
|
|
|
1862 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p7">
|
|
|
1863 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 33), "if he had said, 'May I enjoy thee,' without adding 'in the Lord,' he would
|
|
|
1864 seem to have set the end of his love in him. But since he added that he set his end in the Lord, he implied his desire to
|
|
|
1865 enjoy Him": as if we were to say that he expressed his enjoyment of his brother not as a term but as a means.
|
|
|
1866 </p>
|
|
|
1867 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p8">
|
|
|
1868 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Fruit bears one relation to the tree that bore it, and another to man that enjoys it. To the tree indeed that bore it, it
|
|
|
1869 is compared as effect to cause; to the one enjoying it, as the final object of his longing and the consummation of his delight.
|
|
|
1870 Accordingly these fruits mentioned by the Apostle are so called because they are certain effects of the Holy Ghost in us,
|
|
|
1871 wherefore they are called "fruits of the spirit": but not as though we are to enjoy
|
|
|
1872 them as our last end. Or we may say with Ambrose that they are called fruits because "we should desire them for their own
|
|
|
1873 sake": not indeed as though they were not ordained to the last end; but because they are such that we ought to find pleasure
|
|
|
1874 in them.
|
|
|
1875 </p>
|
|
|
1876 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p9">
|
|
|
1877 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
1878 <a id="FS_Q11_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A8.html">Q[1], A[8]</a>;
|
|
|
1879 <a id="FS_Q11_A3-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q2_A7.html"> Q[2], A[7]</a>), we speak of an end in a twofold sense: first, as being the thing itself; secondly, as the attainment thereof. These are
|
|
|
1880 not, of course, two ends, but one end, considered in itself, and in its relation to something else. Accordingly God is the
|
|
|
1881 last end, as that which is ultimately sought for: while the enjoyment is as the attainment of this last end. And so, just
|
|
|
1882 as God is not one end, and the enjoyment of God, another: so it is the same enjoyment whereby we enjoy God, and whereby we
|
|
|
1883 enjoy our enjoyment of God. And the same applies to created happiness which consists in enjoyment.
|
|
|
1884 </p>
|
|
|
1885 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1886 <p id="FS_Q11_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1887 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
1888 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1889 </div>
|
|
|
1890 <div id="FS_Q11_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
1891 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1892 <a href="summa.FS_Q12.html"></a>
|
|
|
1893 <h4 id="FS_Q11_A4-p0.1">Whether enjoyment is only of the end possessed?</h4>
|
|
|
1894 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1895 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p2">
|
|
|
1896 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that enjoyment is only of the end possessed. For Augustine says (De Trin. x, 1) that "to enjoy is to use joyfully,
|
|
|
1897 with the joy, not of hope, but of possession." But so long as a thing is not had, there is joy, not of possession, but of
|
|
|
1898 hope. Therefore enjoyment is only of the end possessed.
|
|
|
1899 </p>
|
|
|
1900 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p3">
|
|
|
1901 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as stated above
|
|
|
1902 <a id="FS_Q11_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q11_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, enjoyment is not properly otherwise than of the last end: because this alone gives rest to the appetite. But the appetite
|
|
|
1903 has no rest save in the possession of the end. Therefore enjoyment, properly speaking, is only of the end possessed.
|
|
|
1904 </p>
|
|
|
1905 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p4">
|
|
|
1906 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to enjoy is to lay hold of the fruit. But one does not lay hold of the fruit until one is in possession of the end.
|
|
|
1907 Therefore enjoyment is only of the end possessed.
|
|
|
1908 </p>
|
|
|
1909 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p5">
|
|
|
1910 <b>On the contrary,</b> "to enjoy is to adhere lovingly to something for its own sake," as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 4). But this is possible,
|
|
|
1911 even in regard to a thing which is not in our possession. Therefore it is possible to enjoy the end even though it be not
|
|
|
1912 possessed.
|
|
|
1913 </p>
|
|
|
1914 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p6">
|
|
|
1915 <b>I answer that,</b> To enjoy implies a certain relation of the will to the last end, according as the will has something by way of last end.
|
|
|
1916 Now an end is possessed in two ways; perfectly and imperfectly. Perfectly, when it is possessed not only in intention but
|
|
|
1917 also in reality; imperfectly, when it is possessed in intention only. Perfect enjoyment, therefore, is of the end already
|
|
|
1918 possessed: but imperfect enjoyment is also of the end possessed not really, but only in
|
|
|
1919 intention.
|
|
|
1920 </p>
|
|
|
1921 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p7">
|
|
|
1922 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine speaks there of perfect enjoyment.
|
|
|
1923 </p>
|
|
|
1924 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p8">
|
|
|
1925 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The will is hindered in two ways from being at rest. First on the part of the object; by reason of its not being the last
|
|
|
1926 end, but ordained to something else: secondly on the part of the one who desires the end, by reason of his not being yet in
|
|
|
1927 possession of it. Now it is the object that specifies an act: but on the agent depends the manner of acting, so that the act
|
|
|
1928 be perfect or imperfect, as compared with the actual circumstances of the agent.
|
|
|
1929 Therefore enjoyment of anything but the last end is not enjoyment properly speaking, as falling short of the nature of enjoyment.
|
|
|
1930 But enjoyment of the last end, not yet possessed, is enjoyment properly speaking, but imperfect, on account of the imperfect
|
|
|
1931 way in which it is possessed.
|
|
|
1932 </p>
|
|
|
1933 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p9">
|
|
|
1934 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> One is said to lay hold of or to have an end, not only in reality, but also in intention, as stated above.
|
|
|
1935 </p>
|
|
|
1936 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
1937 <p id="FS_Q11_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
1938 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
1939 <a href="summa.FS_Q12.html"></a>
|
|
|
1940 </div>
|
|
|
1941 <a href="summa.FS_Q10_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1942 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1943 </div>
|
|
|
1944 <div id="FS_Q12" class="div3">
|
|
|
1945 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
1946 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
1947 <h3 id="FS_Q12-p0.1">OF INTENTION (FIVE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
1948 <p id="FS_Q12-p1"></p>
|
|
|
1949 <p id="FS_Q12-p2"> We must now consider Intention: concerning which there are five points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
1950 <p id="FS_Q12-p3"> (1) Whether intention is an act of intellect or of the will?</p>
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1951 <p id="FS_Q12-p4"> (2) Whether it is only of the last end?</p>
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1952 <p id="FS_Q12-p5"> (3) Whether one can intend two things at the same time?</p>
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1953 <p id="FS_Q12-p6"> (4) Whether intention of the end is the same act as volition of the means?</p>
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1954 <p id="FS_Q12-p7"> (5) Whether intention is within the competency of irrational animals?</p>
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1955 <div id="FS_Q12_A1" class="div4">
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1956 <a href="summa.FS_Q12.html"></a>
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1957 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A2.html"></a>
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1958 <h4 id="FS_Q12_A1-p0.1">Whether intention is an act of the intellect or of the will?</h4>
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1959 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p1"></p>
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1960 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p2">
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1961 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that intention is an act of the intellect, and not of the will. For it is written (
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1962 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q12_A1-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.6.22" target="asv">Mat. 6:22</a>): "If thy eye be single, thy whole body shall be lightsome": where, according to Augustine (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 13)
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1963 the eye signifies intention. But since the eye is the organ of sight, it signifies the apprehensive power. Therefore intention
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1964 is not an act of the appetitive but of the apprehensive power.
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1965 </p>
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1966 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p3">
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1967 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 13) that Our Lord spoke of intention as a light, when He said (
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1968 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q12_A1-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.6.23" target="asv">Mat. 6:23</a>): "If the light that is in thee be darkness," etc. But light pertains to knowledge. Therefore intention does too.
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1969 </p>
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1970 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p4">
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1971 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, intention implies a kind of ordaining to an end. But to ordain is an act of reason. Therefore intention belongs
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1972 not to the will but to the reason.
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1973 </p>
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1974 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p5">
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1975 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, an act of the will is either of the end or of the means. But the act of the will in respect of the end is called
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1976 volition, or enjoyment; with regard to the means, it is choice, from which intention is distinct. Therefore it is not an act
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1977 of the will.
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1978 </p>
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1979 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p6">
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1980 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xi, 4,8,9) that "the intention of the will unites the sight to the object seen; and the images retained
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1981 in the memory, to the penetrating gaze of the soul's inner thought." Therefore intention is an act of the will.
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1982 </p>
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1983 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p7">
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1984 <b>I answer that,</b> Intention, as the very word denotes, signifies, "to tend to something." Now both the action of the mover and the movement
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1985 of thing moved, tend to something. But that the movement of the thing moved tends to anything, is due to the action of the
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1986 mover. Consequently intention belongs first and principally to that which moves to the end: hence we say that an architect
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1987 or anyone who is in authority, by his command moves others to that which he intends. Now the
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1988 will moves all the other powers of the soul to the end, as shown above (
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1989 <a id="FS_Q12_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Wherefore it is evident that intention, properly speaking, is an act of the will.
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1990 </p>
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1991 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p8">
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1992 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The eye designates intention figuratively, not because intention has reference to knowledge, but because it presupposes knowledge,
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1993 which proposes to the will the end to which the latter moves; thus we foresee with the eye whither we should tend with our
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1994 bodies.
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1995 </p>
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1996 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p9">
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1997 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Intention is called a light because it is manifest to him who intends. Wherefore works are called darkness because a man
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1998 knows what he intends, but knows not what the result may be, as Augustine expounds (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 13).
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1999 </p>
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2000 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p10">
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2001 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will does not ordain, but tends to something according to the order of reason. Consequently this word "intention" indicates
|
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2002 an act of the will, presupposing the act whereby the reason orders something to the end.
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2003 </p>
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2004 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p11">
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2005 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> Intention is an act of the will in regard to the end. Now the will stands in a threefold relation to the end. First, absolutely;
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2006 and thus we have "volition," whereby we will absolutely to have health, and so forth. Secondly, it considers the end, as its
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2007 place of rest; and thus "enjoyment" regards the end. Thirdly, it considers the end as the term towards which something is
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2008 ordained; and thus "intention" regards the end. For when we speak of intending
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2009 to have health, we mean not only that we have it, but that we will have it by means of something else.
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2010 </p>
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2011 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p12"></p>
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2012 <p id="FS_Q12_A1-p13"></p>
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2013 <a href="summa.FS_Q12.html"></a>
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2014 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A2.html"></a>
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2015 </div>
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2016 <div id="FS_Q12_A2" class="div4">
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2017 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html"></a>
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2018 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A3.html"></a>
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2019 <h4 id="FS_Q12_A2-p0.1">Whether intention is only of the last end?</h4>
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2020 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p1"></p>
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2021 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p2">
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2022 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that intention is only of the last end. For it is said in the book of Prosper's Sentences (Sent. 100): "The
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2023 intention of the heart is a cry to God." But God is the last end of the human heart. Therefore intention is always regards
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2024 the last end.
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2025 </p>
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2026 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p3">
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2027 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, intention regards the end as the terminus, as stated above (A[1], ad 4). But a terminus is something last. Therefore
|
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2028 intention always regards the last end.
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2029 </p>
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2030 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p4">
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2031 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as intention regards the end, so does enjoyment. But enjoyment is always of the last end. Therefore intention
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2032 is too.
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2033 </p>
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2034 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p5">
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2035 <b>On the contrary,</b> There is but one last end of human wills, viz. Happiness, as stated above (
|
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2036 <a id="FS_Q12_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A7.html">Q[1], A[7]</a>). If, therefore, intentions were only of the last end, men would not have different intentions: which is evidently false.
|
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2037 </p>
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2038 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p6">
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2039 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (A[1], ad 4), intention regards the end as a terminus of the movement of the will. Now a terminus of movement
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2040 may be taken in two ways. First, the very last terminus, when the movement comes to a stop; this is the terminus of the whole
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2041 movement. Secondly, some point midway, which is the beginning of one part of the movement, and the end or terminus of the
|
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2042 other. Thus in the movement from A to C through B, C is the last terminus, while B is a
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2043 terminus, but not the last. And intention can be both. Consequently though intention is always of the end, it need not be
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2044 always of the last end.
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2045 </p>
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2046 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p7">
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2047 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The intention of the heart is called a cry to God, not that God is always the object of intention, but because He sees our
|
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2048 intention. Or because, when we pray, we direct our intention to God, which intention has the force of a cry.
|
|
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2049 </p>
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|
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2050 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p8">
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|
|
2051 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A terminus is something last, not always in respect of the whole, but sometimes in respect of a part.
|
|
|
2052 </p>
|
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2053 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p9">
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2054 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Enjoyment implies rest in the end; and this belongs to the last end alone. But intention implies movement towards an end,
|
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2055 not rest. Wherefore the comparison proves nothing.
|
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2056 </p>
|
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2057 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p10"></p>
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2058 <p id="FS_Q12_A2-p11"></p>
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2059 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html"></a>
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2060 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A3.html"></a>
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|
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2061 </div>
|
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|
2062 <div id="FS_Q12_A3" class="div4">
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2063 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A2.html"></a>
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2064 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A4.html"></a>
|
|
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2065 <h4 id="FS_Q12_A3-p0.1">Whether one can intend two things at the same time?</h4>
|
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2066 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p1"></p>
|
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|
2067 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p2">
|
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2068 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one cannot intend several things at the same time. For Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 14,16,17)
|
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2069 that man's intention cannot be directed at the same time to God and to bodily benefits. Therefore, for the same reason, neither
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2070 to any other two things.
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2071 </p>
|
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2072 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p3">
|
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|
2073 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, intention designates a movement of the will towards a terminus. Now there cannot be several termini in the same
|
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2074 direction of one movement. Therefore the will cannot intend several things at the same time.
|
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|
2075 </p>
|
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2076 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p4">
|
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|
2077 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, intention presupposes an act of reason or of the intellect. But "it is not possible to understand several things
|
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2078 at the same time," according to the Philosopher (Topic. ii, 10). Therefore neither is it possible to intend several things
|
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2079 at the same time.
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2080 </p>
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2081 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p5">
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2082 <b>On the contrary,</b> Art imitates nature. Now nature intends two purposes by means of one instrument: thus "the tongue is for the purpose of taste
|
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2083 and speech" (De Anima ii, 8). Therefore, for the same reason, art or reason can at the same time direct one thing to two ends:
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2084 so that one can intend several ends at the same time.
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2085 </p>
|
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2086 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p6">
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2087 <b>I answer that,</b> The expression "two things" may be taken in two ways: they may be ordained to one another or not so ordained. And if they
|
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2088 be ordained to one another, it is evident, from what has been said, that a man can intend several things at the same time.
|
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2089 For intention is not only of the last end, as stated above
|
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|
2090 <a id="FS_Q12_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q12_A2.html">(A[2])</a>, but also of an intermediary end. Now a man intends at the same time, both the proximate and the last end; as the mixing
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2091 of a
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2092 medicine and the giving of health.
|
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2093 </p>
|
|
|
2094 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p7"> But if we take two things that are not ordained to one another, thus also a man can intend several things at the same time.
|
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|
2095 This is evident from the fact that a man prefers one thing to another because it is the better of the two. Now one of the
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2096 reasons for which one thing is better than another is that it is available for more purposes: wherefore one thing can be chosen
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2097 in preference to another, because of the greater number of purposes for which it is available: so that
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2098 evidently a man can intend several things at the same time.
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|
|
2099 </p>
|
|
|
2100 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p8">
|
|
|
2101 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine means to say that man cannot at the same time direct his attention to God and to bodily benefits, as to two last
|
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2102 ends: since, as stated above (
|
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|
2103 <a id="FS_Q12_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A5.html">Q[1], A[5]</a>), one man cannot have several last ends.
|
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|
2104 </p>
|
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|
2105 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p9">
|
|
|
2106 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> There can be several termini ordained to one another, of the same movement and in the same direction; but not unless they
|
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2107 be ordained to one another. At the same time it must be observed that what is not one in reality may be taken as one by the
|
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2108 reason. Now intention is a movement of the will to something already ordained by the reason, as stated above (A[1], ad 3).
|
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2109 Wherefore where we have many things in reality, we may take them as one term of
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2110 intention, in so far as the reason takes them as one: either because two things concur in the integrity of one whole, as a
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2111 proper measure of heat and cold conduce to health; or because two things are included in one which may be intended. For instance,
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2112 the acquiring of wine and clothing is included in wealth, as in something common to both; wherefore nothing hinders the man
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2113 who intends to acquire wealth, from intending both the others.
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2114 </p>
|
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|
2115 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p10">
|
|
|
2116 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated in the
|
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|
2117 <a id="FS_Q12_A3-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q12_A10.html">FP, Q[12], A[10]</a>;
|
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|
2118 <a id="FS_Q12_A3-p10.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q58_A2.html">FP, Q[58], A[2]</a>;
|
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|
2119 <a id="FS_Q12_A3-p10.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q85_A4.html">FP, Q[85], A[4]</a> it is possible to understand several things at the same time, in so far as, in some way, they are one.
|
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|
2120 </p>
|
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2121 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p11"></p>
|
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2122 <p id="FS_Q12_A3-p12"></p>
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|
2123 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
2124 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2125 </div>
|
|
|
2126 <div id="FS_Q12_A4" class="div4">
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2127 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
2128 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2129 <h4 id="FS_Q12_A4-p0.1">Whether intention of the end is the same act as the volition of the means?</h4>
|
|
|
2130 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2131 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p2">
|
|
|
2132 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the intention of the end and the volition of the means are not one and the same movement. For Augustine
|
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|
2133 says (De Trin. xi, 6) that "the will to see the window, has for its end the seeing of the window; and is another act from
|
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2134 the will to see, through the window, the passersby." But that I should will to see the passersby, through the window, belongs
|
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2135 to intention; whereas that I will to see the window, belongs to the volition of the means.
|
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2136 Therefore intention of the end and the willing of the means are distinct movements of the will.
|
|
|
2137 </p>
|
|
|
2138 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p3">
|
|
|
2139 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, acts are distinct according to their objects. But the end and the means are distinct objects. Therefore the intention
|
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|
2140 of the end and the willing of the means are distinct movements of the will.
|
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|
2141 </p>
|
|
|
2142 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p4">
|
|
|
2143 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the willing of the means is called choice. But choice and intention are not the same. Therefore intention of the
|
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|
2144 end and the willing of the means are not the same movement of the will.
|
|
|
2145 </p>
|
|
|
2146 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p5">
|
|
|
2147 <b>On the contrary,</b> The means in relation to the end, are as the mid-space to the terminus. Now it is all the same movement that passes through
|
|
|
2148 the mid-space to the terminus, in natural things. Therefore in things pertaining to the will, the intention of the end is
|
|
|
2149 the same movement as the willing of the means.
|
|
|
2150 </p>
|
|
|
2151 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p6">
|
|
|
2152 <b>I answer that,</b> The movement of the will to the end and to the means can be considered in two ways. First, according as the will is moved
|
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|
2153 to each of the aforesaid absolutely and in itself. And thus there are really two movements of the will to them. Secondly,
|
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|
2154 it may be considered accordingly as the will is moved to the means for the sake of the end: and thus the movement of the will
|
|
|
2155 to the end and its movement to the means are one and the same thing. For when I say: "I wish
|
|
|
2156 to take medicine for the sake of health," I signify no more than one movement of my will. And this is because the end is the
|
|
|
2157 reason for willing the means. Now the object, and that by reason of which it is an object, come under the same act; thus it
|
|
|
2158 is the same act of sight that perceives color and light, as stated above (
|
|
|
2159 <a id="FS_Q12_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q8_A3.html">Q[8], A[3]</a>, ad 2). And the same applies to the intellect; for if it consider principle and conclusion absolutely, it considers each
|
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|
2160 by a distinct act;
|
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|
2161 but when it assents to the conclusion on account of the principles, there is but one act of the intellect.
|
|
|
2162 </p>
|
|
|
2163 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p7">
|
|
|
2164 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of seeing the window and of seeing, through the window, the passersby, according as the will is moved
|
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|
2165 to either absolutely.
|
|
|
2166 </p>
|
|
|
2167 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p8">
|
|
|
2168 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The end, considered as a thing, and the means to that end, are distinct objects of the will. But in so far as the end is
|
|
|
2169 the formal object in willing the means, they are one and the same object.
|
|
|
2170 </p>
|
|
|
2171 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p9">
|
|
|
2172 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A movement which is one as to the subject, may differ, according to our way of looking at it, as to its beginning and end,
|
|
|
2173 as in the case of ascent and descent (Phys. iii, 3). Accordingly, in so far as the movement of the will is to the means, as
|
|
|
2174 ordained to the end, it is called "choice": but the movement of the will to the end as acquired by the means, it is called
|
|
|
2175 "intention." A sign of this is that we can have intention of the end without having
|
|
|
2176 determined the means which are the object of choice.
|
|
|
2177 </p>
|
|
|
2178 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2179 <p id="FS_Q12_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2180 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2181 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2182 </div>
|
|
|
2183 <div id="FS_Q12_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
2184 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2185 <a href="summa.FS_Q13.html"></a>
|
|
|
2186 <h4 id="FS_Q12_A5-p0.1">Whether intention is within the competency of irrational animals?</h4>
|
|
|
2187 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2188 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p2">
|
|
|
2189 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that irrational animals intend the end. For in things void of reason nature stands further apart from the rational
|
|
|
2190 nature, than does the sensitive nature in irrational animals. But nature intends the end even in things void of reason, as
|
|
|
2191 is proved in Phys. ii, 8. Much more, therefore, do irrational animals intend the end.
|
|
|
2192 </p>
|
|
|
2193 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p3">
|
|
|
2194 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as intention is of the end, so is enjoyment. But enjoyment is in irrational animals, as stated above (
|
|
|
2195 <a id="FS_Q12_A5-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html">Q[11], A[2]</a>). Therefore intention is too.
|
|
|
2196 </p>
|
|
|
2197 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p4">
|
|
|
2198 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to intend an end belongs to one who acts for an end; since to intend is nothing else than to tend to something.
|
|
|
2199 But irrational animals act for an end; for an animal is moved either to seek food, or to do something of the kind. Therefore
|
|
|
2200 irrational animals intend an end.
|
|
|
2201 </p>
|
|
|
2202 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p5">
|
|
|
2203 <b>On the contrary,</b> Intention of an end implies ordaining something to an end: which belongs to reason. Since therefore irrational animals are
|
|
|
2204 void of reason, it seems that they do not intend an end.
|
|
|
2205 </p>
|
|
|
2206 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p6">
|
|
|
2207 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
2208 <a id="FS_Q12_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, to intend is to tend to something; and this belongs to the mover and to the moved. According, therefore, as that which is
|
|
|
2209 moved to an end by another is said to intend the end, thus nature is said to intend an end, as being moved to its end by God,
|
|
|
2210 as the arrow is moved by the archer. And in this way, irrational animals intend an end, inasmuch as they are moved to something
|
|
|
2211 by natural instinct. The other way of
|
|
|
2212 intending an end belongs to the mover; according as he ordains the movement of something, either his own or another's, to
|
|
|
2213 an end. This belongs to reason alone. Wherefore irrational animals do not intend an end in this way, which is to intend properly
|
|
|
2214 and principally, as stated above
|
|
|
2215 <a id="FS_Q12_A5-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html">(A[1])</a>.
|
|
|
2216 </p>
|
|
|
2217 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p7">
|
|
|
2218 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument takes intention in the sense of being moved to an end.
|
|
|
2219 </p>
|
|
|
2220 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p8">
|
|
|
2221 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Enjoyment does not imply the ordaining of one thing to another, as intention does, but absolute repose in the end.
|
|
|
2222 </p>
|
|
|
2223 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p9">
|
|
|
2224 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Irrational animals are moved to an end, not as though they thought that they can gain the end by this movement; this belongs
|
|
|
2225 to one that intends; but through desiring the end by natural instinct, they are moved to an end, moved, as it were, by another,
|
|
|
2226 like other things that are moved naturally.
|
|
|
2227 </p>
|
|
|
2228 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p10"></p>
|
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|
2229 <p id="FS_Q12_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2230 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2231 <a href="summa.FS_Q13.html"></a>
|
|
|
2232 </div>
|
|
|
2233 <a href="summa.FS_Q11_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2234 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2235 </div>
|
|
|
2236 <div id="FS_Q13" class="div3">
|
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|
2237 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A5.html"></a>
|
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|
2238 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2239 <h3 id="FS_Q13-p0.1">OF CHOICE, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL WITH REGARD TO THE MEANS (SIX ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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|
2240 <p id="FS_Q13-p1"></p>
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|
2241 <p id="FS_Q13-p2"> We must now consider the acts of the will with regard to the means. There are three of them: to choose, to consent, and to
|
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2242 use. And choice is preceded by counsel. First of all, then, we must consider choice: secondly, counsel; thirdly, consent;
|
|
|
2243 fourthly, use.
|
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|
2244 </p>
|
|
|
2245 <p id="FS_Q13-p3"> Concerning choice there are six points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
2246 <p id="FS_Q13-p4"> (1) Of what power is it the act; of the will or of the reason?</p>
|
|
|
2247 <p id="FS_Q13-p5"> (2) Whether choice is to be found in irrational animals?</p>
|
|
|
2248 <p id="FS_Q13-p6"> (3) Whether choice is only the means, or sometimes also of the end?</p>
|
|
|
2249 <p id="FS_Q13-p7"> (4) Whether choice is only of things that we do ourselves?</p>
|
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|
2250 <p id="FS_Q13-p8"> (5) Whether choice is only of possible things?</p>
|
|
|
2251 <p id="FS_Q13-p9"> (6) Whether man chooses of necessity or freely?</p>
|
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|
2252 <div id="FS_Q13_A1" class="div4">
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|
2253 <a href="summa.FS_Q13.html"></a>
|
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|
2254 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
2255 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A1-p0.1">Whether choice is an act of will or of reason?</h4>
|
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|
2256 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2257 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p2">
|
|
|
2258 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that choice is an act, not of will but of reason. For choice implies comparison, whereby one is given preference
|
|
|
2259 to another. But to compare is an act of reason. Therefore choice is an act of reason.
|
|
|
2260 </p>
|
|
|
2261 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p3">
|
|
|
2262 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, it is for the same faculty to form a syllogism, and to draw the conclusion. But, in practical matters, it is the
|
|
|
2263 reason that forms syllogisms. Since therefore choice is a kind of conclusion in practical matters, as stated in Ethic. vii,
|
|
|
2264 3, it seems that it is an act of reason.
|
|
|
2265 </p>
|
|
|
2266 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p4">
|
|
|
2267 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, ignorance does not belong to the will but to the cognitive power. Now there is an "ignorance of choice," as is stated
|
|
|
2268 in Ethic. iii, 1. Therefore it seems that choice does not belong to the will but to the reason.
|
|
|
2269 </p>
|
|
|
2270 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p5">
|
|
|
2271 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 3) that choice is "the desire of things in our power." But desire is an act of will. Therefore
|
|
|
2272 choice is too.
|
|
|
2273 </p>
|
|
|
2274 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p6">
|
|
|
2275 <b>I answer that,</b> The word choice implies something belonging to the reason or intellect, and something belonging to the will: for the Philosopher
|
|
|
2276 says (Ethic. vi, 2) that choice is either "intellect influenced by appetite or appetite influenced by intellect." Now whenever
|
|
|
2277 two things concur to make one, one of them is formal in regard to the other. Hence Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom.
|
|
|
2278 xxxiii.] says that choice "is neither desire only, nor counsel only, but a
|
|
|
2279 combination of the two. For just as we say that an animal is composed of soul and body, and that it is neither a mere body,
|
|
|
2280 nor a mere soul, but both; so is it with choice."
|
|
|
2281 </p>
|
|
|
2282 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p7"> Now we must observe, as regards the acts of the soul, that an act belonging essentially to some power or habit, receives
|
|
|
2283 a form or species from a higher power or habit, according as an inferior is ordained by a superior: for if a man were to perform
|
|
|
2284 an act of fortitude for the love of God, that act is materially an act of fortitude, but formally, an act of charity. Now
|
|
|
2285 it is evident that, in a sense, reason precedes the will and ordains its act: in so far as the will tends to
|
|
|
2286 its object, according to the order of reason, since the apprehensive power presents the object to the appetite. Accordingly,
|
|
|
2287 that act whereby the will tends to something proposed to it as being good, through being ordained to the end by the reason,
|
|
|
2288 is materially an act of the will, but formally an act of the reason. Now in such like matters the substance of the act is
|
|
|
2289 as the matter in comparison to the order imposed by the higher power. Wherefore choice is substantially not an act of the
|
|
|
2290 reason
|
|
|
2291 but of the will: for choice is accomplished in a certain movement of the soul towards the good which is chosen. Consequently
|
|
|
2292 it is evidently an act of the appetitive power.
|
|
|
2293 </p>
|
|
|
2294 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p8">
|
|
|
2295 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Choice implies a previous comparison; not that it consists in the comparison itself.
|
|
|
2296 </p>
|
|
|
2297 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p9">
|
|
|
2298 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> It is quite true that it is for the reason to draw the conclusion of a practical syllogism; and it is called "a decision"
|
|
|
2299 or "judgment," to be followed by "choice." And for this reason the conclusion seems to belong to the act of choice, as to
|
|
|
2300 that which results from it.
|
|
|
2301 </p>
|
|
|
2302 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p10">
|
|
|
2303 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In speaking "of ignorance of choice," we do not mean that choice is a sort of knowledge, but that there is ignorance of what
|
|
|
2304 ought to be chosen.
|
|
|
2305 </p>
|
|
|
2306 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2307 <p id="FS_Q13_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2308 <a href="summa.FS_Q13.html"></a>
|
|
|
2309 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2310 </div>
|
|
|
2311 <div id="FS_Q13_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
2312 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2313 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2314 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A2-p0.1">Whether choice is to be found in irrational animals?</h4>
|
|
|
2315 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2316 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p2">
|
|
|
2317 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that irrational animals are able to choose. For choice "is the desire of certain things on account of an end,"
|
|
|
2318 as stated in Ethic. iii, 2,3. But irrational animals desire something on account of an end: since they act for an end, and
|
|
|
2319 from desire. Therefore choice is in irrational animals.
|
|
|
2320 </p>
|
|
|
2321 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p3">
|
|
|
2322 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the very word "electio" [choice] seems to signify the taking of something in preference to others. But irrational
|
|
|
2323 animals take something in preference to others: thus we can easily see for ourselves that a sheep will eat one grass and refuse
|
|
|
2324 another. Therefore choice is in irrational animals.
|
|
|
2325 </p>
|
|
|
2326 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p4">
|
|
|
2327 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to Ethic. vi, 12, "it is from prudence that a man makes a good choice of means." But prudence is found
|
|
|
2328 in irrational animals: hence it is said in the beginning of Metaph. i, 1 that "those animals which, like bees, cannot hear
|
|
|
2329 sounds, are prudent by instinct." We see this plainly, in wonderful cases of sagacity manifested in the works of various animals,
|
|
|
2330 such as bees, spiders, and dogs. For a hound in following a stag, on coming to a
|
|
|
2331 crossroad, tries by scent whether the stag has passed by the first or the second road: and if he find that the stag has not
|
|
|
2332 passed there, being thus assured, takes to the third road without trying the scent; as though he were reasoning by way of
|
|
|
2333 exclusion, arguing that the stag must have passed by this way, since he did not pass by the others, and there is no other
|
|
|
2334 road. Therefore it seems that irrational animals are able to choose.
|
|
|
2335 </p>
|
|
|
2336 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p5">
|
|
|
2337 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxiii.] says that "children and irrational animals act willingly but not from
|
|
|
2338 choice." Therefore choice is not in irrational animals.
|
|
|
2339 </p>
|
|
|
2340 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p6">
|
|
|
2341 <b>I answer that,</b> Since choice is the taking of one thing in preference to another it must of necessity be in respect of several things that
|
|
|
2342 can be chosen. Consequently in those things which are altogether determinate to one there is no place for choice. Now the
|
|
|
2343 difference between the sensitive appetite and the will is that, as stated above (
|
|
|
2344 <a id="FS_Q13_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A2.html">Q[1], A[2]</a>, ad 3), the sensitive appetite is determinate to one particular thing, according to the order of
|
|
|
2345 nature; whereas the will, although determinate to one thing in general, viz. the good, according to the order of nature, is
|
|
|
2346 nevertheless indeterminate in respect of particular goods. Consequently choice belongs properly to the will, and not to the
|
|
|
2347 sensitive appetite which is all that irrational animals have. Wherefore irrational animals are not competent to choose.
|
|
|
2348 </p>
|
|
|
2349 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p7">
|
|
|
2350 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Not every desire of one thing on account of an end is called choice: there must be a certain discrimination of one thing
|
|
|
2351 from another. And this cannot be except when the appetite can be moved to several things.
|
|
|
2352 </p>
|
|
|
2353 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p8">
|
|
|
2354 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> An irrational animal takes one thing in preference to another, because its appetite is naturally determinate to that thing.
|
|
|
2355 Wherefore as soon as an animal, whether by its sense or by its imagination, is offered something to which its appetite is
|
|
|
2356 naturally inclined, it is moved to that alone, without making any choice. Just as fire is moved upwards and not downwards,
|
|
|
2357 without its making any choice.
|
|
|
2358 </p>
|
|
|
2359 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p9">
|
|
|
2360 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As stated in Phys. iii, 3 "movement is the act of the movable, caused by a mover." Wherefore the power of the mover appears
|
|
|
2361 in the movement of that which it moves. Accordingly, in all things moved by reason, the order of reason which moves them is
|
|
|
2362 evident, although the things themselves are without reason: for an arrow through the motion of the archer goes straight towards
|
|
|
2363 the target, as though it were endowed with reason to direct its course. The
|
|
|
2364 same may be seen in the movements of clocks and all engines put together by the art of man. Now as artificial things are in
|
|
|
2365 comparison to human art, so are all natural things in comparison to the Divine art. And accordingly order is to be seen in
|
|
|
2366 things moved by nature, just as in things moved by reason, as is stated in Phys. ii. And thus it is that in the works of irrational
|
|
|
2367 animals we notice certain marks of sagacity, in so far as they have a natural inclination to set about their actions in
|
|
|
2368 a most orderly manner through being ordained by the Supreme art. For which reason, too, certain animals are called prudent
|
|
|
2369 or sagacious; and not because they reason or exercise any choice about things. This is clear from the fact that all that share
|
|
|
2370 in one nature, invariably act in the same way.
|
|
|
2371 </p>
|
|
|
2372 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2373 <p id="FS_Q13_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2374 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2375 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2376 </div>
|
|
|
2377 <div id="FS_Q13_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
2378 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2379 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2380 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A3-p0.1">Whether choice is only of the means, or sometimes also of the end?</h4>
|
|
|
2381 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2382 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p2">
|
|
|
2383 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that choice is not only of the means. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 12) that "virtue makes us choose
|
|
|
2384 aright; but it is not the part of virtue, but of some other power to direct aright those things which are to be done for its
|
|
|
2385 sake." But that for the sake of which something is done is the end. Therefore choice is of the end.
|
|
|
2386 </p>
|
|
|
2387 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p3">
|
|
|
2388 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, choice implies preference of one thing to another. But just as there can be preference of means, so can there be
|
|
|
2389 preference of ends. Therefore choice can be of ends, just as it can be of means.
|
|
|
2390 </p>
|
|
|
2391 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p4">
|
|
|
2392 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "volition is of the end, but choice of the means."
|
|
|
2393 </p>
|
|
|
2394 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p5">
|
|
|
2395 <b>I answer that,</b> As already stated (A[1], ad 2), choice results from the decision or judgment which is, as it were, the conclusion of a practical
|
|
|
2396 syllogism. Hence that which is the conclusion of a practical syllogism, is the matter of choice. Now in practical things the
|
|
|
2397 end stands in the position of a principle, not of a conclusion, as the Philosopher says (Phys. ii, 9). Wherefore the end,
|
|
|
2398 as such, is not a matter of choice.
|
|
|
2399 </p>
|
|
|
2400 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p6"> But just as in speculative knowledge nothing hinders the principle of one demonstration or of one science, from being the
|
|
|
2401 conclusion of another demonstration or science; while the first indemonstrable principle cannot be the conclusion of any demonstration
|
|
|
2402 or science; so too that which is the end in one operation, may be ordained to something as an end. And in this way it is a
|
|
|
2403 matter of choice. Thus in the work of a physician health is the end: wherefore it is not a matter of
|
|
|
2404 choice for a physician, but a matter of principle. Now the health of the body is ordained to the good of the soul, consequently
|
|
|
2405 with one who has charge of the soul's health, health or sickness may be a matter of choice; for the Apostle says (
|
|
|
2406 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q13_A3-p6.1" href="./asv.html#iiCor.12.10" target="asv">2 Cor. 12:10</a>): "For when I am weak, then am I powerful." But the last end is nowise a matter of choice.
|
|
|
2407 </p>
|
|
|
2408 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p7">
|
|
|
2409 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The proper ends of virtues are ordained to Happiness as to their last end. And thus it is that they can be a matter of choice.
|
|
|
2410 </p>
|
|
|
2411 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p8">
|
|
|
2412 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
2413 <a id="FS_Q13_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A5.html">Q[1], A[5]</a>), there is but one last end. Accordingly wherever there are several ends, they can be the subject of choice, in so far as
|
|
|
2414 they are ordained to a further end.
|
|
|
2415 </p>
|
|
|
2416 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p9"></p>
|
|
|
2417 <p id="FS_Q13_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2418 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2419 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2420 </div>
|
|
|
2421 <div id="FS_Q13_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
2422 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2423 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2424 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A4-p0.1">Whether choice is of those things only that are done by us?</h4>
|
|
|
2425 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2426 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p2">
|
|
|
2427 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that choice is not only in respect of human acts. For choice regards the means. Now, not only acts, but also
|
|
|
2428 the organs, are means (Phys. ii, 3). Therefore choice is not only concerned with human acts.
|
|
|
2429 </p>
|
|
|
2430 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p3">
|
|
|
2431 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, action is distinct from contemplation. But choice has a place even in contemplation; in so far as one opinion is
|
|
|
2432 preferred to another. Therefore choice is not concerned with human acts alone.
|
|
|
2433 </p>
|
|
|
2434 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p4">
|
|
|
2435 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, men are chosen for certain posts, whether secular or ecclesiastical, by those who exercise no action in their regard.
|
|
|
2436 Therefore choice is not concerned with human acts alone.
|
|
|
2437 </p>
|
|
|
2438 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p5">
|
|
|
2439 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "no man chooses save what he can do himself."
|
|
|
2440 </p>
|
|
|
2441 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p6">
|
|
|
2442 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as intention regards the end, so does choice regard the means. Now the end is either an action or a thing. And when
|
|
|
2443 the end is a thing, some human action must intervene; either in so far as man produces the thing which is the end, as the
|
|
|
2444 physician produces health (wherefore the production of health is said to be the end of the physician); or in so far as man,
|
|
|
2445 in some fashion, uses or enjoys the thing which is the end; thus for the miser, money or the
|
|
|
2446 possession of money is the end. The same is to be said of the means. For the means must needs be either an action; or a thing,
|
|
|
2447 with some action intervening whereby man either makes the thing which is the means, or puts it to some use. And thus it is
|
|
|
2448 that choice is always in regard to human acts.
|
|
|
2449 </p>
|
|
|
2450 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p7">
|
|
|
2451 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The organs are ordained to the end, inasmuch as man makes use of them for the sake of the end.
|
|
|
2452 </p>
|
|
|
2453 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p8">
|
|
|
2454 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In contemplation itself there is the act of the intellect assenting to this or that opinion. It is exterior action that is
|
|
|
2455 put in contradistinction to contemplation.
|
|
|
2456 </p>
|
|
|
2457 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p9">
|
|
|
2458 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When a man chooses someone for a bishopric or some high position in the state, he chooses to name that man to that post.
|
|
|
2459 Else, if he had no right to act in the appointment of the bishop or official, he would have no right to choose. Likewise,
|
|
|
2460 whenever we speak of one thing being chosen in preference to another, it is in conjunction with some action of the chooser.
|
|
|
2461 </p>
|
|
|
2462 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2463 <p id="FS_Q13_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2464 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2465 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2466 </div>
|
|
|
2467 <div id="FS_Q13_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
2468 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2469 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2470 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A5-p0.1">Whether choice is only of possible things?</h4>
|
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|
2471 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2472 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p2">
|
|
|
2473 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that choice in not only of possible things. For choice is an act of the will, as stated above
|
|
|
2474 <a id="FS_Q13_A5-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Now there is "a willing of impossibilities" (Ethic. iii, 2). Therefore there is also a choice of impossibilities.
|
|
|
2475 </p>
|
|
|
2476 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p3">
|
|
|
2477 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, choice is of things done by us, as stated above
|
|
|
2478 <a id="FS_Q13_A5-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. Therefore it matters not, as far as the act of choosing is concerned, whether one choose that which is impossible in itself,
|
|
|
2479 or that which is impossible to the chooser. Now it often happens that we are unable to accomplish what we choose: so that
|
|
|
2480 this proves to be impossible to us. Therefore choice is of the impossible.
|
|
|
2481 </p>
|
|
|
2482 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p4">
|
|
|
2483 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, to try to do a thing is to choose to do it. But the Blessed Benedict says (Regula lxviii) that if the superior command
|
|
|
2484 what is impossible, it should be attempted. Therefore choice can be of the impossible.
|
|
|
2485 </p>
|
|
|
2486 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p5">
|
|
|
2487 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "there is no choice of impossibilities."
|
|
|
2488 </p>
|
|
|
2489 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p6">
|
|
|
2490 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
2491 <a id="FS_Q13_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html">(A[4])</a>, our choice is always concerned with our actions. Now whatever is done by us, is possible to us. Therefore we must needs
|
|
|
2492 say that choice is only of possible things.
|
|
|
2493 </p>
|
|
|
2494 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p7"> Moreover, the reason for choosing a thing is that it conduces to an end. But what is impossible cannot conduce to an end.
|
|
|
2495 A sign of this is that when men in taking counsel together come to something that is impossible to them, they depart, as being
|
|
|
2496 unable to proceed with the business.
|
|
|
2497 </p>
|
|
|
2498 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p8"> Again, this is evident if we examine the previous process of the reason. For the means, which are the object of choice, are
|
|
|
2499 to the end, as the conclusion is to the principle. Now it is clear that an impossible conclusion does not follow from a possible
|
|
|
2500 principle. Wherefore an end cannot be possible, unless the means be possible. Now no one is moved to the impossible. Consequently
|
|
|
2501 no one would tend to the end, save for the fact that the means appear to be possible. Therefore the
|
|
|
2502 impossible is not the object of choice.
|
|
|
2503 </p>
|
|
|
2504 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p9">
|
|
|
2505 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The will stands between the intellect and the external action: for the intellect proposes to the will its object, and the
|
|
|
2506 will causes the external action. Hence the principle of the movement in the will is to be found in the intellect, which apprehends
|
|
|
2507 something under the universal notion of good: but the term or perfection of the will's act is to be observed in its relation
|
|
|
2508 to the action whereby a man tends to the attainment of a thing; for the
|
|
|
2509 movement of the will is from the soul to the thing. Consequently the perfect act of the will is in respect of something that
|
|
|
2510 is good for one to do. Now this cannot be something impossible. Wherefore the complete act of the will is only in respect
|
|
|
2511 of what is possible and good for him that wills. But the incomplete act of the will is in respect of the impossible; and by
|
|
|
2512 some is called "velleity," because, to wit, one would will [vellet] such a thing, were it possible. But choice is an act of
|
|
|
2513 the
|
|
|
2514 will, fixed on something to be done by the chooser. And therefore it is by no means of anything but what is possible.
|
|
|
2515 </p>
|
|
|
2516 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p10">
|
|
|
2517 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since the object of the will is the apprehended good, we must judge of the object of the will according as it is apprehended.
|
|
|
2518 And so, just as sometimes the will tends to something which is apprehended as good, and yet is not really good; so is choice
|
|
|
2519 sometimes made of something apprehended as possible to the chooser, and yet impossible to him.
|
|
|
2520 </p>
|
|
|
2521 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p11">
|
|
|
2522 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The reason for this is that the subject should not rely on his own judgment to decide whether a certain thing is possible;
|
|
|
2523 but in each case should stand by his superior's judgment.
|
|
|
2524 </p>
|
|
|
2525 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2526 <p id="FS_Q13_A5-p13"></p>
|
|
|
2527 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2528 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2529 </div>
|
|
|
2530 <div id="FS_Q13_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
2531 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2532 <a href="summa.FS_Q14.html"></a>
|
|
|
2533 <h4 id="FS_Q13_A6-p0.1">Whether man chooses of necessity or freely?</h4>
|
|
|
2534 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2535 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p2">
|
|
|
2536 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man chooses of necessity. For the end stands in relation to the object of choice, as the principle of
|
|
|
2537 that which follows from the principles, as declared in Ethic. vii, 8. But conclusions follow of necessity from their principles.
|
|
|
2538 Therefore man is moved of necessity from (willing) the end of the choice (of the means).
|
|
|
2539 </p>
|
|
|
2540 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p3">
|
|
|
2541 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, as stated above (A[1], ad 2), choice follows the reason's judgment of what is to be done. But reason judges of necessity
|
|
|
2542 about some things: on account of the necessity of the premises. Therefore it seems that choice also follows of necessity.
|
|
|
2543 </p>
|
|
|
2544 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p4">
|
|
|
2545 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if two things are absolutely equal, man is not moved to one more than to the other; thus if a hungry man, as Plato
|
|
|
2546 says (Cf. De Coelo ii, 13), be confronted on either side with two portions of food equally appetizing and at an equal distance,
|
|
|
2547 he is not moved towards one more than to the other; and he finds the reason of this in the immobility of the earth in the
|
|
|
2548 middle of the world. Now, if that which is equally (eligible) with something else cannot
|
|
|
2549 be chosen, much less can that be chosen which appears as less (eligible). Therefore if two or more things are available, of
|
|
|
2550 which one appears to be more (eligible), it is impossible to choose any of the others. Therefore that which appears to hold
|
|
|
2551 the first place is chosen of necessity. But every act of choosing is in regard to something that seems in some way better.
|
|
|
2552 Therefore every choice is made necessarily.
|
|
|
2553 </p>
|
|
|
2554 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p5">
|
|
|
2555 <b>On the contrary,</b> Choice is an act of a rational power; which according to the Philosopher (Metaph. ix, 2) stands in relation to opposites.
|
|
|
2556 </p>
|
|
|
2557 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p6">
|
|
|
2558 <b>I answer that,</b> Man does not choose of necessity. And this is because that which is possible not to be, is not of necessity. Now the reason
|
|
|
2559 why it is possible not to choose, or to choose, may be gathered from a twofold power in man. For man can will and not will,
|
|
|
2560 act and not act; again, he can will this or that, and do this or that. The reason of this is seated in the very power of the
|
|
|
2561 reason. For the will can tend to whatever the reason can apprehend as good. Now the
|
|
|
2562 reason can apprehend as good, not only this, viz. "to will" or "to act," but also this, viz. "not to will" or "not to act."
|
|
|
2563 Again, in all particular goods, the reason can consider an aspect of some good, and the lack of some good, which has the aspect
|
|
|
2564 of evil: and in this respect, it can apprehend any single one of such goods as to be chosen or to be avoided. The perfect
|
|
|
2565 good alone, which is Happiness, cannot be apprehended by the reason as an evil, or as lacking in any way. Consequently man
|
|
|
2566 wills Happiness of necessity, nor can he will not to be happy, or to be unhappy. Now since choice is not of the end, but of
|
|
|
2567 the means, as stated above
|
|
|
2568 <a id="FS_Q13_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A3.html">(A[3])</a>; it is not of the perfect good, which is Happiness, but of other particular goods. Therefore man chooses not of necessity,
|
|
|
2569 but freely.
|
|
|
2570 </p>
|
|
|
2571 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p7">
|
|
|
2572 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The conclusion does not always of necessity follow from the principles, but only when the principles cannot be true if the
|
|
|
2573 conclusion is not true. In like manner, the end does not always necessitate in man the choosing of the means, because the
|
|
|
2574 means are not always such that the end cannot be gained without them; or, if they be such, they are not always considered
|
|
|
2575 in that light.
|
|
|
2576 </p>
|
|
|
2577 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p8">
|
|
|
2578 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The reason's decision or judgment of what is to be done is about things that are contingent and possible to us. In such matters
|
|
|
2579 the conclusions do not follow of necessity from principles that are absolutely necessary, but from such as are so conditionally;
|
|
|
2580 as, for instance, "If he runs, he is in motion."
|
|
|
2581 </p>
|
|
|
2582 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p9">
|
|
|
2583 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> If two things be proposed as equal under one aspect, nothing hinders us from considering in one of them some particular point
|
|
|
2584 of superiority, so that the will has a bent towards that one rather than towards the other.
|
|
|
2585 </p>
|
|
|
2586 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2587 <p id="FS_Q13_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2588 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2589 <a href="summa.FS_Q14.html"></a>
|
|
|
2590 </div>
|
|
|
2591 <a href="summa.FS_Q12_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2592 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2593 </div>
|
|
|
2594 <div id="FS_Q14" class="div3">
|
|
|
2595 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2596 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2597 <h3 id="FS_Q14-p0.1">OF COUNSEL, WHICH PRECEDES CHOICE (SIX ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
2598 <p id="FS_Q14-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2599 <p id="FS_Q14-p2"> We must now consider counsel; concerning which there are six points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
2600 <p id="FS_Q14-p3"> (1) Whether counsel is an inquiry?</p>
|
|
|
2601 <p id="FS_Q14-p4"> (2) Whether counsel is of the end or of the means?</p>
|
|
|
2602 <p id="FS_Q14-p5"> (3) Whether counsel is only of things that we do?</p>
|
|
|
2603 <p id="FS_Q14-p6"> (4) Whether counsel is of all things that we do?</p>
|
|
|
2604 <p id="FS_Q14-p7"> (5) Whether the process of counsel is one of analysis?</p>
|
|
|
2605 <p id="FS_Q14-p8"> (6) Whether the process of counsel is indefinite?</p>
|
|
|
2606 <div id="FS_Q14_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
2607 <a href="summa.FS_Q14.html"></a>
|
|
|
2608 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2609 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A1-p0.1">Whether counsel is an inquiry?</h4>
|
|
|
2610 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2611 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p2">
|
|
|
2612 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that counsel is not an inquiry. For Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that counsel is "an act of the appetite."
|
|
|
2613 But inquiry is not an act of the appetite. Therefore counsel is not an inquiry.
|
|
|
2614 </p>
|
|
|
2615 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p3">
|
|
|
2616 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, inquiry is a discursive act of the intellect: for which reason it is not found in God, Whose knowledge is not discursive,
|
|
|
2617 as we have shown in the
|
|
|
2618 <a id="FS_Q14_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q14_A7.html">FP, Q[14], A[7]</a>. But counsel is ascribed to God: for it is written (
|
|
|
2619 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q14_A1-p3.2" href="./asv.html#Eph.1.11" target="asv">Eph. 1:11</a>) that "He worketh all things according to the counsel of His will." Therefore counsel is not inquiry.
|
|
|
2620 </p>
|
|
|
2621 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p4">
|
|
|
2622 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, inquiry is of doubtful matters. But counsel is given in matters that are certainly good; thus the Apostle says (
|
|
|
2623 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q14_A1-p4.1" href="./asv.html#iCor.7.25" target="asv">1 Cor. 7:25</a>): "Now concerning virgins I have no commandment of the Lord: but I give counsel." Therefore counsel is not an inquiry.
|
|
|
2624 </p>
|
|
|
2625 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p5">
|
|
|
2626 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxiv.] says: "Every counsel is an inquiry; but not every inquiry is a counsel."
|
|
|
2627 </p>
|
|
|
2628 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p6">
|
|
|
2629 <b>I answer that,</b> Choice, as stated above (
|
|
|
2630 <a id="FS_Q14_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html">Q[13], A[1]</a>, ad 2; A[3]), follows the judgment of the reason about what is to be done. Now there is much uncertainty in things that have
|
|
|
2631 to be done; because actions are concerned with contingent singulars, which by reason of their vicissitude, are uncertain.
|
|
|
2632 Now in things doubtful and uncertain the reason does not pronounce judgment, without previous inquiry: wherefore the reason
|
|
|
2633 must of necessity institute
|
|
|
2634 an inquiry before deciding on the objects of choice; and this inquiry is called counsel. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic.
|
|
|
2635 iii, 2) that choice is the "desire of what has been already counselled."
|
|
|
2636 </p>
|
|
|
2637 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p7">
|
|
|
2638 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> When the acts of two powers are ordained to one another, in each of them there is something belonging to the other power:
|
|
|
2639 consequently each act can be denominated from either power. Now it is evident that the act of the reason giving direction
|
|
|
2640 as to the means, and the act of the will tending to these means according to the reason's direction, are ordained to one another.
|
|
|
2641 Consequently there is to be found something of the reason, viz. order, in that
|
|
|
2642 act of the will, which is choice: and in counsel, which is an act of reason, something of the will---both as matter (since
|
|
|
2643 counsel is of what man wills to do)---and as motive (because it is from willing the end, that man is moved to take counsel
|
|
|
2644 in regard to the means). And therefore, just as the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 2) that choice "is intellect influenced by
|
|
|
2645 appetite," thus pointing out that both concur in the act of choosing; so Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that counsel
|
|
|
2646 is
|
|
|
2647 "appetite based on inquiry," so as to show that counsel belongs, in a way, both to the will, on whose behalf and by whose
|
|
|
2648 impulsion the inquiry is made, and to the reason that executes the inquiry.
|
|
|
2649 </p>
|
|
|
2650 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p8">
|
|
|
2651 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The things that we say of God must be understood without any of the defects which are to be found in us: thus in us science
|
|
|
2652 is of conclusions derived by reasoning from causes to effects: but science when said of God means sure knowledge of all effects
|
|
|
2653 in the First Cause, without any reasoning process. In like manner we ascribe counsel to God, as to the certainty of His knowledge
|
|
|
2654 or judgment, which certainty in us arises from the inquiry of counsel.
|
|
|
2655 But such inquiry has no place in God; wherefore in this respect it is not ascribed to God: in which sense Damascene says (De
|
|
|
2656 Fide Orth. ii, 22): "God takes not counsel: those only take counsel who lack knowledge."
|
|
|
2657 </p>
|
|
|
2658 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p9">
|
|
|
2659 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It may happen that things which are most certainly good in the opinion of wise and spiritual men are not certainly good in
|
|
|
2660 the opinion of many, or at least of carnal-minded men. Consequently in such things counsel may be given.
|
|
|
2661 </p>
|
|
|
2662 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2663 <p id="FS_Q14_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2664 <a href="summa.FS_Q14.html"></a>
|
|
|
2665 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2666 </div>
|
|
|
2667 <div id="FS_Q14_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
2668 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2669 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2670 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A2-p0.1">Whether counsel is of the end, or only of the means?</h4>
|
|
|
2671 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2672 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p2">
|
|
|
2673 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that counsel is not only of the means but also of the end. For whatever is doubtful, can be the subject of
|
|
|
2674 inquiry. Now in things to be done by man there happens sometimes a doubt as to the end and not only as to the means. Since
|
|
|
2675 therefore inquiry as to what is to be done is counsel, it seems that counsel can be of the end.
|
|
|
2676 </p>
|
|
|
2677 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p3">
|
|
|
2678 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the matter of counsel is human actions. But some human actions are ends, as stated in Ethic. i, 1. Therefore counsel
|
|
|
2679 can be of the end.
|
|
|
2680 </p>
|
|
|
2681 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p4">
|
|
|
2682 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxiv.] says that "counsel is not of the end, but of the means."
|
|
|
2683 </p>
|
|
|
2684 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p5">
|
|
|
2685 <b>I answer that,</b> The end is the principle in practical matters: because the reason of the means is to be found in the end. Now the principle
|
|
|
2686 cannot be called in question, but must be presupposed in every inquiry. Since therefore counsel is an inquiry, it is not of
|
|
|
2687 the end, but only of the means. Nevertheless it may happen that what is the end in regard to some things, is ordained to something
|
|
|
2688 else; just as also what is the principle of one demonstration, is the conclusion of
|
|
|
2689 another: and consequently that which is looked upon as the end in one inquiry, may be looked upon as the means in another;
|
|
|
2690 and thus it will become an object of counsel.
|
|
|
2691 </p>
|
|
|
2692 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p6">
|
|
|
2693 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That which is looked upon as an end, is already fixed: consequently as long as there is any doubt about it, it is not looked
|
|
|
2694 upon as an end. Wherefore if counsel is taken about it, it will be counsel not about the end, but about the means.
|
|
|
2695 </p>
|
|
|
2696 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p7">
|
|
|
2697 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Counsel is about operations, in so far as they are ordained to some end. Consequently if any human act be an end, it will
|
|
|
2698 not, as such, be the matter of counsel.
|
|
|
2699 </p>
|
|
|
2700 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p8"></p>
|
|
|
2701 <p id="FS_Q14_A2-p9"></p>
|
|
|
2702 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2703 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2704 </div>
|
|
|
2705 <div id="FS_Q14_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
2706 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2707 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2708 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A3-p0.1">Whether counsel is only of things that we do?</h4>
|
|
|
2709 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2710 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p2">
|
|
|
2711 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that counsel is not only of things that we do. For counsel implies some kind of conference. But it is possible
|
|
|
2712 for many to confer about things that are not subject to movement, and are not the result of our actions, such as the nature
|
|
|
2713 of various things. Therefore counsel is not only of things that we do.
|
|
|
2714 </p>
|
|
|
2715 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p3">
|
|
|
2716 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, men sometimes seek counsel about things that are laid down by law; hence we speak of counsel at law. And yet those
|
|
|
2717 who seek counsel thus, have nothing to do in making the laws. Therefore counsel is not only of things that we do.
|
|
|
2718 </p>
|
|
|
2719 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p4">
|
|
|
2720 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, some are said to take consultation about future events; which, however, are not in our power. Therefore counsel
|
|
|
2721 is not only of things that we do.
|
|
|
2722 </p>
|
|
|
2723 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p5">
|
|
|
2724 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, if counsel were only of things that we do, no would take counsel about what another does. But this is clearly untrue.
|
|
|
2725 Therefore counsel is not only of things that we do.
|
|
|
2726 </p>
|
|
|
2727 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p6">
|
|
|
2728 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxiv.] says: "We take counsel of things that are within our competency and that
|
|
|
2729 we are able to do."
|
|
|
2730 </p>
|
|
|
2731 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p7">
|
|
|
2732 <b>I answer that,</b> Counsel properly implies a conference held between several; the very word [consilium] denotes this, for it means a sitting
|
|
|
2733 together [considium], from the fact that many sit together in order to confer with one another. Now we must take note that
|
|
|
2734 in contingent particular cases, in order that anything be known for certain, it is necessary to take several conditions or
|
|
|
2735 circumstances into consideration, which it is not easy for one to consider, but are
|
|
|
2736 considered by several with greater certainty, since what one takes note of, escapes the notice of another; whereas in necessary
|
|
|
2737 and universal things, our view is brought to bear on matters much more absolute and simple, so that one man by himself may
|
|
|
2738 be sufficient to consider these things. Wherefore the inquiry of counsel is concerned, properly speaking, with contingent
|
|
|
2739 singulars. Now the knowledge of the truth in such matters does not rank so high as to be desirable of itself, as is the
|
|
|
2740 knowledge of things universal and necessary; but it is desired as being useful towards action, because actions bear on things
|
|
|
2741 singular and contingent. Consequently, properly speaking, counsel is about things done by us.
|
|
|
2742 </p>
|
|
|
2743 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p8">
|
|
|
2744 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Counsel implies conference, not of any kind, but about what is to be done, for the reason given above.
|
|
|
2745 </p>
|
|
|
2746 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p9">
|
|
|
2747 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although that which is laid down by the law is not due to the action of him who seeks counsel, nevertheless it directs him
|
|
|
2748 in his action: since the mandate of the law is one reason for doing something.
|
|
|
2749 </p>
|
|
|
2750 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p10">
|
|
|
2751 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Counsel is not only about what is done, but also about whatever has relation to what is done. And for this reason we speak
|
|
|
2752 of consulting about future events, in so far as man is induced to do or omit something, through the knowledge of future events.
|
|
|
2753 </p>
|
|
|
2754 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p11">
|
|
|
2755 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> We seek counsel about the actions of others, in so far as they are, in some way, one with us; either by union of affection---thus
|
|
|
2756 a man is solicitous about what concerns his friend, as though it concerned himself; or after the manner of an instrument,
|
|
|
2757 for the principal agent and the instrument are, in a way, one cause, since one acts through the other; thus the master takes
|
|
|
2758 counsel about what he would do through his servant.
|
|
|
2759 </p>
|
|
|
2760 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
2761 <p id="FS_Q14_A3-p13"></p>
|
|
|
2762 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
2763 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2764 </div>
|
|
|
2765 <div id="FS_Q14_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
2766 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2767 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2768 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A4-p0.1">Whether counsel is about all things that we do?</h4>
|
|
|
2769 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2770 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p2">
|
|
|
2771 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that counsel is about all things that we have to do. For choice is the "desire of what is counselled" as stated
|
|
|
2772 above
|
|
|
2773 <a id="FS_Q14_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But choice is about all things that we do. Therefore counsel is too.
|
|
|
2774 </p>
|
|
|
2775 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p3">
|
|
|
2776 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, counsel implies the reason's inquiry. But, whenever we do not act through the impulse of passion, we act in virtue
|
|
|
2777 of the reason's inquiry. Therefore there is counsel about everything that we do.
|
|
|
2778 </p>
|
|
|
2779 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p4">
|
|
|
2780 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 3) that "if it appears that something can be done by more means than one, we take
|
|
|
2781 counsel by inquiring whereby it may be done most easily and best; but if it can be accomplished by one means, how it can be
|
|
|
2782 done by this." But whatever is done, is done by one means or by several. Therefore counsel takes place in all things that
|
|
|
2783 we do.
|
|
|
2784 </p>
|
|
|
2785 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p5">
|
|
|
2786 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxxiv.] says that "counsel has no place in things that are done according to science
|
|
|
2787 or art."
|
|
|
2788 </p>
|
|
|
2789 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p6">
|
|
|
2790 <b>I answer that,</b> Counsel is a kind of inquiry, as stated above
|
|
|
2791 <a id="FS_Q14_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But we are wont to inquire about things that admit of doubt; hence the process of inquiry, which is called an argument,
|
|
|
2792 "is a reason that attests something that admitted of doubt" [*Cicero, Topic. ad Trebat.]. Now, that something in relation
|
|
|
2793 to human acts admits of no doubt, arises from a twofold source. First, because certain determinate ends are gained by certain
|
|
|
2794 determinate
|
|
|
2795 means: as happens in the arts which are governed by certain fixed rules of action; thus a writer does not take counsel how
|
|
|
2796 to form his letters, for this is determined by art. Secondly, from the fact that it little matters whether it is done this
|
|
|
2797 or that way; this occurs in minute matters, which help or hinder but little with regard to the end aimed at; and reason looks
|
|
|
2798 upon small things as mere nothings. Consequently there are two things of which we do not take counsel, although they conduce
|
|
|
2799 to
|
|
|
2800 the end, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 3): namely, minute things, and those which have a fixed way of being done, as
|
|
|
2801 in works produced by art, with the exception of those arts that admit of conjecture such as medicine, commerce, and the like,
|
|
|
2802 as Gregory of Nyssa says [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxiv.].
|
|
|
2803 </p>
|
|
|
2804 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p7">
|
|
|
2805 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Choice presupposes counsel by reason of its judgment or decision. Consequently when the judgment or decision is evident without
|
|
|
2806 inquiry, there is no need for the inquiry of counsel.
|
|
|
2807 </p>
|
|
|
2808 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p8">
|
|
|
2809 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In matters that are evident, the reason makes no inquiry, but judges at once. Consequently there is no need of counsel in
|
|
|
2810 all that is done by reason.
|
|
|
2811 </p>
|
|
|
2812 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p9">
|
|
|
2813 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When a thing can be accomplished by one means, but in different ways, doubt may arise, just as when it can be accomplished
|
|
|
2814 by several means: hence the need of counsel. But when not only the means, but also the way of using the means, is fixed, then
|
|
|
2815 there is no need of counsel.
|
|
|
2816 </p>
|
|
|
2817 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2818 <p id="FS_Q14_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2819 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
2820 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2821 </div>
|
|
|
2822 <div id="FS_Q14_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
2823 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2824 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2825 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A5-p0.1">Whether the process of counsel is one of analysis?</h4>
|
|
|
2826 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2827 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p2">
|
|
|
2828 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the process of counsel is not one of analysis. For counsel is about things that we do. But the process
|
|
|
2829 of our actions is not one of analysis, but rather one of synthesis, viz. from the simple to the composite. Therefore counsel
|
|
|
2830 does not always proceed by way of analysis.
|
|
|
2831 </p>
|
|
|
2832 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p3">
|
|
|
2833 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, counsel is an inquiry of the reason. But reason proceeds from things that precede to things that follow, according
|
|
|
2834 to the more appropriate order. Since then, the past precedes the present, and the present precedes the future, it seems that
|
|
|
2835 in taking counsel one should proceed from the past and present to the future: which is not an analytical process. Therefore
|
|
|
2836 the process of counsel is not one of analysis.
|
|
|
2837 </p>
|
|
|
2838 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p4">
|
|
|
2839 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, counsel is only of such things as are possible to us, according to Ethic. iii, 3. But the question as to whether
|
|
|
2840 a certain thing is possible to us, depends on what we are able or unable to do, in order to gain such and such an end. Therefore
|
|
|
2841 the inquiry of counsel should begin from things present.
|
|
|
2842 </p>
|
|
|
2843 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p5">
|
|
|
2844 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 3) that "he who takes counsel seems to inquire and analyze."
|
|
|
2845 </p>
|
|
|
2846 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p6">
|
|
|
2847 <b>I answer that,</b> In every inquiry one must begin from some principle. And if this principle precedes both in knowledge and in being, the process
|
|
|
2848 is not analytic, but synthetic: because to proceed from cause to effect is to proceed synthetically, since causes are more
|
|
|
2849 simple than effects. But if that which precedes in knowledge is later in the order of being, the process is one of analysis,
|
|
|
2850 as when our judgment deals with effects, which by analysis we trace to their simple
|
|
|
2851 causes. Now the principle in the inquiry of counsel is the end, which precedes indeed in intention, but comes afterwards into
|
|
|
2852 execution. Hence the inquiry of counsel must needs be one of analysis, beginning that is to say, from that which is intended
|
|
|
2853 in the future, and continuing until it arrives at that which is to be done at once.
|
|
|
2854 </p>
|
|
|
2855 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p7">
|
|
|
2856 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Counsel is indeed about action. But actions take their reason from the end; and consequently the order of reasoning about
|
|
|
2857 actions is contrary to the order of actions.
|
|
|
2858 </p>
|
|
|
2859 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p8">
|
|
|
2860 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Reason begins with that which is first according to reason; but not always with that which is first in point of time.
|
|
|
2861 </p>
|
|
|
2862 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p9">
|
|
|
2863 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> We should not want to know whether something to be done for an end be possible, if it were not suitable for gaining that
|
|
|
2864 end. Hence we must first inquire whether it be conducive to the end, before considering whether it be possible.
|
|
|
2865 </p>
|
|
|
2866 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2867 <p id="FS_Q14_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2868 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
2869 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2870 </div>
|
|
|
2871 <div id="FS_Q14_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
2872 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2873 <a href="summa.FS_Q15.html"></a>
|
|
|
2874 <h4 id="FS_Q14_A6-p0.1">Whether the process of counsel is indefinite?</h4>
|
|
|
2875 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2876 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p2">
|
|
|
2877 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the process of counsel is indefinite. For counsel is an inquiry about the particular things with which
|
|
|
2878 action is concerned. But singulars are infinite. Therefore the process of counsel is indefinite.
|
|
|
2879 </p>
|
|
|
2880 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p3">
|
|
|
2881 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the inquiry of counsel has to consider not only what is to be done, but how to avoid obstacles. But every human
|
|
|
2882 action can be hindered, and an obstacle can be removed by some human reason. Therefore the inquiry about removing obstacles
|
|
|
2883 can go on indefinitely.
|
|
|
2884 </p>
|
|
|
2885 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p4">
|
|
|
2886 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the inquiry of demonstrative science does not go on indefinitely, because one can come to principles that are self-evident,
|
|
|
2887 which are absolutely certain. But such like certainty is not to be had in contingent singulars, which are variable and uncertain.
|
|
|
2888 Therefore the inquiry of counsel goes on indefinitely.
|
|
|
2889 </p>
|
|
|
2890 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p5">
|
|
|
2891 <b>On the contrary,</b> "No one is moved to that which he cannot possibly reach" (De Coelo i, 7). But it is impossible to pass through the infinite.
|
|
|
2892 If therefore the inquiry of counsel is infinite, no one would begin to take counsel. Which is clearly untrue.
|
|
|
2893 </p>
|
|
|
2894 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p6">
|
|
|
2895 <b>I answer that,</b> The inquiry of counsel is actually finite on both sides, on that of its principle and on that of its term. For a twofold
|
|
|
2896 principle is available in the inquiry of counsel. One is proper to it, and belongs to the very genus of things pertaining
|
|
|
2897 to operation: this is the end which is not the matter of counsel, but is taken for granted as its principle, as stated above
|
|
|
2898
|
|
|
2899 <a id="FS_Q14_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q14_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. The other principle is taken from another genus, so to speak;
|
|
|
2900 thus in demonstrative sciences one science postulates certain things from another, without inquiring into them. Now these
|
|
|
2901 principles which are taken for granted in the inquiry of counsel are any facts received through the senses---for instance,
|
|
|
2902 that this is bread or iron: and also any general statements known either through speculative or through practical science;
|
|
|
2903 for instance, that adultery is forbidden by God, or that man cannot live without suitable nourishment. Of such things counsel
|
|
|
2904 makes
|
|
|
2905 no inquiry. But the term of inquiry is that which we are able to do at once. For just as the end is considered in the light
|
|
|
2906 of a principle, so the means are considered in the light of a conclusion. Wherefore that which presents itself as to be done
|
|
|
2907 first, holds the position of an ultimate conclusion whereat the inquiry comes to an end. Nothing however prevents counsel
|
|
|
2908 from being infinite potentially, for as much as an infinite number of things may present themselves to be inquired into by
|
|
|
2909 means
|
|
|
2910 of counsel.
|
|
|
2911 </p>
|
|
|
2912 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p7">
|
|
|
2913 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Singulars are infinite; not actually, but only potentially.
|
|
|
2914 </p>
|
|
|
2915 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p8">
|
|
|
2916 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although human action can be hindered, the hindrance is not always at hand. Consequently it is not always necessary to take
|
|
|
2917 counsel about removing the obstacle.
|
|
|
2918 </p>
|
|
|
2919 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p9">
|
|
|
2920 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In contingent singulars, something may be taken for certain, not simply, indeed, but for the time being, and as far as it
|
|
|
2921 concerns the work to be done. Thus that Socrates is sitting is not a necessary statement; but that he is sitting, as long
|
|
|
2922 as he continues to sit, is necessary; and this can be taken for a certain fact.
|
|
|
2923 </p>
|
|
|
2924 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p10"></p>
|
|
|
2925 <p id="FS_Q14_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
2926 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
2927 <a href="summa.FS_Q15.html"></a>
|
|
|
2928 </div>
|
|
|
2929 <a href="summa.FS_Q13_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2930 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2931 </div>
|
|
|
2932 <div id="FS_Q15" class="div3">
|
|
|
2933 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
2934 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
2935 <h3 id="FS_Q15-p0.1">OF CONSENT, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL IN REGARD TO THE MEANS (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
2936 <p id="FS_Q15-p1"></p>
|
|
|
2937 <p id="FS_Q15-p2"> We must now consider consent; concerning which there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
2938 <p id="FS_Q15-p3"> (1) Whether consent is an act of the appetitive or of the apprehensive power?</p>
|
|
|
2939 <p id="FS_Q15-p4"> (2) Whether it is to be found in irrational animals?</p>
|
|
|
2940 <p id="FS_Q15-p5"> (3) Whether it is directed to the end or to the means?</p>
|
|
|
2941 <p id="FS_Q15-p6"> (4) Whether consent to an act belongs to the higher part of the soul only?</p>
|
|
|
2942 <div id="FS_Q15_A1" class="div4">
|
|
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2943 <a href="summa.FS_Q15.html"></a>
|
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|
2944 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
2945 <h4 id="FS_Q15_A1-p0.1">Whether consent is an act of the appetitive or of the apprehensive power?</h4>
|
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2946 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p1"></p>
|
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2947 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p2">
|
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|
2948 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that consent belongs only to the apprehensive part of the soul. For Augustine (De Trin. xii, 12) ascribes consent
|
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|
2949 to the higher reason. But the reason is an apprehensive power. Therefore consent belongs to an apprehensive power.
|
|
|
2950 </p>
|
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|
2951 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p3">
|
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|
2952 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, consent is "co-sense." But sense is an apprehensive power. Therefore consent is the act of an apprehensive power.
|
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|
2953 </p>
|
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2954 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p4">
|
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|
2955 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as assent is an application of the intellect to something, so is consent. But assent belongs to the intellect,
|
|
|
2956 which is an apprehensive power. Therefore consent also belongs to an apprehensive power.
|
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|
2957 </p>
|
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2958 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p5">
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|
2959 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that "if a man judge without affection for that of which he judges, there is no sentence,"
|
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|
2960 i.e. consent. But affection belongs to the appetitive power. Therefore consent does also.
|
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|
2961 </p>
|
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2962 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p6">
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|
2963 <b>I answer that,</b> Consent implies application of sense to something. Now it is proper to sense to take cognizance of things present; for the
|
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2964 imagination apprehends the similitude of corporeal things, even in the absence of the things of which they bear the likeness;
|
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|
2965 while the intellect apprehends universal ideas, which it can apprehend indifferently, whether the singulars be present or
|
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|
2966 absent. And since the act of an appetitive power is a kind of inclination to the thing
|
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|
2967 itself, the application of the appetitive power to the thing, in so far as it cleaves to it, gets by a kind of similitude,
|
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2968 the name of sense, since, as it were, it acquires direct knowledge of the thing to which it cleaves, in so far as it takes
|
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2969 complacency in it. Hence it is written (
|
|
|
2970 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q15_A1-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Wis.1.1" target="asv">Wis. 1:1</a>): "Think of [Sentite] the Lord in goodness." And on these grounds consent is an act of the appetitive power.
|
|
|
2971 </p>
|
|
|
2972 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p7">
|
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|
2973 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As stated in De Anima iii, 9, "the will is in the reason." Hence, when Augustine ascribes consent to the reason, he takes
|
|
|
2974 reason as including the will.
|
|
|
2975 </p>
|
|
|
2976 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p8">
|
|
|
2977 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Sense, properly speaking, belongs to the apprehensive faculty; but by way of similitude, in so far as it implies seeking
|
|
|
2978 acquaintance, it belongs to the appetitive power, as stated above.
|
|
|
2979 </p>
|
|
|
2980 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p9">
|
|
|
2981 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> "Assentire" [to assent] is, to speak, "ad aliud sentire" [to feel towards something]; and thus it implies a certain distance
|
|
|
2982 from that to which assent is given. But "consentire" [to consent] is "to feel with," and this implies a certain union to the
|
|
|
2983 object of consent. Hence the will, to which it belongs to tend to the thing itself, is more properly said to consent: whereas
|
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|
2984 the intellect, whose act does not consist in a movement towards the thing, but
|
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|
2985 rather the reverse, as we have stated in the
|
|
|
2986 <a id="FS_Q15_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q16_A1.html">FP, Q[16], A[1]</a>;
|
|
|
2987 <a id="FS_Q15_A1-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q27_A4.html">FP, Q[27], A[4]</a>;
|
|
|
2988 <a id="FS_Q15_A1-p9.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q59_A2.html">FP, Q[59], A[2]</a>, is more properly said to assent: although one word is wont to be used for the other [*In Latin rather than in English.].
|
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|
2989 We may also say that the intellect assents, in so far as it is moved by the will.
|
|
|
2990 </p>
|
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|
2991 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p10"></p>
|
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|
2992 <p id="FS_Q15_A1-p11"></p>
|
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|
2993 <a href="summa.FS_Q15.html"></a>
|
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|
2994 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
2995 </div>
|
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|
2996 <div id="FS_Q15_A2" class="div4">
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2997 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A1.html"></a>
|
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2998 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A3.html"></a>
|
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2999 <h4 id="FS_Q15_A2-p0.1">Whether consent is to be found in irrational animals?</h4>
|
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3000 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p1"></p>
|
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|
3001 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p2">
|
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|
3002 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that consent is to be found in irrational animals. For consent implies a determination of the appetite to one
|
|
|
3003 thing. But the appetite of irrational animals is determinate to one thing. Therefore consent is to be found in irrational
|
|
|
3004 animals.
|
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|
3005 </p>
|
|
|
3006 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p3">
|
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|
3007 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if you remove what is first, you remove what follows. But consent precedes the accomplished act. If therefore there
|
|
|
3008 were no consent in irrational animals, there would be no act accomplished; which is clearly false.
|
|
|
3009 </p>
|
|
|
3010 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p4">
|
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|
3011 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, men are sometimes said to consent to do something, through some passion; desire, for instance, or anger. But irrational
|
|
|
3012 animals act through passion. Therefore they consent.
|
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|
3013 </p>
|
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|
3014 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p5">
|
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|
3015 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that "after judging, man approves and embraces the judgment of his counselling, and
|
|
|
3016 this is called the sentence," i.e. consent. But counsel is not in irrational animals. Therefore neither is consent.
|
|
|
3017 </p>
|
|
|
3018 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p6">
|
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|
3019 <b>I answer that,</b> Consent, properly speaking, is not in irrational animals. The reason of this is that consent implies an application of the
|
|
|
3020 appetitive movement to something as to be done. Now to apply the appetitive movement to the doing of something, belongs to
|
|
|
3021 the subject in whose power it is to move the appetite: thus to touch a stone is an action suitable to a stick, but to apply
|
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|
3022 the stick so that it touch the stone, belongs to one who has the power of moving the stick.
|
|
|
3023 But irrational animals have not the command of the appetitive movement; for this is in them through natural instinct. Hence
|
|
|
3024 in the irrational animal, there is indeed the movement of the appetite, but it does not apply that movement to some particular
|
|
|
3025 thing. And hence it is that the irrational animal is not properly said to consent: this is proper to the rational nature,
|
|
|
3026 which has the command of the appetitive movement, and is able to apply or not to apply it to this or that thing.
|
|
|
3027 </p>
|
|
|
3028 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3029 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In irrational animals the determination of the appetite to a particular thing is merely passive: whereas consent implies
|
|
|
3030 a determination of the appetite, which is active rather than merely passive.
|
|
|
3031 </p>
|
|
|
3032 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p8">
|
|
|
3033 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> If the first be removed, then what follows is removed, provided that, properly speaking, it follow from that only. But if
|
|
|
3034 something can follow from several things, it is not removed by the fact that one of them is removed; thus if hardening is
|
|
|
3035 the effect of heat and of cold (since bricks are hardened by the fire, and frozen water is hardened by the cold), then by
|
|
|
3036 removing heat it does not follow that there is no hardening. Now the accomplishment of an
|
|
|
3037 act follows not only from consent, but also from the impulse of the appetite, such as is found in irrational animals.
|
|
|
3038 </p>
|
|
|
3039 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p9">
|
|
|
3040 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The man who acts through passion is able not to follow the passion: whereas irrational animals have not that power. Hence
|
|
|
3041 the comparison fails.
|
|
|
3042 </p>
|
|
|
3043 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3044 <p id="FS_Q15_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3045 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3046 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3047 </div>
|
|
|
3048 <div id="FS_Q15_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
3049 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3050 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3051 <h4 id="FS_Q15_A3-p0.1">Whether consent is directed to the end or to the means?</h4>
|
|
|
3052 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3053 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p2">
|
|
|
3054 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that consent is directed to the end. Because that on account of which a thing is such is still more such. But
|
|
|
3055 it is on account of the end that we consent to the means. Therefore, still more do we consent to the end.
|
|
|
3056 </p>
|
|
|
3057 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p3">
|
|
|
3058 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the act of the intemperate man is his end, just as the act of the virtuous man is his end. But the intemperate man
|
|
|
3059 consents to his own act. Therefore consent can be directed to the end.
|
|
|
3060 </p>
|
|
|
3061 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p4">
|
|
|
3062 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, desire of the means is choice, as stated above (
|
|
|
3063 <a id="FS_Q15_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q13_A1.html">Q[13], A[1]</a>). If therefore consent were only directed to the means it would nowise differ from choice. And this is proved to be false
|
|
|
3064 by the authority of Damascene who says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that "after the approval" which he calls "the sentence," "comes
|
|
|
3065 the choice." Therefore consent is not only directed to the means.
|
|
|
3066 </p>
|
|
|
3067 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p5">
|
|
|
3068 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that the "sentence," i.e. the consent, takes place "when a man approves and embraces
|
|
|
3069 the judgment of his counsel." But counsel is only about the means. Therefore the same applies to consent.
|
|
|
3070 </p>
|
|
|
3071 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p6">
|
|
|
3072 <b>I answer that,</b> Consent is the application of the appetitive movement to something that is already in the power of him who causes the application.
|
|
|
3073 Now the order of action is this: First there is the apprehension of the end; then the desire of the end; then the counsel
|
|
|
3074 about the means; then the desire of the means. Now the appetite tends to the last end naturally: wherefore the application
|
|
|
3075 of the appetitive movement to the apprehended end has not the nature of consent, but
|
|
|
3076 of simple volition. But as to those things which come under consideration after the last end, in so far as they are directed
|
|
|
3077 to the end, they come under counsel: and so counsel can be applied to them, in so far as the appetitive movement is applied
|
|
|
3078 to the judgment resulting from counsel. But the appetitive movement to the end is not applied to counsel: rather is counsel
|
|
|
3079 applied to it, because counsel presupposes the desire of the end. On the other hand, the desire of the means presupposes the
|
|
|
3080 decision of counsel. And therefore the application of the appetitive movement to counsel's decision is consent, properly speaking.
|
|
|
3081 Consequently, since counsel is only about the means, consent, properly speaking, is of nothing else but the means.
|
|
|
3082 </p>
|
|
|
3083 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p7">
|
|
|
3084 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Just as the knowledge of conclusions through the principles is science, whereas the knowledge of the principles is not science,
|
|
|
3085 but something higher, namely, understanding; so do we consent to the means on account of the end, in respect of which our
|
|
|
3086 act is not consent but something greater, namely, volition.
|
|
|
3087 </p>
|
|
|
3088 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p8">
|
|
|
3089 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Delight in his act, rather than the act itself, is the end of the intemperate man, and for sake of this delight he consents
|
|
|
3090 to that act.
|
|
|
3091 </p>
|
|
|
3092 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p9">
|
|
|
3093 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Choice includes something that consent has not, namely, a certain relation to something to which something else is preferred:
|
|
|
3094 and therefore after consent there still remains a choice. For it may happen that by aid of counsel several means have been
|
|
|
3095 found conducive to the end, and through each of these meeting with approval, consent has been given to each: but after approving
|
|
|
3096 of many, we have given our preference to one by choosing it. But if only one
|
|
|
3097 meets with approval, then consent and choice do not differ in reality, but only in our way of looking at them; so that we
|
|
|
3098 call it consent, according as we approve of doing that thing; but choice according as we prefer it to those that do not meet
|
|
|
3099 with our approval.
|
|
|
3100 </p>
|
|
|
3101 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3102 <p id="FS_Q15_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3103 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3104 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3105 </div>
|
|
|
3106 <div id="FS_Q15_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
3107 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3108 <a href="summa.FS_Q16.html"></a>
|
|
|
3109 <h4 id="FS_Q15_A4-p0.1">Whether consent to the act belongs only to the higher part of the soul?</h4>
|
|
|
3110 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3111 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p2">
|
|
|
3112 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that consent to the act does not always belong to the higher reason. For "delight follows action, and perfects
|
|
|
3113 it, just as beauty perfects youth" [*oion tois akmaiois he hora}--as youthful vigor perfects a man in his prime] (Ethic. x,
|
|
|
3114 4). But consent to delight belongs to the lower reason, as Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 12). Therefore consent to the act
|
|
|
3115 does not belong only to the higher reason.
|
|
|
3116 </p>
|
|
|
3117 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p3">
|
|
|
3118 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an act to which we consent is said to be voluntary. But it belongs to many powers to produce voluntary acts. Therefore
|
|
|
3119 the higher reason is not alone in consenting to the act.
|
|
|
3120 </p>
|
|
|
3121 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p4">
|
|
|
3122 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, "the higher reason is that which is intent on the contemplation and consultation of things eternal," as Augustine
|
|
|
3123 says (De Trin. xii, 7). But man often consents to an act not for eternal, but for temporal reasons, or even on account of
|
|
|
3124 some passion of the soul. Therefore consent to an act does not belong to the higher reason alone.
|
|
|
3125 </p>
|
|
|
3126 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p5">
|
|
|
3127 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. xii, 12): "It is impossible for man to make up his mind to commit a sin, unless that mental faculty
|
|
|
3128 which has the sovereign power of urging his members to, or restraining them from, act, yield to the evil deed and become its
|
|
|
3129 slave."
|
|
|
3130 </p>
|
|
|
3131 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p6">
|
|
|
3132 <b>I answer that,</b> The final decision belongs to him who holds the highest place, and to whom it belongs to judge of the others; for as long
|
|
|
3133 as judgment about some matter remains to be pronounced, the final decision has not been given. Now it is evident that it belongs
|
|
|
3134 to the higher reason to judge of all: since it is by the reason that we judge of sensible things; and of things pertaining
|
|
|
3135 to human principles we judge according to Divine principles, which is the function of
|
|
|
3136 the higher reason. Wherefore as long as a man is uncertain whether he resists or not, according to Divine principles, no judgment
|
|
|
3137 of the reason can be considered in the light of a final decision. Now the final decision of what is to be done is consent
|
|
|
3138 to the act. Therefore consent to the act belongs to the higher reason; but in that sense in which the reason includes the
|
|
|
3139 will, as stated above (A[1], ad 1).
|
|
|
3140 </p>
|
|
|
3141 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p7">
|
|
|
3142 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Consent to delight in the work done belongs to the higher reason, as also does consent to the work; but consent to delight
|
|
|
3143 in thought belongs to the lower reason, just as to the lower reason it belongs to think. Nevertheless the higher reason exercises
|
|
|
3144 judgment on the fact of thinking or not thinking, considered as an action; and in like manner on the delight that results.
|
|
|
3145 But in so far as the act of thinking is considered as ordained to a further
|
|
|
3146 act, it belongs to the lower reason. For that which is ordained to something else, belongs to a lower art or power than does
|
|
|
3147 the end to which it is ordained: hence the art which is concerned with the end is called the master or principal art.
|
|
|
3148 </p>
|
|
|
3149 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p8">
|
|
|
3150 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Since actions are called voluntary from the fact that we consent to them, it does not follow that consent is an act of each
|
|
|
3151 power, but of the will which is in the reason, as stated above (A[1], ad 1), and from which the voluntary act is named.
|
|
|
3152 </p>
|
|
|
3153 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p9">
|
|
|
3154 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The higher reason is said to consent not only because it always moves to act, according to the eternal reasons; but also
|
|
|
3155 because it fails to dissent according to those same reasons.
|
|
|
3156 </p>
|
|
|
3157 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3158 <p id="FS_Q15_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3159 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3160 <a href="summa.FS_Q16.html"></a>
|
|
|
3161 </div>
|
|
|
3162 <a href="summa.FS_Q14_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3163 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3164 </div>
|
|
|
3165 <div id="FS_Q16" class="div3">
|
|
|
3166 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3167 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3168 <h3 id="FS_Q16-p0.1">OF USE, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL IN REGARD TO THE MEANS (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
3169 <p id="FS_Q16-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3170 <p id="FS_Q16-p2"> We must now consider use; concerning which there are four points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
3171 <p id="FS_Q16-p3"> (1) Whether use is an act of the will?</p>
|
|
|
3172 <p id="FS_Q16-p4"> (2) Whether it is to be found in irrational animals?</p>
|
|
|
3173 <p id="FS_Q16-p5"> (3) Whether it regards the means only, or the end also?</p>
|
|
|
3174 <p id="FS_Q16-p6"> (4) Of the relation of use to choice.</p>
|
|
|
3175 <div id="FS_Q16_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
3176 <a href="summa.FS_Q16.html"></a>
|
|
|
3177 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3178 <h4 id="FS_Q16_A1-p0.1">Whether use is an act of the will?</h4>
|
|
|
3179 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3180 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3181 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that use is not an act of the will. For Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 4) that "to use is to refer that
|
|
|
3182 which is the object of use to the obtaining of something else." But "to refer" something to another is an act of the reason
|
|
|
3183 to which it belongs to compare and to direct. Therefore use is an act of the reason and not of the will.
|
|
|
3184 </p>
|
|
|
3185 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3186 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that man "goes forward to the operation, and this is called impulse; then
|
|
|
3187 he makes use (of the powers) and this is called use." But operation belongs to the executive power; and the act of the will
|
|
|
3188 does not follow the act of the executive power, on the contrary execution comes last. Therefore use is not an act of the will.
|
|
|
3189 </p>
|
|
|
3190 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3191 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 30): "All things that were made were made for man's use, because reason with which man
|
|
|
3192 is endowed uses all things by its judgment of them." But judgment of things created by God belongs to the speculative reason;
|
|
|
3193 which seems to be altogether distinct from the will, which is the principle of human acts. Therefore use is not an act of
|
|
|
3194 the will.
|
|
|
3195 </p>
|
|
|
3196 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3197 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11): "To use is to apply to something to purpose of the will."
|
|
|
3198 </p>
|
|
|
3199 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3200 <b>I answer that,</b> The use of a thing implies the application of that thing to an operation: hence the operation to which we apply a thing is
|
|
|
3201 called its use; thus the use of a horse is to ride, and the use of a stick is to strike. Now we apply to an operation not
|
|
|
3202 only the interior principles of action, viz. the powers of the soul or the members of the body; as the intellect, to understand;
|
|
|
3203 and the eye, to see; but also external things, as a stick, to strike. But it is evident
|
|
|
3204 that we do not apply external things to an operation save through the interior principles which are either the powers of the
|
|
|
3205 soul, or the habits of those powers, or the organs which are parts of the body. Now it has been shown above (
|
|
|
3206 <a id="FS_Q16_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>) that it is the will which moves the soul's powers to their acts, and this is to apply them to operation. Hence it is evident
|
|
|
3207 that first and principally use belongs to the will as first mover; to the reason, as directing; and to
|
|
|
3208 the other powers as executing the operation, which powers are compared to the will which applies them to act, as the instruments
|
|
|
3209 are compared to the principal agent. Now action is properly ascribed, not to the instrument, but to the principal agent, as
|
|
|
3210 building is ascribed to the builder, not to his tools. Hence it is evident that use is, properly speaking, an act of the will.
|
|
|
3211 </p>
|
|
|
3212 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p7">
|
|
|
3213 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Reason does indeed refer one thing to another; but the will tends to that which is referred by the reason to something else.
|
|
|
3214 And in this sense to use is to refer one thing to another.
|
|
|
3215 </p>
|
|
|
3216 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p8">
|
|
|
3217 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Damascene is speaking of use in so far as it belongs to the executive powers.
|
|
|
3218 </p>
|
|
|
3219 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p9">
|
|
|
3220 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Even the speculative reason is applied by the will to the act of understanding or judging. Consequently the speculative reason
|
|
|
3221 is said to use, in so far as it is moved by the will, in the same way as the other powers.
|
|
|
3222 </p>
|
|
|
3223 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3224 <p id="FS_Q16_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3225 <a href="summa.FS_Q16.html"></a>
|
|
|
3226 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3227 </div>
|
|
|
3228 <div id="FS_Q16_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
3229 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3230 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3231 <h4 id="FS_Q16_A2-p0.1">Whether use is to be found in irrational animals?</h4>
|
|
|
3232 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3233 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p2">
|
|
|
3234 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that use is to be found in irrational animals. For it is better to enjoy than to use, because, as Augustine
|
|
|
3235 says (De Trin. x, 10): "We use things by referring them to something else which we are to enjoy." But enjoyment is to be found
|
|
|
3236 in irrational animals, as stated above (
|
|
|
3237 <a id="FS_Q16_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q11_A2.html">Q[11], A[2]</a>). Much more, therefore, is it possible for them to use.
|
|
|
3238 </p>
|
|
|
3239 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p3">
|
|
|
3240 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to apply the members to action is to use them. But irrational animals apply their members to action; for instance,
|
|
|
3241 their feet, to walk; their horns, to strike. Therefore it is possible for irrational animals to use.
|
|
|
3242 </p>
|
|
|
3243 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p4">
|
|
|
3244 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 30): "None but a rational animal can make use of a thing."
|
|
|
3245 </p>
|
|
|
3246 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p5">
|
|
|
3247 <b>I answer that,</b> as stated above
|
|
|
3248 <a id="FS_Q16_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, to use is to apply an active principle to action: thus to consent is to apply the appetitive movement to the desire of something,
|
|
|
3249 as stated above (Q[15], AA[1],2,3). Now he alone who has the disposal of a thing, can apply it to something else; and this
|
|
|
3250 belongs to him alone who knows how to refer it to something else, which is an act of the reason. And therefore none but a
|
|
|
3251 rational animal consents and uses.
|
|
|
3252 </p>
|
|
|
3253 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p6">
|
|
|
3254 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> To enjoy implies the absolute movement of the appetite to the appetible: whereas to use implies a movement of the appetite
|
|
|
3255 to something as directed to something else. If therefore we compare use and enjoyment in respect of their objects, enjoyment
|
|
|
3256 is better than use; because that which is appetible absolutely is better than that which is appetible only as directed to
|
|
|
3257 something else. But if we compare them in respect of the apprehensive power that
|
|
|
3258 precedes them, greater excellence is required on the part of use: because to direct one thing to another is an act of reason;
|
|
|
3259 whereas to apprehend something absolutely is within the competency even of sense.
|
|
|
3260 </p>
|
|
|
3261 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3262 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Animals by means of their members do something from natural instinct; not through knowing the relation of their members to
|
|
|
3263 these operations. Wherefore, properly speaking, they do not apply their members to action, nor do they use them.
|
|
|
3264 </p>
|
|
|
3265 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p8"></p>
|
|
|
3266 <p id="FS_Q16_A2-p9"></p>
|
|
|
3267 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3268 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3269 </div>
|
|
|
3270 <div id="FS_Q16_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
3271 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3272 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3273 <h4 id="FS_Q16_A3-p0.1">Whether use regards also the last end?</h4>
|
|
|
3274 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3275 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p2">
|
|
|
3276 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that use can regard also the last end. For Augustine says (De Trin. x, 11): "Whoever enjoys, uses." But man
|
|
|
3277 enjoys the last end. Therefore he uses the last end.
|
|
|
3278 </p>
|
|
|
3279 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p3">
|
|
|
3280 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "to use is to apply something to the purpose of the will" (De Trin. x, 11). But the last end, more than anything
|
|
|
3281 else, is the object of the will's application. Therefore it can be the object of use.
|
|
|
3282 </p>
|
|
|
3283 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p4">
|
|
|
3284 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Hilary says (De Trin. ii) that "Eternity is in the Father, Likeness in the Image," i.e. in the Son, "Use in the
|
|
|
3285 Gift," i.e. in the Holy Ghost. But the Holy Ghost, since He is God, is the last end. Therefore the last end can be the object
|
|
|
3286 of use.
|
|
|
3287 </p>
|
|
|
3288 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p5">
|
|
|
3289 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (QQ. 83, qu. 30): "No one rightly uses God, but one enjoys Him." But God alone is the last end. Therefore
|
|
|
3290 we cannot use the last end.
|
|
|
3291 </p>
|
|
|
3292 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p6">
|
|
|
3293 <b>I answer that,</b> Use, as stated above
|
|
|
3294 <a id="FS_Q16_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, implies the application of one thing to another. Now that which is applied to another is regarded in the light of means
|
|
|
3295 to an end; and consequently use always regards the means. For this reason things that are adapted to a certain end are said
|
|
|
3296 to be "useful"; in fact their very usefulness is sometimes called use.
|
|
|
3297 </p>
|
|
|
3298 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p7"> It must, however, be observed that the last end may be taken in two ways: first, simply; secondly, in respect of an individual.
|
|
|
3299 For since the end, as stated above (
|
|
|
3300 <a id="FS_Q16_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A8.html">Q[1], A[8]</a>;
|
|
|
3301 <a id="FS_Q16_A3-p7.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q2_A7.html"> Q[2], A[7]</a>), signifies sometimes the thing itself, and sometimes the attainment or possession of that thing (thus the miser's end is
|
|
|
3302 either money or the possession of it); it is evident that, simply speaking, the last end is the thing itself; for the
|
|
|
3303 possession of money is good only inasmuch as there is some good in money. But in regard to the individual, the obtaining of
|
|
|
3304 money is the last end; for the miser would not seek for money, save that he might have it. Therefore, simply and properly
|
|
|
3305 speaking, a man enjoys money, because he places his last end therein; but in so far as he seeks to possess it, he is said
|
|
|
3306 to use it.
|
|
|
3307 </p>
|
|
|
3308 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p8">
|
|
|
3309 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Augustine is speaking of use in general, in so far as it implies the relation of an end to the enjoyment which a man seeks
|
|
|
3310 in that end.
|
|
|
3311 </p>
|
|
|
3312 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p9">
|
|
|
3313 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The end is applied to the purpose of the will, that the will may find rest in it. Consequently this rest in the end, which
|
|
|
3314 is the enjoyment thereof, is in this sense called use of the end. But the means are applied to the will's purpose, not only
|
|
|
3315 in being used as means, but as ordained to something else in which the will finds rest.
|
|
|
3316 </p>
|
|
|
3317 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p10">
|
|
|
3318 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The words of Hilary refer to use as applicable to rest in the last end; just as, speaking in a general sense, one may be
|
|
|
3319 said to use the end for the purpose of attaining it, as stated above. Hence Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 10) that "this love,
|
|
|
3320 delight, felicity, or happiness, is called use by him."
|
|
|
3321 </p>
|
|
|
3322 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3323 <p id="FS_Q16_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3324 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3325 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3326 </div>
|
|
|
3327 <div id="FS_Q16_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
3328 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3329 <a href="summa.FS_Q17.html"></a>
|
|
|
3330 <h4 id="FS_Q16_A4-p0.1">Whether use precedes choice?</h4>
|
|
|
3331 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3332 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p2">
|
|
|
3333 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that use precedes choice. For nothing follows after choice, except execution. But use, since it belongs to
|
|
|
3334 the will, precedes execution. Therefore it precedes choice also.
|
|
|
3335 </p>
|
|
|
3336 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p3">
|
|
|
3337 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the absolute precedes the relative. Therefore the less relative precedes the more relative. But choice implies two
|
|
|
3338 relations: one, of the thing chosen, in relation to the end; the other, of the thing chosen, in respect of that to which it
|
|
|
3339 is preferred; whereas use implies relation to the end only. Therefore use precedes choice.
|
|
|
3340 </p>
|
|
|
3341 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p4">
|
|
|
3342 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the will uses the other powers in so far as it removes them. But the will moves itself, too, as stated above (
|
|
|
3343 <a id="FS_Q16_A4-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html">Q[9], A[3]</a>). Therefore it uses itself, by applying itself to act. But it does this when it consents. Therefore there is use in consent.
|
|
|
3344 But consent precedes choice as stated above (
|
|
|
3345 <a id="FS_Q16_A4-p4.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q15_A3.html">Q[15], A[3]</a>, ad 3). Therefore use does also.
|
|
|
3346 </p>
|
|
|
3347 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p5">
|
|
|
3348 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that "the will after choosing has an impulse to the operation, and afterwards it uses
|
|
|
3349 (the powers)." Therefore use follows choice.
|
|
|
3350 </p>
|
|
|
3351 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p6">
|
|
|
3352 <b>I answer that,</b> The will has a twofold relation to the thing willed. One, according as the thing willed is, in a way, in the willing subject,
|
|
|
3353 by a kind of proportion or order to the thing willed. Wherefore those things that are naturally proportionate to a certain
|
|
|
3354 end, are said to desire that end naturally. Yet to have an end thus is to have it imperfectly. Now every imperfect thing tends
|
|
|
3355 to perfection. And therefore both the natural and the voluntary appetite tend to have
|
|
|
3356 the end in reality; and this is to have it perfectly. This is the second relation of the will to the thing willed.
|
|
|
3357 </p>
|
|
|
3358 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p7"> Now the thing willed is not only the end, but also the means. And the last act that belongs to the first relation of the
|
|
|
3359 will to the means, is choice; for there the will becomes fully proportionate, by willing the means fully. Use, on the other
|
|
|
3360 hand, belongs to the second relation of the will, in respect of which it tends to the realization of the thing willed. Wherefore
|
|
|
3361 it is evident that use follows choice; provided that by use we mean the will's use of the executive power in
|
|
|
3362 moving it. But since the will, in a way, moves the reason also, and uses it, we may take the use of the means, as consisting
|
|
|
3363 in the consideration of the reason, whereby it refers the means to the end. In this sense use precedes choice.
|
|
|
3364 </p>
|
|
|
3365 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p8">
|
|
|
3366 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The motion of the will to the execution of the work, precedes execution, but follows choice. And so, since use belongs to
|
|
|
3367 that very motion of the will, it stands between choice and execution.
|
|
|
3368 </p>
|
|
|
3369 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p9">
|
|
|
3370 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> What is essentially relative is after the absolute; but the thing to which relation is referred need not come after. Indeed,
|
|
|
3371 the more a cause precedes, the more numerous the effects to which it has relation.
|
|
|
3372 </p>
|
|
|
3373 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p10">
|
|
|
3374 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Choice precedes use, if they be referred to the same object. But nothing hinders the use of one thing preceding the choice
|
|
|
3375 of another. And since the acts of the will react on one another, in each act of the will we can find both consent and choice
|
|
|
3376 and use; so that we may say that the will consents to choose, and consents to consent, and uses itself in consenting and choosing.
|
|
|
3377 And such acts as are ordained to that which precedes, precede also.
|
|
|
3378 </p>
|
|
|
3379 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3380 <p id="FS_Q16_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3381 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3382 <a href="summa.FS_Q17.html"></a>
|
|
|
3383 </div>
|
|
|
3384 <a href="summa.FS_Q15_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3385 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3386 </div>
|
|
|
3387 <div id="FS_Q17" class="div3">
|
|
|
3388 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3389 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3390 <h3 id="FS_Q17-p0.1">OF THE ACTS COMMANDED BY THE WILL (NINE ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
3391 <p id="FS_Q17-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3392 <p id="FS_Q17-p2"> We must now consider the acts commanded by the will; under which head there are nine points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
3393 <p id="FS_Q17-p3"> (1) Whether command is an act of the will or of the reason?</p>
|
|
|
3394 <p id="FS_Q17-p4"> (2) Whether command belongs to irrational animals?</p>
|
|
|
3395 <p id="FS_Q17-p5"> (3) Of the order between command and use</p>
|
|
|
3396 <p id="FS_Q17-p6"> (4) Whether command and the commanded act are one act or distinct?</p>
|
|
|
3397 <p id="FS_Q17-p7"> (5) Whether the act of the will is commanded?</p>
|
|
|
3398 <p id="FS_Q17-p8"> (6) Whether the act of the reason is commanded?</p>
|
|
|
3399 <p id="FS_Q17-p9"> (7) Whether the act of the sensitive appetite is commanded?</p>
|
|
|
3400 <p id="FS_Q17-p10"> (8) Whether the act of the vegetal soul is commanded?</p>
|
|
|
3401 <p id="FS_Q17-p11"> (9) Whether the acts of the external members are commanded?</p>
|
|
|
3402 <div id="FS_Q17_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
3403 <a href="summa.FS_Q17.html"></a>
|
|
|
3404 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3405 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A1-p0.1">Whether command is an act of the reason or of the will?</h4>
|
|
|
3406 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3407 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3408 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that command is not an act of the reason but of the will. For command is a kind of motion; because Avicenna
|
|
|
3409 says that there are four ways of moving, "by perfecting, by disposing, by commanding, and by counselling." But it belongs
|
|
|
3410 to the will to move all the other powers of the soul, as stated above (
|
|
|
3411 <a id="FS_Q17_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Therefore command is an act of the will.
|
|
|
3412 </p>
|
|
|
3413 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3414 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as to be commanded belongs to that which is subject, so, seemingly, to command belongs to that which is most
|
|
|
3415 free. But the root of liberty is especially in the will. Therefore to command belongs to the will.
|
|
|
3416 </p>
|
|
|
3417 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3418 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, command is followed at once by act. But the act of the reason is not followed at once by act: for he who judges
|
|
|
3419 that a thing should be done, does not do it at once. Therefore command is not an act of the reason, but of the will.
|
|
|
3420 </p>
|
|
|
3421 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3422 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xvi.] and the Philosopher (Ethic. i, 13) say that "the appetite obeys reason."
|
|
|
3423 Therefore command is an act of the reason.
|
|
|
3424 </p>
|
|
|
3425 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3426 <b>I answer that,</b> Command is an act of the reason presupposing, however, an act of the will. In proof of this, we must take note that, since
|
|
|
3427 the acts of the reason and of the will can be brought to bear on one another, in so far as the reason reasons about willing,
|
|
|
3428 and the will wills to reason, the result is that the act of the reason precedes the act of the will, and conversely. And since
|
|
|
3429 the power of the preceding act continues in the act that follows, it happens sometimes
|
|
|
3430 that there is an act of the will in so far as it retains in itself something of an act of the reason, as we have stated in
|
|
|
3431 reference to use and choice; and conversely, that there is an act of the reason in so far as it retains in itself something
|
|
|
3432 of an act of the will.
|
|
|
3433 </p>
|
|
|
3434 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p7"> Now, command is essentially indeed an act of the reason: for the commander orders the one commanded to do something, by way
|
|
|
3435 of intimation or declaration; and to order thus by intimating or declaring is an act of the reason. Now the reason can intimate
|
|
|
3436 or declare something in two ways. First, absolutely: and this intimation is expressed by a verb in the indicative mood, as
|
|
|
3437 when one person says to another: "This is what you should do." Sometimes, however, the reason intimates
|
|
|
3438 something to a man by moving him thereto; and this intimation is expressed by a verb in the imperative mood; as when it is
|
|
|
3439 said to someone: "Do this." Now the first mover, among the powers of the soul, to the doing of an act is the will, as stated
|
|
|
3440 above (
|
|
|
3441 <a id="FS_Q17_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Since therefore the second mover does not move, save in virtue of the first mover, it follows that the very fact that the
|
|
|
3442 reason moves by commanding, is due to the power of the will. Consequently it follows
|
|
|
3443 that command is an act of the reason, presupposing an act of the will, in virtue of which the reason, by its command, moves
|
|
|
3444 (the power) to the execution of the act.
|
|
|
3445 </p>
|
|
|
3446 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p8">
|
|
|
3447 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> To command is to move, not anyhow, but by intimating and declaring to another; and this is an act of the reason.
|
|
|
3448 </p>
|
|
|
3449 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p9">
|
|
|
3450 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The root of liberty is the will as the subject thereof; but it is the reason as its cause. For the will can tend freely towards
|
|
|
3451 various objects, precisely because the reason can have various perceptions of good. Hence philosophers define the free-will
|
|
|
3452 as being "a free judgment arising from reason," implying that reason is the root of liberty.
|
|
|
3453 </p>
|
|
|
3454 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p10">
|
|
|
3455 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This argument proves that command is an act of reason not absolutely, but with a kind of motion as stated above.
|
|
|
3456 </p>
|
|
|
3457 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3458 <p id="FS_Q17_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3459 <a href="summa.FS_Q17.html"></a>
|
|
|
3460 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3461 </div>
|
|
|
3462 <div id="FS_Q17_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
3463 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3464 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3465 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A2-p0.1">Whether command belongs to irrational animals?</h4>
|
|
|
3466 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3467 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p2">
|
|
|
3468 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that command belongs to irrational animals. Because, according to Avicenna, "the power that commands movement
|
|
|
3469 is the appetite; and the power that executes movement is in the muscles and nerves." But both powers are in irrational animals.
|
|
|
3470 Therefore command is to be found in irrational animals.
|
|
|
3471 </p>
|
|
|
3472 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p3">
|
|
|
3473 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the condition of a slave is that of one who receives commands. But the body is compared to the soul as a slave to
|
|
|
3474 his master, as the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 2). Therefore the body is commanded by the soul, even in irrational animals,
|
|
|
3475 since they are composed of soul and body.
|
|
|
3476 </p>
|
|
|
3477 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p4">
|
|
|
3478 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, by commanding, man has an impulse towards an action. But impulse to action is to be found in irrational animals,
|
|
|
3479 as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22). Therefore command is to be found in irrational animals.
|
|
|
3480 </p>
|
|
|
3481 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p5">
|
|
|
3482 <b>On the contrary,</b> Command is an act of reason, as stated above
|
|
|
3483 <a id="FS_Q17_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But in irrational animals there is no reason. Neither, therefore, is there command.
|
|
|
3484 </p>
|
|
|
3485 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p6">
|
|
|
3486 <b>I answer that,</b> To command is nothing else than to direct someone to do something, by a certain motion of intimation. Now to direct is the
|
|
|
3487 proper act of reason. Wherefore it is impossible that irrational animals should command in any way, since they are devoid
|
|
|
3488 of reason.
|
|
|
3489 </p>
|
|
|
3490 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p7">
|
|
|
3491 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The appetitive power is said to command movement, in so far as it moves the commanding reason. But this is only in man. In
|
|
|
3492 irrational animals the appetitive power is not, properly speaking, a commanding faculty, unless command be taken loosely for
|
|
|
3493 motion.
|
|
|
3494 </p>
|
|
|
3495 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p8">
|
|
|
3496 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The body of the irrational animal is competent to obey; but its soul is not competent to command, because it is not competent
|
|
|
3497 to direct. Consequently there is no ratio there of commander and commanded; but only of mover and moved.
|
|
|
3498 </p>
|
|
|
3499 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p9">
|
|
|
3500 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Impulse to action is in irrational animals otherwise than in man. For the impulse of man to action arises from the directing
|
|
|
3501 reason; wherefore his impulse is one of command. On the other hand, the impulse of the irrational animal arises from natural
|
|
|
3502 instinct; because as soon as they apprehend the fitting or the unfitting, their appetite is moved naturally to pursue or to
|
|
|
3503 avoid. Wherefore they are directed by another to act; and they themselves do not
|
|
|
3504 direct themselves to act. Consequently in them is impulse but not command.
|
|
|
3505 </p>
|
|
|
3506 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3507 <p id="FS_Q17_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3508 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
3509 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3510 </div>
|
|
|
3511 <div id="FS_Q17_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
3512 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3513 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3514 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A3-p0.1">Whether use precedes command?</h4>
|
|
|
3515 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3516 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p2">
|
|
|
3517 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that use precedes command. For command is an act of the reason presupposing an act of the will, as stated above
|
|
|
3518
|
|
|
3519 <a id="FS_Q17_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But, as we have already shown (Q[16], A[1]), use is an act of the will. Therefore use precedes command.
|
|
|
3520 </p>
|
|
|
3521 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p3">
|
|
|
3522 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, command is one of those things that are ordained to the end. But use is of those things that are ordained to the
|
|
|
3523 end. Therefore it seems that use precedes command.
|
|
|
3524 </p>
|
|
|
3525 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p4">
|
|
|
3526 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every act of a power moved by the will is called use; because the will uses the other powers, as stated above (Q[16],
|
|
|
3527 A[1]). But command is an act of the reason as moved by the will, as stated above
|
|
|
3528 <a id="FS_Q17_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore command is a kind of use. Now the common precedes the proper. Therefore use precedes command.
|
|
|
3529 </p>
|
|
|
3530 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p5">
|
|
|
3531 <b>On the contrary,</b> Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that impulse to action precedes use. But impulse to operation is given by command.
|
|
|
3532 Therefore command precedes use.
|
|
|
3533 </p>
|
|
|
3534 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p6">
|
|
|
3535 <b>I answer that,</b> use of that which is directed to the end, in so far as it is in the reason referring this to the end, precedes choice, as
|
|
|
3536 stated above (
|
|
|
3537 <a id="FS_Q17_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q16_A4.html">Q[16], A[4]</a>). Wherefore still more does it precede command. On the other hand, use of that which is directed to the end, in so far as
|
|
|
3538 it is subject to the executive power, follows command; because use in the user is united to the act of the thing used; for
|
|
|
3539 one does not use a stick before doing
|
|
|
3540 something with the stick. But command is not simultaneous with the act of the thing to which the command is given: for it
|
|
|
3541 naturally precedes its fulfilment, sometimes, indeed, by priority of time. Consequently it is evident that command precedes
|
|
|
3542 use.
|
|
|
3543 </p>
|
|
|
3544 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p7">
|
|
|
3545 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Not every act of the will precedes this act of the reason which is command; but an act of the will precedes, viz. choice;
|
|
|
3546 and an act of the will follows, viz. use. Because after counsel's decision, which is reason's judgment, the will chooses;
|
|
|
3547 and after choice, the reason commands that power which has to do what was chosen; and then, last of all, someone's will begins
|
|
|
3548 to use, by executing the command of reason; sometimes it is another's will, when one
|
|
|
3549 commands another; sometimes the will of the one that commands, when he commands himself to do something.
|
|
|
3550 </p>
|
|
|
3551 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p8">
|
|
|
3552 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as act ranks before power, so does the object rank before the act. Now the object of use is that which is directed to
|
|
|
3553 the end. Consequently, from the fact that command precedes, rather than that it follows use.
|
|
|
3554 </p>
|
|
|
3555 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p9">
|
|
|
3556 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as the act of the will in using the reason for the purpose of command, precedes the command; so also we may say that
|
|
|
3557 this act whereby the will uses the reason, is preceded by a command of reason; since the acts of these powers react on one
|
|
|
3558 another.
|
|
|
3559 </p>
|
|
|
3560 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3561 <p id="FS_Q17_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3562 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
3563 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3564 </div>
|
|
|
3565 <div id="FS_Q17_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
3566 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3567 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
3568 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A4-p0.1">Whether command and the commanded act are one act, or distinct?</h4>
|
|
|
3569 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3570 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p2">
|
|
|
3571 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the commanded act is not one with the command itself. For the acts of different powers are themselves
|
|
|
3572 distinct. But the commanded act belongs to one power, and the command to another; since one is the power that commands, and
|
|
|
3573 the other is the power that receives the command. Therefore the commanded act is not one with the command.
|
|
|
3574 </p>
|
|
|
3575 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p3">
|
|
|
3576 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, whatever things can be separate from one another, are distinct: for nothing is severed from itself. But sometimes
|
|
|
3577 the commanded act is separate from the command: for sometimes the command is given, and the commanded act follows not. Therefore
|
|
|
3578 command is a distinct act from the act commanded.
|
|
|
3579 </p>
|
|
|
3580 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p4">
|
|
|
3581 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, whatever things are related to one another as precedent and consequent, are distinct. But command naturally precedes
|
|
|
3582 the commanded act. Therefore they are distinct.
|
|
|
3583 </p>
|
|
|
3584 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p5">
|
|
|
3585 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (Topic. iii, 2) that "where one thing is by reason of another, there is but one." But there is no commanded
|
|
|
3586 act unless by reason of the command. Therefore they are one.
|
|
|
3587 </p>
|
|
|
3588 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p6">
|
|
|
3589 <b>I answer that,</b> Nothing prevents certain things being distinct in one respect, and one in another respect. Indeed, every multitude is one
|
|
|
3590 in some respect, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. xiii). But a difference is to be observed in this, that some are simply many,
|
|
|
3591 and one in a particular aspect: while with others it is the reverse. Now "one" is predicated in the same way as "being." And
|
|
|
3592 substance is being simply, whereas accident or being "of reason" is a being only in a
|
|
|
3593 certain respect. Wherefore those things that are one in substance are one simply, though many in a certain respect. Thus,
|
|
|
3594 in the genus substance, the whole composed of its integral or essential parts, is one simply: because the whole is being and
|
|
|
3595 substance simply, and the parts are being and substances in the whole. But those things which are distinct in substance, and
|
|
|
3596 one according to an accident, are distinct simply, and one in a certain respect: thus many men are one people, and many stones
|
|
|
3597 are one heap; which is unity of composition or order. In like manner also many individuals that are one in genus or species
|
|
|
3598 are many simply, and one in a certain respect: since to be one in genus or species is to be one according to the consideration
|
|
|
3599 of the reason.
|
|
|
3600 </p>
|
|
|
3601 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p7"> Now just as in the genus of natural things, a whole is composed of matter and form (e.g. man, who is one natural being, though
|
|
|
3602 he has many parts, is composed of soul and body); so, in human acts, the act of a lower power is in the position of matter
|
|
|
3603 in regard to the act of a higher power, in so far as the lower power acts in virtue of the higher power moving it: for thus
|
|
|
3604 also the act of the first mover is as the form in regard to the act of its instrument. Hence it is evident
|
|
|
3605 that command and the commanded act are one human act, just as a whole is one, yet in its parts, many.
|
|
|
3606 </p>
|
|
|
3607 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p8">
|
|
|
3608 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If the distinct powers are not ordained to one another, their acts are diverse simply. But when one power is the mover of
|
|
|
3609 the other, then their acts are, in a way, one: since "the act of the mover and the act of the thing moved are one act" (Phys.
|
|
|
3610 iii, 3).
|
|
|
3611 </p>
|
|
|
3612 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p9">
|
|
|
3613 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The fact that command and the commanded act can be separated from one another shows that they are different parts. Because
|
|
|
3614 the parts of a man can be separated from one another, and yet they form one whole.
|
|
|
3615 </p>
|
|
|
3616 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p10">
|
|
|
3617 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> In those things that are many in parts, but one as a whole, nothing hinders one part from preceding another. Thus the soul,
|
|
|
3618 in a way, precedes the body; and the heart, the other members.
|
|
|
3619 </p>
|
|
|
3620 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3621 <p id="FS_Q17_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3622 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
3623 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
3624 </div>
|
|
|
3625 <div id="FS_Q17_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
3626 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3627 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3628 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A5-p0.1">Whether the act of the will is commanded?</h4>
|
|
|
3629 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3630 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p2">
|
|
|
3631 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the act of the will is not commanded. For Augustine says (Confess. viii, 9): "The mind commands the mind
|
|
|
3632 to will, and yet it does not." But to will is the act of the will. Therefore the act of the will is not commanded.
|
|
|
3633 </p>
|
|
|
3634 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p3">
|
|
|
3635 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to receive a command belongs to one who can understand the command. But the will cannot understand the command;
|
|
|
3636 for the will differs from the intellect, to which it belongs to understand. Therefore the act of the will is not commanded.
|
|
|
3637 </p>
|
|
|
3638 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p4">
|
|
|
3639 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if one act of the will is commanded, for the same reason all are commanded. But if all the acts of the will are
|
|
|
3640 commanded, we must needs proceed to infinity; because the act of the will precedes the act of reason commanding, as stated
|
|
|
3641 above
|
|
|
3642 <a id="FS_Q17_A5-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>; for if that act of the will be also commanded, this command will be precedes by another act of the reason, and so on to
|
|
|
3643 infinity. But to proceed to infinity is not possible.
|
|
|
3644 Therefore the act of the will is not commanded.
|
|
|
3645 </p>
|
|
|
3646 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p5">
|
|
|
3647 <b>On the contrary,</b> Whatever is in our power, is subject to our command. But the acts of the will, most of all, are in our power; since all our
|
|
|
3648 acts are said to be in our power, in so far as they are voluntary. Therefore the acts of the will are commanded by us.
|
|
|
3649 </p>
|
|
|
3650 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p6">
|
|
|
3651 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
3652 <a id="FS_Q17_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, command is nothing else than the act of the reason directing, with a certain motion, something to act. Now it is evident
|
|
|
3653 that the reason can direct the act of the will: for just as it can judge it to be good to will something, so it can direct
|
|
|
3654 by commanding man to will. From this it is evident that an act of the will can be commanded.
|
|
|
3655 </p>
|
|
|
3656 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p7">
|
|
|
3657 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Augustine says (Confess. viii, 9) when the mind commands itself perfectly to will, then already it wills: but that sometimes
|
|
|
3658 it commands and wills not, is due to the fact that it commands imperfectly. Now imperfect command arises from the fact that
|
|
|
3659 the reason is moved by opposite motives to command or not to command: wherefore it fluctuates between the two, and fails to
|
|
|
3660 command perfectly.
|
|
|
3661 </p>
|
|
|
3662 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p8">
|
|
|
3663 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Just as each of the members of the body works not for itself alone but for the whole body; thus it is for the whole body
|
|
|
3664 that the eye sees; so is it with the powers of the soul. For the intellect understands, not for itself alone, but for all
|
|
|
3665 the powers; and the will wills not only for itself, but for all the powers too. Wherefore man, in so far as he is endowed
|
|
|
3666 with intellect and will, commands the act of the will for himself.
|
|
|
3667 </p>
|
|
|
3668 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p9">
|
|
|
3669 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since command is an act of reason, that act is commanded which is subject to reason. Now the first act of the will is not
|
|
|
3670 due to the direction of the reason but to the instigation of nature, or of a higher cause, as stated above (
|
|
|
3671 <a id="FS_Q17_A5-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A4.html">Q[9], A[4]</a>). Therefore there is no need to proceed to infinity.
|
|
|
3672 </p>
|
|
|
3673 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3674 <p id="FS_Q17_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3675 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
3676 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3677 </div>
|
|
|
3678 <div id="FS_Q17_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
3679 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
3680 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3681 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A6-p0.1">Whether the act of the reason is commanded?</h4>
|
|
|
3682 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3683 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p2">
|
|
|
3684 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the act of the reason cannot be commanded. For it seems impossible for a thing to command itself. But
|
|
|
3685 it is the reason that commands, as stated above
|
|
|
3686 <a id="FS_Q17_A6-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore the act of the reason is not commanded.
|
|
|
3687 </p>
|
|
|
3688 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p3">
|
|
|
3689 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is essential is different from that which is by participation. But the power whose act is commanded by
|
|
|
3690 reason, is rational by participation, as stated in Ethic. i, 13. Therefore the act of that power, which is essentially rational,
|
|
|
3691 is not commanded.
|
|
|
3692 </p>
|
|
|
3693 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p4">
|
|
|
3694 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that act is commanded, which is in our power. But to know and judge the truth, which is the act of reason, is not
|
|
|
3695 always in our power. Therefore the act of the reason cannot be commanded.
|
|
|
3696 </p>
|
|
|
3697 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p5">
|
|
|
3698 <b>On the contrary,</b> That which we do of our free-will, can be done by our command. But the acts of the reason are accomplished through the free-will:
|
|
|
3699 for Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 22) that "by his free-will man inquires, considers, judges, approves." Therefore the
|
|
|
3700 acts of the reason can be commanded.
|
|
|
3701 </p>
|
|
|
3702 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p6">
|
|
|
3703 <b>I answer that,</b> Since the reason reacts on itself, just as it directs the acts of other powers, so can it direct its own act. Consequently
|
|
|
3704 its act can be commanded.
|
|
|
3705 </p>
|
|
|
3706 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p7"> But we must take note that the act of the reason may be considered in two ways. First, as to the exercise of the act. And
|
|
|
3707 considered thus, the act of the reason can always be commanded: as when one is told to be attentive, and to use one's reason.
|
|
|
3708 Secondly, as to the object; in respect of which two acts of the reason have to be noticed. One is the act whereby it apprehends
|
|
|
3709 the truth about something. This act is not in our power: because it happens in virtue of a natural or
|
|
|
3710 supernatural light. Consequently in this respect, the act of the reason is not in our power, and cannot be commanded. The
|
|
|
3711 other act of the reason is that whereby it assents to what it apprehends. If, therefore, that which the reason apprehends
|
|
|
3712 is such that it naturally assents thereto, e.g. the first principles, it is not in our power to assent or dissent to the like:
|
|
|
3713 assent follows naturally, and consequently, properly speaking, is not subject to our command. But some things which are
|
|
|
3714 apprehended do not convince the intellect to such an extent as not to leave it free to assent or dissent, or at least suspend
|
|
|
3715 its assent or dissent, on account of some cause or other; and in such things assent or dissent is in our power, and is subject
|
|
|
3716 to our command.
|
|
|
3717 </p>
|
|
|
3718 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p8">
|
|
|
3719 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Reason commands itself, just as the will moves itself, as stated above (
|
|
|
3720 <a id="FS_Q17_A6-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A3.html">Q[9], A[3]</a>), that is to say, in so far as each power reacts on its own acts, and from one thing tends to another.
|
|
|
3721 </p>
|
|
|
3722 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p9">
|
|
|
3723 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> On account of the diversity of objects subject to the act of the reason, nothing prevents the reason from participating in
|
|
|
3724 itself: thus the knowledge of principles is participated in the knowledge of the conclusions.
|
|
|
3725 </p>
|
|
|
3726 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p10"> The reply to the third object is evident from what has been said.</p>
|
|
|
3727 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3728 <p id="FS_Q17_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3729 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
3730 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3731 </div>
|
|
|
3732 <div id="FS_Q17_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
3733 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3734 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3735 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A7-p0.1">Whether the act of the sensitive appetite is commanded?</h4>
|
|
|
3736 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3737 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p2">
|
|
|
3738 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the act of the sensitive appetite is not commanded. For the Apostle says (
|
|
|
3739 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q17_A7-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.15" target="asv">Rom. 7:15</a>): "For I do not that good which I will": and a gloss explains this by saying that man lusts, although he wills not to lust.
|
|
|
3740 But to lust is an act of the sensitive appetite. Therefore the act of the sensitive appetite is not subject to our command.
|
|
|
3741 </p>
|
|
|
3742 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p3">
|
|
|
3743 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, corporeal matter obeys God alone, to the effect of formal transmutation, as was shown in the
|
|
|
3744 <a id="FS_Q17_A7-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q65_A4.html">FP, Q[65], A[4]</a>;
|
|
|
3745 <a id="FS_Q17_A7-p3.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q91_A2.html">FP, Q[91], A[2]</a>;
|
|
|
3746 <a id="FS_Q17_A7-p3.3" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q110_A2.html">FP, Q[110], A[2]</a>. But the act of the sensitive appetite is accompanied by a formal transmutation of the body, consisting in heat or cold.
|
|
|
3747 Therefore the act of the sensitive appetite is not subject to man's command.
|
|
|
3748 </p>
|
|
|
3749 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p4">
|
|
|
3750 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the proper motive principle of the sensitive appetite is something apprehended by sense or imagination. But it is
|
|
|
3751 not always in our power to apprehend something by sense or imagination. Therefore the act of the sensitive appetite is not
|
|
|
3752 subject to our command.
|
|
|
3753 </p>
|
|
|
3754 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p5">
|
|
|
3755 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xvi.] says: "That which obeys reason is twofold, the concupiscible and the irascible,"
|
|
|
3756 which belong to the sensitive appetite. Therefore the act of the sensitive appetite is subject to the command of reason.
|
|
|
3757 </p>
|
|
|
3758 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p6">
|
|
|
3759 <b>I answer that,</b> An act is subject to our command, in so far as it is in our power, as stated above
|
|
|
3760 <a id="FS_Q17_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A5.html">(A[5])</a>. Consequently in order to understand in what manner the act of the sensitive appetite is subject to the command of reason,
|
|
|
3761 we must consider in what manner it is in our power. Now it must be observed that the sensitive appetite differs from the intellective
|
|
|
3762 appetite, which is called the will, in the fact that the sensitive appetite is a power of
|
|
|
3763 a corporeal organ, whereas the will is not. Again, every act of a power that uses a corporeal organ, depends not only on a
|
|
|
3764 power of the soul, but also on the disposition of that corporeal organ: thus the act of vision depends on the power of sight,
|
|
|
3765 and on the condition of the eye, which condition is a help or a hindrance to that act. Consequently the act of the sensitive
|
|
|
3766 appetite depends not only on the appetitive power, but also on the disposition of the body.
|
|
|
3767 </p>
|
|
|
3768 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p7"> Now whatever part the power of the soul takes in the act, follows apprehension. And the apprehension of the imagination,
|
|
|
3769 being a particular apprehension, is regulated by the apprehension of reason, which is universal; just as a particular active
|
|
|
3770 power is regulated by a universal active power. Consequently in this respect the act of the sensitive appetite is subject
|
|
|
3771 to the command of reason. On the other hand, condition or disposition of the body is not subject to the command of
|
|
|
3772 reason: and consequently in this respect, the movement of the sensitive appetite is hindered from being wholly subject to
|
|
|
3773 the command of reason.
|
|
|
3774 </p>
|
|
|
3775 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p8"> Moreover it happens sometimes that the movement of the sensitive appetite is aroused suddenly in consequence of an apprehension
|
|
|
3776 of the imagination of sense. And then such movement occurs without the command of reason: although reason could have prevented
|
|
|
3777 it, had it foreseen. Hence the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 2) that the reason governs the irascible and concupiscible not
|
|
|
3778 by a "despotic supremacy," which is that of a master over his slave; but by a "politic and royal
|
|
|
3779 supremacy," whereby the free are governed, who are not wholly subject to command.
|
|
|
3780 </p>
|
|
|
3781 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p9">
|
|
|
3782 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> That man lusts, although he wills not to lust, is due to a disposition of the body, whereby the sensitive appetite is hindered
|
|
|
3783 from perfect compliance with the command of reason. Hence the Apostle adds (
|
|
|
3784 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q17_A7-p9.1" href="./asv.html#Rom.7.15" target="asv">Rom. 7:15</a>): "I see another law in my members, fighting against the law of my mind." This may also happen through a sudden movement
|
|
|
3785 of concupiscence, as stated above.
|
|
|
3786 </p>
|
|
|
3787 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p10">
|
|
|
3788 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The condition of the body stands in a twofold relation to the act of the sensitive appetite. First, as preceding it: thus
|
|
|
3789 a man may be disposed in one way or another, in respect of his body, to this or that passion. Secondly, as consequent to it:
|
|
|
3790 thus a man becomes heated through anger. Now the condition that precedes, is not subject to the command of reason: since it
|
|
|
3791 is due either to nature, or to some previous movement, which cannot cease at once.
|
|
|
3792 But the condition that is consequent, follows the command of reason: since it results from the local movement of the heart,
|
|
|
3793 which has various movements according to the various acts of the sensitive appetite.
|
|
|
3794 </p>
|
|
|
3795 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p11">
|
|
|
3796 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since the external sensible is necessary for the apprehension of the senses, it is not in our power to apprehend anything
|
|
|
3797 by the senses, unless the sensible be present; which presence of the sensible is not always in our power. For it is then that
|
|
|
3798 man can use his senses if he will so to do; unless there be some obstacle on the part of the organ. On the other hand, the
|
|
|
3799 apprehension of the imagination is subject to the ordering of reason, in proportion
|
|
|
3800 to the strength or weakness of the imaginative power. For that man is unable to imagine the things that reason considers,
|
|
|
3801 is either because they cannot be imagined, such as incorporeal things; or because of the weakness of the imaginative power,
|
|
|
3802 due to some organic indisposition.
|
|
|
3803 </p>
|
|
|
3804 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
3805 <p id="FS_Q17_A7-p13"></p>
|
|
|
3806 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
3807 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3808 </div>
|
|
|
3809 <div id="FS_Q17_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
3810 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3811 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3812 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A8-p0.1">Whether the act of the vegetal soul is commanded?</h4>
|
|
|
3813 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3814 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p2">
|
|
|
3815 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the acts of the vegetal soul are subject to the command of reason. For the sensitive powers are of higher
|
|
|
3816 rank than the vegetal powers. But the powers of the sensitive soul are subject to the command of reason. Much more, therefore,
|
|
|
3817 are the powers of the vegetal soul.
|
|
|
3818 </p>
|
|
|
3819 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p3">
|
|
|
3820 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, man is called a "little world" [*Aristotle, Phys. viii. 2], because the soul is in the body, as God is in the world.
|
|
|
3821 But God is in the world in such a way, that everything in the world obeys His command. Therefore all that is in man, even
|
|
|
3822 the powers of the vegetal soul, obey the command of reason.
|
|
|
3823 </p>
|
|
|
3824 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p4">
|
|
|
3825 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, praise and blame are awarded only to such acts as are subject to the command of reason. But in the acts of the nutritive
|
|
|
3826 and generative power, there is room for praise and blame, virtue and vice: as in the case of gluttony and lust, and their
|
|
|
3827 contrary virtues. Therefore the acts of these powers are subject to the command of reason.
|
|
|
3828 </p>
|
|
|
3829 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p5">
|
|
|
3830 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxii.] sats that "the nutritive and generative power is one over which the reason
|
|
|
3831 has no control."
|
|
|
3832 </p>
|
|
|
3833 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p6">
|
|
|
3834 <b>I answer that,</b> Some acts proceed from the natural appetite, others from the animal, or from the intellectual appetite: for every agent desires
|
|
|
3835 an end in some way. Now the natural appetite does not follow from some apprehension, as to the animal and the intellectual
|
|
|
3836 appetite. But the reason commands by way of apprehensive power. Wherefore those acts that proceed from the intellective or
|
|
|
3837 the animal appetite, can be commanded by reason: but not those acts that proceed from
|
|
|
3838 the natural appetite. And such are the acts of the vegetal soul; wherefore Gregory of Nyssa (Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxii)
|
|
|
3839 says "that generation and nutrition belong to what are called natural powers." Consequently the acts of the vegetal soul are
|
|
|
3840 not subject to the command of reason.
|
|
|
3841 </p>
|
|
|
3842 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p7">
|
|
|
3843 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The more immaterial an act is, the more noble it is, and the more is it subject to the command of reason. Hence the very
|
|
|
3844 fact that the acts of the vegetal soul do not obey reason, shows that they rank lowest.
|
|
|
3845 </p>
|
|
|
3846 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p8">
|
|
|
3847 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The comparison holds in a certain respect: because, to wit, as God moves the world, so the soul moves the body. But it does
|
|
|
3848 not hold in every respect: for the soul did not create the body out of nothing, as God created the world; for which reason
|
|
|
3849 the world is wholly subject to His command.
|
|
|
3850 </p>
|
|
|
3851 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p9">
|
|
|
3852 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Virtue and vice, praise and blame do not affect the acts themselves of the nutritive and generative power, i.e. digestion,
|
|
|
3853 and formation of the human body; but they affect the acts of the sensitive part, that are ordained to the acts of generation
|
|
|
3854 and nutrition; for example the desire for pleasure in the act of taking food or in the act of generation, and the right or
|
|
|
3855 wrong use thereof.
|
|
|
3856 </p>
|
|
|
3857 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p10"></p>
|
|
|
3858 <p id="FS_Q17_A8-p11"></p>
|
|
|
3859 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
3860 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
3861 </div>
|
|
|
3862 <div id="FS_Q17_A9" class="div4">
|
|
|
3863 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
3864 <a href="summa.FS_Q18.html"></a>
|
|
|
3865 <h4 id="FS_Q17_A9-p0.1">Whether the acts of the external members are commanded?</h4>
|
|
|
3866 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3867 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p2">
|
|
|
3868 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the members of the body do not obey reason as to their acts. For it is evident that the members of the
|
|
|
3869 body are more distant from the reason, than the powers of the vegetal soul. But the powers of the vegetal soul do not obey
|
|
|
3870 reason, as stated above
|
|
|
3871 <a id="FS_Q17_A9-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A8.html">(A[8])</a>. Therefore much less do the members of the body obey.
|
|
|
3872 </p>
|
|
|
3873 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p3">
|
|
|
3874 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the heart is the principle of animal movement. But the movement of the heart is not subject to the command of reason:
|
|
|
3875 for Gregory of Nyssa [*Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxii.] says that "the pulse is not controlled by reason." Therefore the movement
|
|
|
3876 of the bodily members is not subject to the command of reason.
|
|
|
3877 </p>
|
|
|
3878 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p4">
|
|
|
3879 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 16) that "the movement of the genital members is sometimes inopportune and not
|
|
|
3880 desired; sometimes when sought it fails, and whereas the heart is warm with desire, the body remains cold." Therefore the
|
|
|
3881 movements of the members are not obedient to reason.
|
|
|
3882 </p>
|
|
|
3883 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p5">
|
|
|
3884 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Confess. viii, 9): "The mind commands a movement of the hand, and so ready is the hand to obey, that scarcely
|
|
|
3885 can one discern obedience from command."
|
|
|
3886 </p>
|
|
|
3887 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p6">
|
|
|
3888 <b>I answer that,</b> The members of the body are organs of the soul's powers. Consequently according as the powers of the soul stand in respect
|
|
|
3889 of obedience to reason, so do the members of the body stand in respect thereof. Since then the sensitive powers are subject
|
|
|
3890 to the command of reason, whereas the natural powers are not; therefore all movements of members, that are moved by the sensitive
|
|
|
3891 powers, are subject to the command of reason; whereas those movements of members,
|
|
|
3892 that arise from the natural powers, are not subject to the command of reason.
|
|
|
3893 </p>
|
|
|
3894 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p7">
|
|
|
3895 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The members do not move themselves, but are moved through the powers of the soul; of which powers, some are in closer contact
|
|
|
3896 with the reason than are the powers of the vegetal soul.
|
|
|
3897 </p>
|
|
|
3898 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p8">
|
|
|
3899 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> In things pertaining to intellect and will, that which is according to nature stands first, whence all other things are derived:
|
|
|
3900 thus from the knowledge of principles that are naturally known, is derived knowledge of the conclusions; and from volition
|
|
|
3901 of the end naturally desired, is derived the choice of the means. So also in bodily movements the principle is according to
|
|
|
3902 nature. Now the principle of bodily movements begins with the movement of the
|
|
|
3903 heart. Consequently the movement of the heart is according to nature, and not according to the will: for like a proper accident,
|
|
|
3904 it results from life, which follows from the union of soul and body. Thus the movement of heavy and light things results from
|
|
|
3905 their substantial form: for which reason they are said to be moved by their generator, as the Philosopher states (Phys. viii,
|
|
|
3906 4). Wherefore this movement is called "vital." For which reason Gregory of Nyssa (Nemesius, De Nat. Hom. xxii) says
|
|
|
3907 that, just as the movement of generation and nutrition does not obey reason, so neither does the pulse which is a vital movement.
|
|
|
3908 By the pulse he means the movement of the heart which is indicated by the pulse veins.
|
|
|
3909 </p>
|
|
|
3910 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p9">
|
|
|
3911 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv, 17,20) it is in punishment of sin that the movement of these members does not obey reason:
|
|
|
3912 in this sense, that the soul is punished for its rebellion against God, by the insubmission of that member whereby original
|
|
|
3913 sin is transmitted to posterity.
|
|
|
3914 </p>
|
|
|
3915 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p10"> But because, as we shall state later on, the effect of the sin of our first parent was that his nature was left to itself,
|
|
|
3916 through the withdrawal of the supernatural gift which God had bestowed on man, we must consider the natural cause of this
|
|
|
3917 particular member's insubmission to reason. This is stated by Aristotle (De Causis Mot. Animal.) who says that "the movements
|
|
|
3918 of the heart and of the organs of generation are involuntary," and that the reason of this is as follows. These
|
|
|
3919 members are stirred at the occasion of some apprehension; in so far as the intellect and imagination represent such things
|
|
|
3920 as arouse the passions of the soul, of which passions these movements are a consequence. But they are not moved at the command
|
|
|
3921 of the reason or intellect, because these movements are conditioned by a certain natural change of heat and cold, which change
|
|
|
3922 is not subject to the command of reason. This is the case with these two organs in particular, because each is as it were
|
|
|
3923 a separate animal being, in so far as it is a principle of life; and the principle is virtually the whole. For the heart is
|
|
|
3924 the principle of the senses; and from the organ of generation proceeds the seminal virtue, which is virtually the entire animal.
|
|
|
3925 Consequently they have their proper movements naturally: because principles must needs be natural, as stated above (Reply
|
|
|
3926 OBJ 2).
|
|
|
3927 </p>
|
|
|
3928 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p11"></p>
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|
3929 <p id="FS_Q17_A9-p12"></p>
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|
3930 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A8.html"></a>
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3931 <a href="summa.FS_Q18.html"></a>
|
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|
3932 </div>
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3933 <a href="summa.FS_Q16_A4.html"></a>
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3934 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A1.html"></a>
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3935 </div>
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3936 <div id="FS_Q18" class="div3">
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3937 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A9.html"></a>
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3938 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
3939 <h3 id="FS_Q18-p0.1">OF THE GOOD AND EVIL OF HUMAN ACTS, IN GENERAL (ELEVEN ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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3940 <p id="FS_Q18-p1"></p>
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|
3941 <p id="FS_Q18-p2"> We must now consider the good and evil of human acts. First, how a human act is good or evil; secondly, what results from
|
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|
3942 the good or evil of a human act, as merit or demerit, sin and guilt.
|
|
|
3943 </p>
|
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|
3944 <p id="FS_Q18-p3"> Under the first head there will be a threefold consideration: the first will be of the good and evil of human acts, in general;
|
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|
3945 the second, of the good and evil of internal acts; the third, of the good and evil of external acts.
|
|
|
3946 </p>
|
|
|
3947 <p id="FS_Q18-p4"> Concerning the first there are eleven points of inquiry:</p>
|
|
|
3948 <p id="FS_Q18-p5"> (1) Whether every human action is good, or are there evil actions?</p>
|
|
|
3949 <p id="FS_Q18-p6"> (2) Whether the good or evil of a human action is derived from its object?</p>
|
|
|
3950 <p id="FS_Q18-p7"> (3) Whether it is derived from a circumstance?</p>
|
|
|
3951 <p id="FS_Q18-p8"> (4) Whether it is derived from the end?</p>
|
|
|
3952 <p id="FS_Q18-p9"> (5) Whether a human action is good or evil in its species?</p>
|
|
|
3953 <p id="FS_Q18-p10"> (6) Whether an action has the species of good or evil from its end?</p>
|
|
|
3954 <p id="FS_Q18-p11"> (7) Whether the species derived from the end is contained under the species derived from the object, as under its genus,
|
|
|
3955 or conversely?
|
|
|
3956 </p>
|
|
|
3957 <p id="FS_Q18-p12"> (8) Whether any action is indifferent in its species?</p>
|
|
|
3958 <p id="FS_Q18-p13"> (9) Whether an individual action can be indifferent?</p>
|
|
|
3959 <p id="FS_Q18-p14"> (10) Whether a circumstance places a moral action in the species of good or evil?</p>
|
|
|
3960 <p id="FS_Q18-p15"> (11) Whether every circumstance that makes an action better or worse, places the moral action in the species of good or evil?</p>
|
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|
3961 <div id="FS_Q18_A1" class="div4">
|
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|
3962 <a href="summa.FS_Q18.html"></a>
|
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|
3963 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
3964 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A1-p0.1">Whether every human action is good, or are there evil actions?</h4>
|
|
|
3965 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
3966 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p2">
|
|
|
3967 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that every human action is good, and that none is evil. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that evil acts not,
|
|
|
3968 save in virtue of the good. But no evil is done in virtue of the good. Therefore no action is evil.
|
|
|
3969 </p>
|
|
|
3970 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p3">
|
|
|
3971 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, nothing acts except in so far as it is in act. Now a thing is evil, not according as it is in act, but according
|
|
|
3972 as its potentiality is void of act; whereas in so far as its potentiality is perfected by act, it is good, as stated in Metaph.
|
|
|
3973 ix, 9. Therefore nothing acts in so far as it is evil, but only according as it is good. Therefore every action is good, and
|
|
|
3974 none is evil.
|
|
|
3975 </p>
|
|
|
3976 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p4">
|
|
|
3977 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, evil cannot be a cause, save accidentally, as Dionysius declares (Div. Nom. iv). But every action has some effect
|
|
|
3978 which is proper to it. Therefore no action is evil, but every action is good.
|
|
|
3979 </p>
|
|
|
3980 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p5">
|
|
|
3981 <b>On the contrary,</b> Our Lord said (
|
|
|
3982 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q18_A1-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.3.20" target="asv">Jn. 3:20</a>): "Every one that doth evil, hateth the light." Therefore some actions of man are evil.
|
|
|
3983 </p>
|
|
|
3984 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p6">
|
|
|
3985 <b>I answer that,</b> We must speak of good and evil in actions as of good and evil in things: because such as everything is, such is the act that
|
|
|
3986 it produces. Now in things, each one has so much good as it has being: since good and being are convertible, as was stated
|
|
|
3987 in the
|
|
|
3988 <a id="FS_Q18_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q5_A1.html">FP, Q[5], AA[1]</a>,3. But God alone has the whole plenitude of His Being in a certain unity: whereas every other thing has its proper fulness
|
|
|
3989 of being in a certain multiplicity.
|
|
|
3990 Wherefore it happens with some things, that they have being in some respect, and yet they are lacking in the fulness of being
|
|
|
3991 due to them. Thus the fulness of human being requires a compound of soul and body, having all the powers and instruments of
|
|
|
3992 knowledge and movement: wherefore if any man be lacking in any of these, he is lacking in something due to the fulness of
|
|
|
3993 his being. So that as much as he has of being, so much has he of goodness: while so far as he is lacking in goodness, and
|
|
|
3994 is
|
|
|
3995 said to be evil: thus a blind man is possessed of goodness inasmuch as he lives; and of evil, inasmuch as he lacks sight.
|
|
|
3996 That, however, which has nothing of being or goodness, could not be said to be either evil or good. But since this same fulness
|
|
|
3997 of being is of the very essence of good, if a thing be lacking in its due fulness of being, it is not said to be good simply,
|
|
|
3998 but in a certain respect, inasmuch as it is a being; although it can be called a being simply, and a non-being in a certain
|
|
|
3999 respect, as was stated in the
|
|
|
4000 <a id="FS_Q18_A1-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q5_A1.html">FP, Q[5], A[1]</a>, ad 1. We must therefore say that every action has goodness, in so far as it has being; whereas it is lacking in goodness,
|
|
|
4001 in so far as it is lacking in something that is due to its fulness of being; and thus it is said to be evil: for instance
|
|
|
4002 if it lacks the quantity determined by reason, or its due place, or something of the kind.
|
|
|
4003 </p>
|
|
|
4004 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p7">
|
|
|
4005 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Evil acts in virtue of deficient goodness. For it there were nothing of good there, there would be neither being nor possibility
|
|
|
4006 of action. On the other hand if good were not deficient, there would be no evil. Consequently the action done is a deficient
|
|
|
4007 good, which is good in a certain respect, but simply evil.
|
|
|
4008 </p>
|
|
|
4009 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p8">
|
|
|
4010 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Nothing hinders a thing from being in act in a certain respect, so that it can act; and in a certain respect deficient in
|
|
|
4011 act, so as to cause a deficient act. Thus a blind man has in act the power of walking, whereby he is able to walk; but inasmuch
|
|
|
4012 as he is deprived of sight he suffers a defect in walking by stumbling when he walks.
|
|
|
4013 </p>
|
|
|
4014 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p9">
|
|
|
4015 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> An evil action can have a proper effect, according to the goodness and being that it has. Thus adultery is the cause of human
|
|
|
4016 generation, inasmuch as it implies union of male and female, but not inasmuch as it lacks the order of reason.
|
|
|
4017 </p>
|
|
|
4018 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4019 <p id="FS_Q18_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4020 <a href="summa.FS_Q18.html"></a>
|
|
|
4021 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4022 </div>
|
|
|
4023 <div id="FS_Q18_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
4024 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4025 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4026 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A2-p0.1">Whether the good or evil of a man's action is derived from its object?</h4>
|
|
|
4027 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4028 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p2">
|
|
|
4029 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the good or evil of an action is not derived from its object. For the object of any action is a thing.
|
|
|
4030 But "evil is not in things, but in the sinner's use of them," as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12). Therefore the
|
|
|
4031 good or evil of a human action is not derived from their object.
|
|
|
4032 </p>
|
|
|
4033 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p3">
|
|
|
4034 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the object is compared to the action as its matter. But the goodness of a thing is not from its matter, but rather
|
|
|
4035 from the form, which is an act. Therefore good and evil in actions is not derived from their object.
|
|
|
4036 </p>
|
|
|
4037 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p4">
|
|
|
4038 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the object of an active power is compared to the action as effect to cause. But the goodness of a cause does not
|
|
|
4039 depend on its effect; rather is it the reverse. Therefore good or evil in actions is not derived from their object.
|
|
|
4040 </p>
|
|
|
4041 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p5">
|
|
|
4042 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
4043 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q18_A2-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Hos.9.10" target="asv">Osee 9:10</a>): "They became abominable as those things which they loved." Now man becomes abominable to God on account of the malice of
|
|
|
4044 his action. Therefore the malice of his action is according to the evil objects that man loves. And the same applies to the
|
|
|
4045 goodness of his action.
|
|
|
4046 </p>
|
|
|
4047 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p6">
|
|
|
4048 <b>I answer that,</b> as stated above
|
|
|
4049 <a id="FS_Q18_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html">(A[1])</a> the good or evil of an action, as of other things, depends on its fulness of being or its lack of that fulness. Now the first
|
|
|
4050 thing that belongs to the fulness of being seems to be that which gives a thing its species. And just as a natural thing has
|
|
|
4051 its species from its form, so an action has its species from its object, as movement from its term. And therefore just as
|
|
|
4052 the primary goodness of a natural thing
|
|
|
4053 is derived from its form, which gives it its species, so the primary goodness of a moral action is derived from its suitable
|
|
|
4054 object: hence some call such an action "good in its genus"; for instance, "to make use of what is one's own." And just as,
|
|
|
4055 in natural things, the primary evil is when a generated thing does not realize its specific form (for instance, if instead
|
|
|
4056 of a man, something else be generated); so the primary evil in moral actions is that which is from the object, for instance,
|
|
|
4057 "to
|
|
|
4058 take what belongs to another." And this action is said to be "evil in its genus," genus here standing for species, just as
|
|
|
4059 we apply the term "mankind" to the whole human species.
|
|
|
4060 </p>
|
|
|
4061 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p7">
|
|
|
4062 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although external things are good in themselves, nevertheless they have not always a due proportion to this or that action.
|
|
|
4063 And so, inasmuch as they are considered as objects of such actions, they have not the quality of goodness.
|
|
|
4064 </p>
|
|
|
4065 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p8">
|
|
|
4066 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The object is not the matter "of which" (a thing is made), but the matter "about which" (something is done); and stands in
|
|
|
4067 relation to the act as its form, as it were, through giving it its species.
|
|
|
4068 </p>
|
|
|
4069 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p9">
|
|
|
4070 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The object of the human action is not always the object of an active power. For the appetitive power is, in a way, passive;
|
|
|
4071 in so far as it is moved by the appetible object; and yet it is a principle of human actions. Nor again have the objects of
|
|
|
4072 the active powers always the nature of an effect, but only when they are already transformed: thus food when transformed is
|
|
|
4073 the effect of the nutritive power; whereas food before being transformed stands in
|
|
|
4074 relation to the nutritive power as the matter about which it exercises its operation. Now since the object is in some way
|
|
|
4075 the effect of the active power, it follows that it is the term of its action, and consequently that it gives it its form and
|
|
|
4076 species, since movement derives its species from its term. Moreover, although the goodness of an action is not caused by the
|
|
|
4077 goodness of its effect, yet an action is said to be good from the fact that it can produce a good effect. Consequently the
|
|
|
4078 very
|
|
|
4079 proportion of an action to its effect is the measure of its goodness.
|
|
|
4080 </p>
|
|
|
4081 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4082 <p id="FS_Q18_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4083 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4084 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4085 </div>
|
|
|
4086 <div id="FS_Q18_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
4087 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4088 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4089 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A3-p0.1">Whether man's action is good or evil from a circumstance?</h4>
|
|
|
4090 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4091 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p2">
|
|
|
4092 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that an action is not good or evil from a circumstance. For circumstances stand around [circumstant] an action,
|
|
|
4093 as being outside it, as stated above (
|
|
|
4094 <a id="FS_Q18_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html">Q[7], A[1]</a>). But "good and evil are in things themselves," as is stated in Metaph. vi, 4. Therefore an action does not derive goodness
|
|
|
4095 or malice from a circumstance.
|
|
|
4096 </p>
|
|
|
4097 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p3">
|
|
|
4098 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the goodness or malice of an action is considered principally in the doctrine of morals. But since circumstances
|
|
|
4099 are accidents of actions, it seems that they are outside the scope of art: because "no art takes notice of what is accidental"
|
|
|
4100 (Metaph. vi, 2). Therefore the goodness or malice of an action is not taken from a circumstance.
|
|
|
4101 </p>
|
|
|
4102 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p4">
|
|
|
4103 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, that which belongs to a thing, in respect of its substance, is not ascribed to it in respect of an accident. But
|
|
|
4104 good and evil belong to an action in respect of its substance; because an action can be good or evil in its genus as stated
|
|
|
4105 above
|
|
|
4106 <a id="FS_Q18_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Therefore an action is not good or bad from a circumstance.
|
|
|
4107 </p>
|
|
|
4108 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p5">
|
|
|
4109 <b>On the contrary,</b> the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 3) that a virtuous man acts as he should, and when he should, and so on in respect of the
|
|
|
4110 other circumstances. Therefore, on the other hand, the vicious man, in the matter of each vice, acts when he should not, or
|
|
|
4111 where he should not, and so on with the other circumstances. Therefore human actions are good or evil according to circumstances.
|
|
|
4112 </p>
|
|
|
4113 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p6">
|
|
|
4114 <b>I answer that,</b> In natural things, it is to be noted that the whole fulness of perfection due to a thing, is not from the mere substantial
|
|
|
4115 form, that gives it its species; since a thing derives much from supervening accidents, as man does from shape, color, and
|
|
|
4116 the like; and if any one of these accidents be out of due proportion, evil is the result. So it is with action. For the plenitude
|
|
|
4117 of its goodness does not consist wholly in its species, but also in certain additions
|
|
|
4118 which accrue to it by reason of certain accidents: and such are its due circumstances. Wherefore if something be wanting that
|
|
|
4119 is requisite as a due circumstance the action will be evil.
|
|
|
4120 </p>
|
|
|
4121 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p7">
|
|
|
4122 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Circumstances are outside an action, inasmuch as they are not part of its essence; but they are in an action as accidents
|
|
|
4123 thereof. Thus, too, accidents in natural substances are outside the essence.
|
|
|
4124 </p>
|
|
|
4125 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p8">
|
|
|
4126 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Every accident is not accidentally in its subject; for some are proper accidents; and of these every art takes notice. And
|
|
|
4127 thus it is that the circumstances of actions are considered in the doctrine of morals.
|
|
|
4128 </p>
|
|
|
4129 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p9">
|
|
|
4130 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Since good and being are convertible; according as being is predicated of substance and of accident, so is good predicated
|
|
|
4131 of a thing both in respect of its essential being, and in respect of its accidental being; and this, both in natural things
|
|
|
4132 and in moral actions.
|
|
|
4133 </p>
|
|
|
4134 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4135 <p id="FS_Q18_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4136 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4137 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4138 </div>
|
|
|
4139 <div id="FS_Q18_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
4140 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4141 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4142 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A4-p0.1">Whether a human action is good or evil from its end?</h4>
|
|
|
4143 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4144 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p2">
|
|
|
4145 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the good and evil in human actions are not from the end. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that "nothing
|
|
|
4146 acts with a view to evil." If therefore an action were good or evil from its end, no action would be evil. Which is clearly
|
|
|
4147 false.
|
|
|
4148 </p>
|
|
|
4149 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p3">
|
|
|
4150 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the goodness of an action is something in the action. But the end is an extrinsic cause. Therefore an action is
|
|
|
4151 not said to be good or bad according to its end.
|
|
|
4152 </p>
|
|
|
4153 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p4">
|
|
|
4154 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a good action may happen to be ordained to an evil end, as when a man gives an alms from vainglory; and conversely,
|
|
|
4155 an evil action may happen to be ordained to a good end, as a theft committed in order to give something to the poor. Therefore
|
|
|
4156 an action is not good or evil from its end.
|
|
|
4157 </p>
|
|
|
4158 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p5">
|
|
|
4159 <b>On the contrary,</b> Boethius says (De Differ. Topic. ii) that "if the end is good, the thing is good, and if the end be evil, the thing also
|
|
|
4160 is evil."
|
|
|
4161 </p>
|
|
|
4162 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p6">
|
|
|
4163 <b>I answer that,</b> The disposition of things as to goodness is the same as their disposition as to being. Now in some things the being does
|
|
|
4164 not depend on another, and in these it suffices to consider their being absolutely. But there are things the being of which
|
|
|
4165 depends on something else, and hence in their regard we must consider their being in its relation to the cause on which it
|
|
|
4166 depends. Now just as the being of a thing depends on the agent, and the form, so the goodness
|
|
|
4167 of a thing depends on its end. Hence in the Divine Persons, Whose goodness does not depend on another, the measure of goodness
|
|
|
4168 is not taken from the end. Whereas human actions, and other things, the goodness of which depends on something else, have
|
|
|
4169 a measure of goodness from the end on which they depend, besides that goodness which is in them absolutely.
|
|
|
4170 </p>
|
|
|
4171 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p7"> Accordingly a fourfold goodness may be considered in a human action. First, that which, as an action, it derives from its
|
|
|
4172 genus; because as much as it has of action and being so much has it of goodness, as stated above
|
|
|
4173 <a id="FS_Q18_A4-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Secondly, it has goodness according to its species; which is derived from its suitable object. Thirdly, it has goodness
|
|
|
4174 from its circumstances, in respect, as it were, of its accidents. Fourthly, it has goodness from its end, to
|
|
|
4175 which it is compared as to the cause of its goodness.
|
|
|
4176 </p>
|
|
|
4177 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p8">
|
|
|
4178 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The good in view of which one acts is not always a true good; but sometimes it is a true good, sometimes an apparent good.
|
|
|
4179 And in the latter event, an evil action results from the end in view.
|
|
|
4180 </p>
|
|
|
4181 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p9">
|
|
|
4182 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although the end is an extrinsic cause, nevertheless due proportion to the end, and relation to the end, are inherent to
|
|
|
4183 the action.
|
|
|
4184 </p>
|
|
|
4185 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p10">
|
|
|
4186 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Nothing hinders an action that is good in one of the way mentioned above, from lacking goodness in another way. And thus
|
|
|
4187 it may happen that an action which is good in its species or in its circumstances is ordained to an evil end, or vice versa.
|
|
|
4188 However, an action is not good simply, unless it is good in all those ways: since "evil results from any single defect, but
|
|
|
4189 good from the complete cause," as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv).
|
|
|
4190 </p>
|
|
|
4191 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4192 <p id="FS_Q18_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4193 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4194 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4195 </div>
|
|
|
4196 <div id="FS_Q18_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
4197 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4198 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4199 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A5-p0.1">Whether a human action is good or evil in its species?</h4>
|
|
|
4200 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4201 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p2">
|
|
|
4202 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that good and evil in moral actions do not make a difference of species. For the existence of good and evil
|
|
|
4203 in actions is in conformity with their existence in things, as stated above
|
|
|
4204 <a id="FS_Q18_A5-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. But good and evil do not make a specific difference in things; for a good man is specifically the same as a bad man. Therefore
|
|
|
4205 neither do they make a specific difference in actions.
|
|
|
4206 </p>
|
|
|
4207 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p3">
|
|
|
4208 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, since evil is a privation, it is a non-being. But non-being cannot be a difference, according to the Philosopher
|
|
|
4209 (Metaph. iii, 3). Since therefore the difference constitutes the species, it seems that an action is not constituted in a
|
|
|
4210 species through being evil. Consequently good and evil do not diversify the species of human actions.
|
|
|
4211 </p>
|
|
|
4212 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p4">
|
|
|
4213 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, acts that differ in species produce different effects. But the same specific effect results from a good and from
|
|
|
4214 an evil action: thus a man is born of adulterous or of lawful wedlock. Therefore good and evil actions do not differ in species.
|
|
|
4215 </p>
|
|
|
4216 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p5">
|
|
|
4217 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, actions are sometimes said to be good or bad from a circumstance, as stated above
|
|
|
4218 <a id="FS_Q18_A5-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. But since a circumstance is an accident, it does not give an action its species. Therefore human actions do not differ in
|
|
|
4219 species on account of their goodness or malice.
|
|
|
4220 </p>
|
|
|
4221 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p6">
|
|
|
4222 <b>On the contrary,</b> According to the Philosopher (Ethic ii. 1) "like habits produce like actions." But a good and a bad habit differ in species,
|
|
|
4223 as liberality and prodigality. Therefore also good and bad actions differ in species.
|
|
|
4224 </p>
|
|
|
4225 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p7">
|
|
|
4226 <b>I answer that,</b> Every action derives its species from its object, as stated above
|
|
|
4227 <a id="FS_Q18_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">(A[2])</a>. Hence it follows that a difference of object causes a difference of species in actions. Now, it must be observed that a
|
|
|
4228 difference of objects causes a difference of species in actions, according as the latter are referred to one active principle,
|
|
|
4229 which does not cause a difference in actions, according as they are referred to another active principle. Because
|
|
|
4230 nothing accidental constitutes a species, but only that which is essential; and a difference of object may be essential in
|
|
|
4231 reference to one active principle, and accidental in reference to another. Thus to know color and to know sound, differ essentially
|
|
|
4232 in reference to sense, but not in reference to the intellect.
|
|
|
4233 </p>
|
|
|
4234 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p8"> Now in human actions, good and evil are predicated in reference to the reason; because as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv),
|
|
|
4235 "the good of man is to be in accordance with reason," and evil is "to be against reason." For that is good for a thing which
|
|
|
4236 suits it in regard to its form; and evil, that which is against the order of its form. It is therefore evident that the difference
|
|
|
4237 of good and evil considered in reference to the object is an essential difference in relation to reason;
|
|
|
4238 that is to say, according as the object is suitable or unsuitable to reason. Now certain actions are called human or moral,
|
|
|
4239 inasmuch as they proceed from the reason. Consequently it is evident that good and evil diversify the species in human actions;
|
|
|
4240 since essential differences cause a difference of species.
|
|
|
4241 </p>
|
|
|
4242 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p9">
|
|
|
4243 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Even in natural things, good and evil, inasmuch as something is according to nature, and something against nature, diversify
|
|
|
4244 the natural species; for a dead body and a living body are not of the same species. In like manner, good, inasmuch as it is
|
|
|
4245 in accord with reason, and evil, inasmuch as it is against reason, diversify the moral species.
|
|
|
4246 </p>
|
|
|
4247 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p10">
|
|
|
4248 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Evil implies privation, not absolute, but affecting some potentiality. For an action is said to be evil in its species, not
|
|
|
4249 because it has no object at all; but because it has an object in disaccord with reason, for instance, to appropriate another's
|
|
|
4250 property. Wherefore in so far as the object is something positive, it can constitute the species of an evil act.
|
|
|
4251 </p>
|
|
|
4252 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p11">
|
|
|
4253 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The conjugal act and adultery, as compared to reason, differ specifically and have effects specifically different; because
|
|
|
4254 the other deserves praise and reward, the other, blame and punishment. But as compared to the generative power, they do not
|
|
|
4255 differ in species; and thus they have one specific effect.
|
|
|
4256 </p>
|
|
|
4257 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p12">
|
|
|
4258 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> A circumstance is sometimes taken as the essential difference of the object, as compared to reason; and then it can specify
|
|
|
4259 a moral act. And it must needs be so whenever a circumstance transforms an action from good to evil; for a circumstance would
|
|
|
4260 not make an action evil, except through being repugnant to reason.
|
|
|
4261 </p>
|
|
|
4262 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p13"></p>
|
|
|
4263 <p id="FS_Q18_A5-p14"></p>
|
|
|
4264 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4265 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4266 </div>
|
|
|
4267 <div id="FS_Q18_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
4268 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4269 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4270 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A6-p0.1">Whether an action has the species of good or evil from its end?</h4>
|
|
|
4271 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4272 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p2">
|
|
|
4273 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the good and evil which are from the end do not diversify the species of actions. For actions derive their
|
|
|
4274 species from the object. But the end is altogether apart from the object. Therefore the good and evil which are from the end
|
|
|
4275 do not diversify the species of an action.
|
|
|
4276 </p>
|
|
|
4277 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p3">
|
|
|
4278 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, that which is accidental does not constitute the species, as stated above
|
|
|
4279 <a id="FS_Q18_A6-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html">(A[5])</a>. But it is accidental to an action to be ordained to some particular end; for instance, to give alms from vainglory. Therefore
|
|
|
4280 actions are not diversified as to species, according to the good and evil which are from the end.
|
|
|
4281 </p>
|
|
|
4282 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p4">
|
|
|
4283 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, acts that differ in species, can be ordained to the same end: thus to the end of vainglory, actions of various virtues
|
|
|
4284 and vices can be ordained. Therefore the good and evil which are taken from the end, do not diversify the species of action.
|
|
|
4285 </p>
|
|
|
4286 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p5">
|
|
|
4287 <b>On the contrary,</b> It has been shown above (
|
|
|
4288 <a id="FS_Q18_A6-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html">Q[1], A[3]</a>) that human actions derive their species from the end. Therefore good and evil in respect of the end diversify the species
|
|
|
4289 of actions.
|
|
|
4290 </p>
|
|
|
4291 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p6">
|
|
|
4292 <b>I answer that,</b> Certain actions are called human, inasmuch as they are voluntary, as stated above (
|
|
|
4293 <a id="FS_Q18_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>). Now, in a voluntary action, there is a twofold action, viz. the interior action of the will, and the external action: and
|
|
|
4294 each of these actions has its object. The end is properly the object of the interior act of the will: while the object of
|
|
|
4295 the external action, is that on which the action is brought to bear. Therefore just as the
|
|
|
4296 external action takes its species from the object on which it bears; so the interior act of the will takes its species from
|
|
|
4297 the end, as from its own proper object.
|
|
|
4298 </p>
|
|
|
4299 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p7"> Now that which is on the part of the will is formal in regard to that which is on the part of the external action: because
|
|
|
4300 the will uses the limbs to act as instruments; nor have external actions any measure of morality, save in so far as they are
|
|
|
4301 voluntary. Consequently the species of a human act is considered formally with regard to the end, but materially with regard
|
|
|
4302 to the object of the external action. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 2) that "he who steals that he may
|
|
|
4303 commit adultery, is strictly speaking, more adulterer than thief."
|
|
|
4304 </p>
|
|
|
4305 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p8">
|
|
|
4306 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The end also has the character of an object, as stated above.
|
|
|
4307 </p>
|
|
|
4308 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p9">
|
|
|
4309 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although it is accidental to the external action to be ordained to some particular end, it is not accidental to the interior
|
|
|
4310 act of the will, which act is compared to the external act, as form to matter.
|
|
|
4311 </p>
|
|
|
4312 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p10">
|
|
|
4313 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When many actions, differing in species, are ordained to the same end, there is indeed a diversity of species on the part
|
|
|
4314 of the external actions; but unity of species on the part of the internal action.
|
|
|
4315 </p>
|
|
|
4316 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4317 <p id="FS_Q18_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4318 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4319 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4320 </div>
|
|
|
4321 <div id="FS_Q18_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
4322 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4323 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
4324 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A7-p0.1">Whether the species derived from the end is contained under the species derived from the object, as under its genus, or conversely?</h4>
|
|
|
4325 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4326 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p2">
|
|
|
4327 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the species of goodness derived from the end is contained under the species of goodness derived from the
|
|
|
4328 object, as a species is contained under its genus; for instance, when a man commits a theft in order to give alms. For an
|
|
|
4329 action takes its species from its object, as stated above (
|
|
|
4330 <a id="FS_Q18_A7-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,6). But it is impossible for a thing to be contained under another species, if this species be not contained under the proper
|
|
|
4331 species of that thing; because the same thing cannot be contained in different species that are not subordinate to one another.
|
|
|
4332 Therefore the species which is taken from the end, is contained under the species which is taken from the object.
|
|
|
4333 </p>
|
|
|
4334 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p3">
|
|
|
4335 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the last difference always constitutes the most specific species. But the difference derived from the end seems
|
|
|
4336 to come after the difference derived from the object: because the end is something last. Therefore the species derived from
|
|
|
4337 the end, is contained under the species derived from the object, as its most specific species.
|
|
|
4338 </p>
|
|
|
4339 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p4">
|
|
|
4340 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the more formal a difference is compared to genus, as form to matter. But the species derived from the end, is more
|
|
|
4341 formal than that which is derived from the object, as stated above
|
|
|
4342 <a id="FS_Q18_A7-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">(A[6])</a>. Therefore the species derived from the end is contained under the species derived from the object, as the most specific
|
|
|
4343 species is contained under the subaltern genus.
|
|
|
4344 </p>
|
|
|
4345 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p5">
|
|
|
4346 <b>On the contrary,</b> Each genus has its determinate differences. But an action of one same species on the part of its object, can be ordained
|
|
|
4347 to an infinite number of ends: for instance, theft can be ordained to an infinite number of good and bad ends. Therefore the
|
|
|
4348 species derived from the end is not contained under the species derived from the object, as under its genus.
|
|
|
4349 </p>
|
|
|
4350 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p6">
|
|
|
4351 <b>I answer that,</b> The object of the external act can stand in a twofold relation to the end of the will: first, as being of itself ordained
|
|
|
4352 thereto; thus to fight well is of itself ordained to victory; secondly, as being ordained thereto accidentally; thus to take
|
|
|
4353 what belongs to another is ordained accidentally to the giving of alms. Now the differences that divide a genus, and constitute
|
|
|
4354 the species of that genus, must, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. vii, 12), divide that
|
|
|
4355 genus essentially: and if they divide it accidentally, the division is incorrect: as, if one were to say: "Animals are divided
|
|
|
4356 into rational and irrational; and the irrational into animals with wings, and animals without wings"; for "winged" and "wingless"
|
|
|
4357 are not essential determinations of the irrational being. But the following division would be correct: "Some animals have
|
|
|
4358 feet, some have no feet: and of those that have feet, some have two feet, some four, some many": because the latter
|
|
|
4359 division is an essential determination of the former. Accordingly when the object is not of itself ordained to the end, the
|
|
|
4360 specific difference derived from the object is not an essential determination of the species derived from the end, nor is
|
|
|
4361 the reverse the case. Wherefore one of these species is not under the other; but then the moral action is contained under
|
|
|
4362 two species that are disparate, as it were. Consequently we say that he that commits theft for the sake of adultery, is guilty
|
|
|
4363 of a
|
|
|
4364 twofold malice in one action. On the other hand, if the object be of itself ordained to the end, one of these differences
|
|
|
4365 is an essential determination of the other. Wherefore one of these species will be contained under the other.
|
|
|
4366 </p>
|
|
|
4367 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p7"> It remains to be considered which of the two is contained under the other. In order to make this clear, we must first of
|
|
|
4368 all observe that the more particular the form is from which a difference is taken, the more specific is the difference. Secondly,
|
|
|
4369 that the more universal an agent is, the more universal a form does it cause. Thirdly, that the more remote an end is, the
|
|
|
4370 more universal the agent to which it corresponds; thus victory, which is the last end of the army, is the end
|
|
|
4371 intended by the commander in chief; while the right ordering of this or that regiment is the end intended by one of the lower
|
|
|
4372 officers. From all this it follows that the specific difference derived from the end, is more general; and that the difference
|
|
|
4373 derived from an object which of itself is ordained to that end, is a specific difference in relation to the former. For the
|
|
|
4374 will, the proper object of which is the end, is the universal mover in respect of all the powers of the soul, the proper
|
|
|
4375 objects of which are the objects of their particular acts.
|
|
|
4376 </p>
|
|
|
4377 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p8">
|
|
|
4378 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> One and the same thing, considered in its substance, cannot be in two species, one of which is not subordinate to the other.
|
|
|
4379 But in respect of those things which are superadded to the substance, one thing can be contained under different species.
|
|
|
4380 Thus one and the same fruit, as to its color, is contained under one species, i.e. a white thing: and, as to its perfume,
|
|
|
4381 under the species of sweet-smelling things. In like manner an action which, as to its
|
|
|
4382 substance, is in one natural species, considered in respect to the moral conditions that are added to it, can belong to two
|
|
|
4383 species, as stated above (
|
|
|
4384 <a id="FS_Q18_A7-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html">Q[1], A[3]</a>, ad 3).
|
|
|
4385 </p>
|
|
|
4386 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p9">
|
|
|
4387 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The end is last in execution; but first in the intention of the reason, in regard to which moral actions receive their species.
|
|
|
4388 </p>
|
|
|
4389 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p10">
|
|
|
4390 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Difference is compared to genus as form to matter, inasmuch as it actualizes the genus. On the other hand, the genus is considered
|
|
|
4391 as more formal than the species, inasmuch as it is something more absolute and less contracted. Wherefore also the parts of
|
|
|
4392 a definition are reduced to the genus of formal cause, as is stated in Phys. ii, 3. And in this sense the genus is the formal
|
|
|
4393 cause of the species; and so much the more formal, as it is more
|
|
|
4394 universal.
|
|
|
4395 </p>
|
|
|
4396 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4397 <p id="FS_Q18_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4398 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4399 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
4400 </div>
|
|
|
4401 <div id="FS_Q18_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
4402 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4403 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
4404 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A8-p0.1">Whether any action is indifferent in its species?</h4>
|
|
|
4405 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4406 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p2">
|
|
|
4407 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that no action is indifferent in its species. For evil is the privation of good, according to Augustine (Enchiridion
|
|
|
4408 xi). But privation and habit are immediate contraries, according to the Philosopher (Categor. viii). Therefore there is not
|
|
|
4409 such thing as an action that is indifferent in its species, as though it were between good and evil.
|
|
|
4410 </p>
|
|
|
4411 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p3">
|
|
|
4412 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, human actions derive their species from their end or object, as stated above
|
|
|
4413 <a id="FS_Q18_A8-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">(A[6];</a> Q[1], A[3]). But every end and every object is either good or bad. Therefore every human action is good or evil according
|
|
|
4414 to its species. None, therefore, is indifferent in its species.
|
|
|
4415 </p>
|
|
|
4416 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p4">
|
|
|
4417 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, as stated above
|
|
|
4418 <a id="FS_Q18_A8-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, an action is said to be good, when it has its due complement of goodness; and evil, when it lacks that complement. But every
|
|
|
4419 action must needs either have the entire plenitude of its goodness, or lack it in some respect. Therefore every action must
|
|
|
4420 needs be either good or bad in its species, and none is indifferent.
|
|
|
4421 </p>
|
|
|
4422 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p5">
|
|
|
4423 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 18) that "there are certain deeds of a middle kind, which can be done with a good
|
|
|
4424 or evil mind, of which it is rash to form a judgment." Therefore some actions are indifferent according to their species.
|
|
|
4425 </p>
|
|
|
4426 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p6">
|
|
|
4427 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
4428 <a id="FS_Q18_A8-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A2.html">AA[2]</a>,5), every action takes its species from its object; while human action, which is called moral, takes its species from the
|
|
|
4429 object, in relation to the principle of human actions, which is the reason. Wherefore if the object of an action includes
|
|
|
4430 something in accord with the order of reason, it will be a good action according to its species; for instance, to give alms
|
|
|
4431 to a person in want. On the other hand, if it
|
|
|
4432 includes something repugnant to the order of reason, it will be an evil act according to its species; for instance, to steal,
|
|
|
4433 which is to appropriate what belongs to another. But it may happen that the object of an action does not include something
|
|
|
4434 pertaining to the order of reason; for instance, to pick up a straw from the ground, to walk in the fields, and the like:
|
|
|
4435 and such actions are indifferent according to their species.
|
|
|
4436 </p>
|
|
|
4437 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p7">
|
|
|
4438 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Privation is twofold. One is privation "as a result" [privatum esse], and this leaves nothing, but takes all away: thus blindness
|
|
|
4439 takes away sight altogether; darkness, light; and death, life. Between this privation and the contrary habit, there can be
|
|
|
4440 no medium in respect of the proper subject. The other is privation "in process" [privari]: thus sickness is privation of health;
|
|
|
4441 not that it takes health away altogether, but that it is a kind of road
|
|
|
4442 to the entire loss of health, occasioned by death. And since this sort of privation leaves something, it is not always the
|
|
|
4443 immediate contrary of the opposite habit. In this way evil is a privation of good, as Simplicius says in his commentary on
|
|
|
4444 the Categories: because it does not take away all good, but leaves some. Consequently there can be something between good
|
|
|
4445 and evil.
|
|
|
4446 </p>
|
|
|
4447 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p8">
|
|
|
4448 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Every object or end has some goodness or malice, at least natural to it: but this does not imply moral goodness or malice,
|
|
|
4449 which is considered in relation to the reason, as stated above. And it is of this that we are here treating.
|
|
|
4450 </p>
|
|
|
4451 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p9">
|
|
|
4452 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Not everything belonging to an action belongs also to its species. Wherefore although an action's specific nature may not
|
|
|
4453 contain all that belongs to the full complement of its goodness, it is not therefore an action specifically bad; nor is it
|
|
|
4454 specifically good. Thus a man in regard to his species is neither virtuous nor wicked.
|
|
|
4455 </p>
|
|
|
4456 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4457 <p id="FS_Q18_A8-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4458 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4459 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
4460 </div>
|
|
|
4461 <div id="FS_Q18_A9" class="div4">
|
|
|
4462 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
4463 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
4464 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A9-p0.1">Whether an individual action can be indifferent?</h4>
|
|
|
4465 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4466 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p2">
|
|
|
4467 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that an individual action can be indifferent. For there is no species that does not, cannot, contain an individual.
|
|
|
4468 But an action can be indifferent in its species, as stated above
|
|
|
4469 <a id="FS_Q18_A9-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A8.html">(A[8])</a>. Therefore an individual action can be indifferent.
|
|
|
4470 </p>
|
|
|
4471 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p3">
|
|
|
4472 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, individual actions cause like habits, as stated in Ethic. ii, 1. But a habit can be indifferent: for the Philosopher
|
|
|
4473 says (Ethic. iv, 1) that those who are of an even temper and prodigal disposition are not evil; and yet it is evident that
|
|
|
4474 they are not good, since they depart from virtue; and thus they are indifferent in respect of a habit. Therefore some individual
|
|
|
4475 actions are indifferent.
|
|
|
4476 </p>
|
|
|
4477 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p4">
|
|
|
4478 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, moral good belongs to virtue, while moral evil belongs to vice. But it happens sometimes that a man fails to ordain
|
|
|
4479 a specifically indifferent action to a vicious or virtuous end. Therefore an individual action may happen to be indifferent.
|
|
|
4480 </p>
|
|
|
4481 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p5">
|
|
|
4482 <b>On the contrary,</b> Gregory says in a homily (vi in Evang.): "An idle word is one that lacks either the usefulness of rectitude or the motive
|
|
|
4483 of just necessity or pious utility." But an idle word is an evil, because "men . . . shall render an account of it in the
|
|
|
4484 day of judgment" (
|
|
|
4485 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q18_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.36" target="asv">Mat. 12:36</a>): while if it does not lack the motive of just necessity or pious utility, it is good. Therefore every word is either good
|
|
|
4486 or bad. For the same reason every other
|
|
|
4487 action is either good or bad. Therefore no individual action is indifferent.
|
|
|
4488 </p>
|
|
|
4489 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p6">
|
|
|
4490 <b>I answer that,</b> It sometimes happens that an action is indifferent in its species, but considered in the individual it is good or evil. And
|
|
|
4491 the reason of this is because a moral action, as stated above
|
|
|
4492 <a id="FS_Q18_A9-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, derives its goodness not only from its object, whence it takes its species; but also from the circumstances, which are its
|
|
|
4493 accidents, as it were; just as something belongs to a man by reason of his individual accidents, which does not belong
|
|
|
4494 to him by reason of his species. And every individual action must needs have some circumstance that makes it good or bad,
|
|
|
4495 at least in respect of the intention of the end. For since it belongs to the reason to direct; if an action that proceeds
|
|
|
4496 from deliberate reason be not directed to the due end, it is, by that fact alone, repugnant to reason, and has the character
|
|
|
4497 of evil. But if it be directed to a due end, it is in accord with reason; wherefore it has the character of good. Now it must
|
|
|
4498 needs be either directed or not directed to a due end. Consequently every human action that proceeds from deliberate reason,
|
|
|
4499 if it be considered in the individual, must be good or bad.
|
|
|
4500 </p>
|
|
|
4501 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p7"> If, however, it does not proceed from deliberate reason, but from some act of the imagination, as when a man strokes his
|
|
|
4502 beard, or moves his hand or foot; such an action, properly speaking, is not moral or human; since this depends on the reason.
|
|
|
4503 Hence it will be indifferent, as standing apart from the genus of moral actions.
|
|
|
4504 </p>
|
|
|
4505 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p8">
|
|
|
4506 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> For an action to be indifferent in its species can be understood in several ways. First in such a way that its species demands
|
|
|
4507 that it remain indifferent; and the objection proceeds along this line. But no action can be specifically indifferent thus:
|
|
|
4508 since no object of human action is such that it cannot be directed to good or evil, either through its end or through a circumstance.
|
|
|
4509 Secondly, specific indifference of an action may be due to the fact
|
|
|
4510 that as far as its species is concerned, it is neither good nor bad. Wherefore it can be made good or bad by something else.
|
|
|
4511 Thus man, as far as his species is concerned, is neither white nor black; nor is it a condition of his species that he should
|
|
|
4512 not be black or white; but blackness or whiteness is superadded to man by other principles than those of his species.
|
|
|
4513 </p>
|
|
|
4514 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p9">
|
|
|
4515 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The Philosopher states that a man is evil, properly speaking, if he be hurtful to others. And accordingly, because he hurts
|
|
|
4516 none save himself. And the same applies to all others who are not hurtful to other men. But we say here that evil, in general,
|
|
|
4517 is all that is repugnant to right reason. And in this sense every individual action is either good or bad, as stated above.
|
|
|
4518 </p>
|
|
|
4519 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p10">
|
|
|
4520 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whenever an end is intended by deliberate reason, it belongs either to the good of some virtue, or to the evil of some vice.
|
|
|
4521 Thus, if a man's action is directed to the support or repose of his body, it is also directed to the good of virtue, provided
|
|
|
4522 he direct his body itself to the good of virtue. The same clearly applies to other actions.
|
|
|
4523 </p>
|
|
|
4524 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4525 <p id="FS_Q18_A9-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4526 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
4527 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
4528 </div>
|
|
|
4529 <div id="FS_Q18_A10" class="div4">
|
|
|
4530 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
4531 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A11.html"></a>
|
|
|
4532 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A10-p0.1">Whether a circumstance places a moral action in the species of good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
4533 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4534 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p2">
|
|
|
4535 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a circumstance cannot place a moral action in the species of good or evil. For the species of an action
|
|
|
4536 is taken from its object. But circumstances differ from the object. Therefore circumstances do not give an action its species.
|
|
|
4537 </p>
|
|
|
4538 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p3">
|
|
|
4539 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, circumstances are as accidents in relation to the moral action, as stated above (
|
|
|
4540 <a id="FS_Q18_A10-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q7_A1.html">Q[7], A[1]</a>). But an accident does not constitute the species. Therefore a circumstance does not constitute a species of good or evil.
|
|
|
4541 </p>
|
|
|
4542 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p4">
|
|
|
4543 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, one thing is not in several species. But one action has several circumstances. Therefore a circumstance does not
|
|
|
4544 place a moral action in a species of good or evil.
|
|
|
4545 </p>
|
|
|
4546 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p5">
|
|
|
4547 <b>On the contrary,</b> Place is a circumstance. But place makes a moral action to be in a certain species of evil; for theft of a thing from a holy
|
|
|
4548 place is a sacrilege. Therefore a circumstance makes a moral action to be specifically good or bad.
|
|
|
4549 </p>
|
|
|
4550 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p6">
|
|
|
4551 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as the species of natural things are constituted by their natural forms, so the species of moral actions are constituted
|
|
|
4552 by forms as conceived by the reason, as is evident from what was said above
|
|
|
4553 <a id="FS_Q18_A10-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html">(A[5])</a>. But since nature is determinate to one thing, nor can a process of nature go on to infinity, there must needs be some ultimate
|
|
|
4554 form, giving a specific difference, after which no further specific difference is possible. Hence it
|
|
|
4555 is that in natural things, that which is accidental to a thing, cannot be taken as a difference constituting the species.
|
|
|
4556 But the process of reason is not fixed to one particular term, for at any point it can still proceed further. And consequently
|
|
|
4557 that which, in one action, is taken as a circumstance added to the object that specifies the action, can again be taken by
|
|
|
4558 the directing reason, as the principal condition of the object that determines the action's species. Thus to appropriate
|
|
|
4559 another's property is specified by reason of the property being "another's," and in this respect it is placed in the species
|
|
|
4560 of theft; and if we consider that action also in its bearing on place or time, then this will be an additional circumstance.
|
|
|
4561 But since the reason can direct as to place, time, and the like, it may happen that the condition as to place, in relation
|
|
|
4562 to the object, is considered as being in disaccord with reason: for instance, reason forbids damage to be done to a holy
|
|
|
4563 place. Consequently to steal from a holy place has an additional repugnance to the order of reason. And thus place, which
|
|
|
4564 was first of all considered as a circumstance, is considered here as the principal condition of the object, and as itself
|
|
|
4565 repugnant to reason. And in this way, whenever a circumstance has a special relation to reason, either for or against, it
|
|
|
4566 must needs specify the moral action whether good or bad.
|
|
|
4567 </p>
|
|
|
4568 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p7">
|
|
|
4569 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A circumstance, in so far as it specifies an action, is considered as a condition of the object, as stated above, and as
|
|
|
4570 being, as it were, a specific difference thereof.
|
|
|
4571 </p>
|
|
|
4572 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p8">
|
|
|
4573 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A circumstance, so long as it is but a circumstance, does not specify an action, since thus it is a mere accident: but when
|
|
|
4574 it becomes a principal condition of the object, then it does specify the action.
|
|
|
4575 </p>
|
|
|
4576 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p9">
|
|
|
4577 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> It is not every circumstance that places the moral action in the species of good or evil; since not every circumstance implies
|
|
|
4578 accord or disaccord with reason. Consequently, although one action may have many circumstances, it does not follow that it
|
|
|
4579 is in many species. Nevertheless there is no reason why one action should not be in several, even disparate, moral species,
|
|
|
4580 as said above (A[7], ad 1;
|
|
|
4581 <a id="FS_Q18_A10-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A3.html"> Q[1], A[3]</a>, ad 3).
|
|
|
4582 </p>
|
|
|
4583 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4584 <p id="FS_Q18_A10-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4585 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
4586 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A11.html"></a>
|
|
|
4587 </div>
|
|
|
4588 <div id="FS_Q18_A11" class="div4">
|
|
|
4589 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
4590 <a href="summa.FS_Q19.html"></a>
|
|
|
4591 <h4 id="FS_Q18_A11-p0.1">Whether every circumstance that makes an action better or worse, places a moral action in a species of good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
4592 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4593 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p2">
|
|
|
4594 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that every circumstance relating to good or evil, specifies an action. For good and evil are specific differences
|
|
|
4595 of moral actions. Therefore that which causes a difference in the goodness or malice of a moral action, causes a specific
|
|
|
4596 difference, which is the same as to make it differ in species. Now that which makes an action better or worse, makes it differ
|
|
|
4597 in goodness and malice. Therefore it causes it to differ in species. Therefore every
|
|
|
4598 circumstance that makes an action better or worse, constitutes a species.
|
|
|
4599 </p>
|
|
|
4600 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p3">
|
|
|
4601 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an additional circumstance either has in itself the character of goodness or malice, or it has not. If not, it cannot
|
|
|
4602 make the action better or worse; because what is not good, cannot make a greater good; and what is not evil, cannot make a
|
|
|
4603 greater evil. But if it has in itself the character of good or evil, for this very reason it has a certain species of good
|
|
|
4604 or evil. Therefore every circumstance that makes an action better or worse, constitutes a
|
|
|
4605 new species of good or evil.
|
|
|
4606 </p>
|
|
|
4607 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p4">
|
|
|
4608 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, according to Dionysius (Div. Nom. iv), "evil is caused by each single defect." Now every circumstance that increases
|
|
|
4609 malice, has a special defect. Therefore every such circumstance adds a new species of sin. And for the same reason, every
|
|
|
4610 circumstance that increases goodness, seems to add a new species of goodness: just as every unity added to a number makes
|
|
|
4611 a new species of number; since the good consists in "number, weight, and measure" (
|
|
|
4612 <a id="FS_Q18_A11-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q5_A5.html">FP, Q[5], A[5]</a>).
|
|
|
4613 </p>
|
|
|
4614 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p5">
|
|
|
4615 <b>On the contrary,</b> More and less do not change a species. But more and less is a circumstance of additional goodness or malice. Therefore not
|
|
|
4616 every circumstance that makes a moral action better or worse, places it in a species of good or evil.
|
|
|
4617 </p>
|
|
|
4618 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p6">
|
|
|
4619 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
4620 <a id="FS_Q18_A11-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html">(A[10])</a>, a circumstance gives the species of good or evil to a moral action, in so far as it regards a special order of reason. Now
|
|
|
4621 it happens sometimes that a circumstance does not regard a special order of reason in respect of good or evil, except on the
|
|
|
4622 supposition of another previous circumstance, from which the moral action takes its species of good or evil. Thus to take
|
|
|
4623 something in a large or small quantity,
|
|
|
4624 does not regard the order of reason in respect of good or evil, except a certain other condition be presupposed, from which
|
|
|
4625 the action takes its malice or goodness; for instance, if what is taken belongs to another, which makes the action to be discordant
|
|
|
4626 with reason. Wherefore to take what belongs to another in a large or small quantity, does not change the species of the sin.
|
|
|
4627 Nevertheless it can aggravate or diminish the sin. The same applies to other evil or good actions. Consequently not
|
|
|
4628 every circumstance that makes a moral action better or worse, changes its species.
|
|
|
4629 </p>
|
|
|
4630 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p7">
|
|
|
4631 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> In things which can be more or less intense, the difference of more or less does not change the species: thus by differing
|
|
|
4632 in whiteness through being more or less white a thing is not changed in regard to its species of color. In like manner that
|
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|
4633 which makes an action to be more or less good or evil, does not make the action differ in species.
|
|
|
4634 </p>
|
|
|
4635 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p8">
|
|
|
4636 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A circumstance that aggravates a sin, or adds to the goodness of an action, sometimes has no goodness or malice in itself,
|
|
|
4637 but in regard to some other condition of the action, as stated above. Consequently it does not add a new species, but adds
|
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|
4638 to the goodness or malice derived from this other condition of the action.
|
|
|
4639 </p>
|
|
|
4640 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p9">
|
|
|
4641 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A circumstance does not always involve a distinct defect of its own; sometimes it causes a defect in reference to something
|
|
|
4642 else. In like manner a circumstance does not always add further perfection, except in reference to something else. And, for
|
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|
4643 as much as it does, although it may add to the goodness or malice, it does not always change the species of good or evil.
|
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|
4644 </p>
|
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|
4645 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p10"></p>
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4646 <p id="FS_Q18_A11-p11"></p>
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4647 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A10.html"></a>
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4648 <a href="summa.FS_Q19.html"></a>
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4649 </div>
|
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4650 <a href="summa.FS_Q17_A9.html"></a>
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4651 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A1.html"></a>
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4652 </div>
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4653 <div id="FS_Q19" class="div3">
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4654 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A11.html"></a>
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4655 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html"></a>
|
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4656 <h3 id="FS_Q19-p0.1">OF THE GOODNESS AND MALICE OF THE INTERIOR ACT OF THE WILL (TEN ARTICLES)</h3>
|
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4657 <p id="FS_Q19-p1"></p>
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4658 <p id="FS_Q19-p2"> We must now consider the goodness of the interior act of the will; under which head there are ten points of inquiry:</p>
|
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|
4659 <p id="FS_Q19-p3"> (1) Whether the goodness of the will depends on the subject?</p>
|
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|
4660 <p id="FS_Q19-p4"> (2) Whether it depends on the object alone?</p>
|
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|
4661 <p id="FS_Q19-p5"> (3) Whether it depends on reason?</p>
|
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|
4662 <p id="FS_Q19-p6"> (4) Whether it depends on the eternal law?</p>
|
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|
4663 <p id="FS_Q19-p7"> (5) Whether erring reason binds?</p>
|
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|
4664 <p id="FS_Q19-p8"> (6) Whether the will is evil if it follows the erring reason against the law of God?</p>
|
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|
4665 <p id="FS_Q19-p9"> (7) Whether the goodness of the will in regard to the means, depends on the intention of the end?</p>
|
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|
4666 <p id="FS_Q19-p10"> (8) Whether the degree of goodness or malice in the will depends on the degree of good or evil in the intention?</p>
|
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|
4667 <p id="FS_Q19-p11"> (9) Whether the goodness of the will depends on its conformity to the Divine Will?</p>
|
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|
4668 <p id="FS_Q19-p12"> (10) Whether it is necessary for the human will, in order to be good, to be conformed to the Divine Will, as regards the
|
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4669 thing willed?
|
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4670 </p>
|
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|
4671 <div id="FS_Q19_A1" class="div4">
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4672 <a href="summa.FS_Q19.html"></a>
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4673 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html"></a>
|
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4674 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A1-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will depends on the object?</h4>
|
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4675 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p1"></p>
|
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|
4676 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p2">
|
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|
4677 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the will does not depend on the object. For the will cannot be directed otherwise than
|
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|
4678 to what is good: since "evil is outside the scope of the will," as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv). If therefore the goodness
|
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|
4679 of the will depended on the object, it would follow that every act of the will is good, and none bad.
|
|
|
4680 </p>
|
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|
4681 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p3">
|
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|
4682 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, good is first of all in the end: wherefore the goodness of the end, as such, does not depend on any other. But,
|
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|
4683 according to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 5), "goodness of action is the end, but goodness of making is never the end": because
|
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|
4684 the latter is always ordained to the thing made, as to its end. Therefore the goodness of the act of the will does not depend
|
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|
4685 on any object.
|
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|
4686 </p>
|
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|
4687 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p4">
|
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|
4688 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, such as a thing is, such does it make a thing to be. But the object of the will is good, by reason of the goodness
|
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|
4689 of nature. Therefore it cannot give moral goodness to the will. Therefore the moral goodness of the will does not depend on
|
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|
4690 the object.
|
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|
4691 </p>
|
|
|
4692 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p5">
|
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|
4693 <b>On the contrary,</b> the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 1) that justice is that habit "from which men wish for just things": and accordingly, virtue
|
|
|
4694 is a habit from which men wish for good things. But a good will is one which is in accordance with virtue. Therefore the goodness
|
|
|
4695 of the will is from the fact that a man wills that which is good.
|
|
|
4696 </p>
|
|
|
4697 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p6">
|
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|
4698 <b>I answer that,</b> Good and evil are essential differences of the act of the will. Because good and evil of themselves regard the will; just
|
|
|
4699 as truth and falsehood regard reason; the act of which is divided essentially by the difference of truth and falsehood, for
|
|
|
4700 as much as an opinion is said to be true or false. Consequently good and evil will are acts differing in species. Now the
|
|
|
4701 specific difference in acts is according to objects, as stated above (
|
|
|
4702 <a id="FS_Q19_A1-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html">Q[18], A[5]</a>). Therefore good and evil in the acts of the will is derived properly from the objects.
|
|
|
4703 </p>
|
|
|
4704 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p7">
|
|
|
4705 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The will is not always directed to what is truly good, but sometimes to the apparent good; which has indeed some measure
|
|
|
4706 of good, but not of a good that is simply suitable to be desired. Hence it is that the act of the will is not always good,
|
|
|
4707 but sometimes evil.
|
|
|
4708 </p>
|
|
|
4709 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p8">
|
|
|
4710 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Although an action can, in a certain way, be man's last end; nevertheless such action is not an act of the will, as stated
|
|
|
4711 above (
|
|
|
4712 <a id="FS_Q19_A1-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>, ad 2).
|
|
|
4713 </p>
|
|
|
4714 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p9">
|
|
|
4715 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Good is presented to the will as its object by the reason: and in so far as it is in accord with reason, it enters the moral
|
|
|
4716 order, and causes moral goodness in the act of the will: because the reason is the principle of human and moral acts, as stated
|
|
|
4717 above (
|
|
|
4718 <a id="FS_Q19_A1-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A5.html">Q[18], A[5]</a>).
|
|
|
4719 </p>
|
|
|
4720 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p10"></p>
|
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|
4721 <p id="FS_Q19_A1-p11"></p>
|
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|
4722 <a href="summa.FS_Q19.html"></a>
|
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|
4723 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4724 </div>
|
|
|
4725 <div id="FS_Q19_A2" class="div4">
|
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|
4726 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
4727 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4728 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A2-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will depends on the object alone?</h4>
|
|
|
4729 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4730 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p2">
|
|
|
4731 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the will does not depend on the object alone. For the end has a closer relationship to
|
|
|
4732 the will than to any other power. But the acts of the other powers derive goodness not only from the object but also from
|
|
|
4733 the end, as we have shown above (
|
|
|
4734 <a id="FS_Q19_A2-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A4.html">Q[18] , A[4]</a>). Therefore the act also of the will derives goodness not only from the object but also from the end.
|
|
|
4735 </p>
|
|
|
4736 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p3">
|
|
|
4737 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the goodness of an action is derived not only from the object but also from the circumstances, as stated above (
|
|
|
4738 <a id="FS_Q19_A2-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A3.html">Q[18], A[3]</a>). But according to the diversity of circumstances there may be diversity of goodness and malice in the act of the will: for
|
|
|
4739 instance, if a man will, when he ought, where he ought, as much as he ought, and how he ought, or if he will as he ought not.
|
|
|
4740 Therefore the goodness of the will depends not only on
|
|
|
4741 the object, but also on the circumstances.
|
|
|
4742 </p>
|
|
|
4743 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p4">
|
|
|
4744 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, ignorance of circumstances excuses malice of the will, as stated above (
|
|
|
4745 <a id="FS_Q19_A2-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q6_A8.html">Q[6], A[8]</a>). But it would not be so, unless the goodness or malice of the will depended on the circumstances. Therefore the goodness
|
|
|
4746 and malice of the will depend on the circumstances, and not only on the object.
|
|
|
4747 </p>
|
|
|
4748 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p5">
|
|
|
4749 <b>On the contrary,</b> An action does not take its species from the circumstances as such, as stated above (Q[18], A[10], ad 2). But good and evil
|
|
|
4750 are specific differences of the act of the will, as stated above
|
|
|
4751 <a id="FS_Q19_A2-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html">(A[1])</a>. Therefore the goodness and malice of the will depend, not on the circumstances, but on the object alone.
|
|
|
4752 </p>
|
|
|
4753 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p6">
|
|
|
4754 <b>I answer that,</b> In every genus, the more a thing is first, the more simple it is, and the fewer the principles of which it consists: thus
|
|
|
4755 primary bodies are simple. Hence it is to be observed that the first things in every genus, are, in some way, simple and consist
|
|
|
4756 of one principle. Now the principle of the goodness and malice of human actions is taken from the act of the will. Consequently
|
|
|
4757 the goodness and malice of the act of the will depend on some one thing; while the
|
|
|
4758 goodness and malice of other acts may depend on several things.
|
|
|
4759 </p>
|
|
|
4760 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p7"> Now that one thing which is the principle in each genus, is not something accidental to that genus, but something essential
|
|
|
4761 thereto: because whatever is accidental is reduced to something essential, as to its principle. Therefore the goodness of
|
|
|
4762 the will's act depends on that one thing alone, which of itself causes goodness in the act; and that one thing is the object,
|
|
|
4763 and not the circumstances, which are accidents, as it were, of the act.
|
|
|
4764 </p>
|
|
|
4765 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p8">
|
|
|
4766 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The end is the object of the will, but not of the other powers. Hence, in regard to the act of the will, the goodness derived
|
|
|
4767 from the object, does not differ from that which is derived from the end, as they differ in the acts of the other powers;
|
|
|
4768 except perhaps accidentally, in so far as one end depends on another, and one act of the will on another.
|
|
|
4769 </p>
|
|
|
4770 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p9">
|
|
|
4771 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Given that the act of the will is fixed on some good, no circumstances can make that act bad. Consequently when it is said
|
|
|
4772 that a man wills a good when he ought not, or where he ought not, this can be understood in two ways. First, so that this
|
|
|
4773 circumstance is referred to the thing willed. And thus the act of the will is not fixed on something good: since to will to
|
|
|
4774 do something when it ought not to be done, is not to will something good. Secondly, so
|
|
|
4775 that the circumstance is referred to the act of willing. And thus, it is impossible to will something good when one ought
|
|
|
4776 not to, because one ought always to will what is good: except, perhaps, accidentally, in so far as a man by willing some particular
|
|
|
4777 good, is prevented from willing at the same time another good which he ought to will at that time. And then evil results,
|
|
|
4778 not from his willing that particular good, but from his not willing the other. The same applies to the other
|
|
|
4779 circumstances.
|
|
|
4780 </p>
|
|
|
4781 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p10">
|
|
|
4782 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Ignorance of circumstances excuses malice of the will, in so far as the circumstance affects the thing willed: that is to
|
|
|
4783 say, in so far as a man ignores the circumstances of the act which he wills.
|
|
|
4784 </p>
|
|
|
4785 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4786 <p id="FS_Q19_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4787 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
4788 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4789 </div>
|
|
|
4790 <div id="FS_Q19_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
4791 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4792 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4793 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A3-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will depends on reason?</h4>
|
|
|
4794 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4795 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p2">
|
|
|
4796 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the will does not depend on reason. For what comes first does not depend on what follows.
|
|
|
4797 But the good belongs to the will before it belongs to reason, as is clear from what has been said above (
|
|
|
4798 <a id="FS_Q19_A3-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Therefore the goodness of the will does not depend on reason.
|
|
|
4799 </p>
|
|
|
4800 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p3">
|
|
|
4801 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 2) that the goodness of the practical intellect is "a truth that is in conformity
|
|
|
4802 with right desire." But right desire is a good will. Therefore the goodness of the practical reason depends on the goodness
|
|
|
4803 of the will, rather than conversely.
|
|
|
4804 </p>
|
|
|
4805 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p4">
|
|
|
4806 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the mover does not depend on that which is moved, but vice versa. But the will moves the reason and the other powers,
|
|
|
4807 as stated above (
|
|
|
4808 <a id="FS_Q19_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>). Therefore the goodness of the will does not depend on reason.
|
|
|
4809 </p>
|
|
|
4810 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p5">
|
|
|
4811 <b>On the contrary,</b> Hilary says (De Trin. x): "It is an unruly will that persists in its desires in opposition to reason." But the goodness of
|
|
|
4812 the will consists in not being unruly. Therefore the goodness of the will depends on its being subject to reason.
|
|
|
4813 </p>
|
|
|
4814 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p6">
|
|
|
4815 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (
|
|
|
4816 <a id="FS_Q19_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2), the goodness of the will depends properly on the object. Now the will's object is proposed to it by reason. Because the
|
|
|
4817 good understood is the proportionate object of the will; while sensitive or imaginary good is proportionate not to the will
|
|
|
4818 but to the sensitive appetite: since the will can tend to the universal good, which reason apprehends; whereas the sensitive
|
|
|
4819 appetite tends only to the particular
|
|
|
4820 good, apprehended by the sensitive power. Therefore the goodness of the will depends on reason, in the same way as it depends
|
|
|
4821 on the object.
|
|
|
4822 </p>
|
|
|
4823 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p7">
|
|
|
4824 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The good considered as such, i.e. as appetible, pertains to the will before pertaining to the reason. But considered as true
|
|
|
4825 it pertains to the reason, before, under the aspect of goodness, pertaining to the will: because the will cannot desire a
|
|
|
4826 good that is not previously apprehended by reason.
|
|
|
4827 </p>
|
|
|
4828 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p8">
|
|
|
4829 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The Philosopher speaks here of the practical intellect, in so far as it counsels and reasons about the means: for in this
|
|
|
4830 respect it is perfected by prudence. Now in regard to the means, the rectitude of the reason depends on its conformity with
|
|
|
4831 the desire of a due end: nevertheless the very desire of the due end presupposes on the part of reason a right apprehension
|
|
|
4832 of the end.
|
|
|
4833 </p>
|
|
|
4834 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p9">
|
|
|
4835 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The will moves the reason in one way: the reason moves the will in another, viz. on the part of the object, as stated above
|
|
|
4836 (
|
|
|
4837 <a id="FS_Q19_A3-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A1.html">Q[9], A[1]</a>).
|
|
|
4838 </p>
|
|
|
4839 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4840 <p id="FS_Q19_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4841 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
4842 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4843 </div>
|
|
|
4844 <div id="FS_Q19_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
4845 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4846 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4847 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A4-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will depends on the eternal law?</h4>
|
|
|
4848 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4849 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p2">
|
|
|
4850 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the human will does not depend on the eternal law. Because to one thing there is one rule
|
|
|
4851 and one measure. But the rule of the human will, on which its goodness depends, is right reason. Therefore the goodness of
|
|
|
4852 the will does not depend on the eternal law.
|
|
|
4853 </p>
|
|
|
4854 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p3">
|
|
|
4855 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "a measure is homogeneous with the thing measured" (Metaph. x, 1). But the eternal law is not homogeneous with the
|
|
|
4856 human will. Therefore the eternal law cannot be the measure on which the goodness of the human will depends.
|
|
|
4857 </p>
|
|
|
4858 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p4">
|
|
|
4859 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a measure should be most certain. But the eternal law is unknown to us. Therefore it cannot be the measure on which
|
|
|
4860 the goodness of our will depends.
|
|
|
4861 </p>
|
|
|
4862 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p5">
|
|
|
4863 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 27) that "sin is a deed, word or desire against the eternal law." But malice of the will
|
|
|
4864 is the root of sin. Therefore, since malice is contrary to goodness, the goodness of the will depends on the eternal law.
|
|
|
4865 </p>
|
|
|
4866 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p6">
|
|
|
4867 <b>I answer that,</b> Wherever a number of causes are subordinate to one another, the effect depends more on the first than on the second cause:
|
|
|
4868 since the second cause acts only in virtue of the first. Now it is from the eternal law, which is the Divine Reason, that
|
|
|
4869 human reason is the rule of the human will, from which the human derives its goodness. Hence it is written (
|
|
|
4870 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A4-p6.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.4.6" target="asv">Ps. 4:6,7</a>): "Many say: Who showeth us good things? The light of Thy countenance, O Lord,
|
|
|
4871 is signed upon us": as though to say: "The light of our reason is able to show us good things, and guide our will, in so far
|
|
|
4872 as it is the light (i.e. derived from) Thy countenance." It is therefore evident that the goodness of the human will depends
|
|
|
4873 on the eternal law much more than on human reason: and when human reason fails we must have recourse to the Eternal Reason.
|
|
|
4874 </p>
|
|
|
4875 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p7">
|
|
|
4876 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> To one thing there are not several proximate measures; but there can be several measures if one is subordinate to the other.
|
|
|
4877 </p>
|
|
|
4878 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p8">
|
|
|
4879 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A proximate measure is homogeneous with the thing measured; a remote measure is not.
|
|
|
4880 </p>
|
|
|
4881 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p9">
|
|
|
4882 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Although the eternal law is unknown to us according as it is in the Divine Mind: nevertheless, it becomes known to us somewhat,
|
|
|
4883 either by natural reason which is derived therefrom as its proper image; or by some sort of additional revelation.
|
|
|
4884 </p>
|
|
|
4885 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
4886 <p id="FS_Q19_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4887 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
4888 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4889 </div>
|
|
|
4890 <div id="FS_Q19_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
4891 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4892 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4893 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A5-p0.1">Whether the will is evil when it is at variance with erring reason?</h4>
|
|
|
4894 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4895 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p2">
|
|
|
4896 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is not evil when it is at variance with erring reason. Because the reason is the rule of the
|
|
|
4897 human will, in so far as it is derived from the eternal law, as stated above
|
|
|
4898 <a id="FS_Q19_A5-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html">(A[4])</a>. But erring reason is not derived from the eternal law. Therefore erring reason is not the rule of the human will. Therefore
|
|
|
4899 the will is not evil, if it be at variance with erring reason.
|
|
|
4900 </p>
|
|
|
4901 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p3">
|
|
|
4902 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to Augustine, the command of a lower authority does not bind if it be contrary to the command of a higher
|
|
|
4903 authority: for instance, if a provincial governor command something that is forbidden by the emperor. But erring reason sometimes
|
|
|
4904 proposes what is against the command of a higher power, namely, God Whose power is supreme. Therefore the decision of an erring
|
|
|
4905 reason does not bind. Consequently the will is not evil if it be at variance with
|
|
|
4906 erring reason.
|
|
|
4907 </p>
|
|
|
4908 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p4">
|
|
|
4909 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, every evil will is reducible to some species of malice. But the will that is at variance with erring reason is not
|
|
|
4910 reducible to some species of malice. For instance, if a man's reason err in telling him to commit fornication, his will in
|
|
|
4911 not willing to do so, cannot be reduced to any species of malice. Therefore the will is not evil when it is at variance with
|
|
|
4912 erring reason.
|
|
|
4913 </p>
|
|
|
4914 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p5">
|
|
|
4915 <b>On the contrary,</b> As stated in the
|
|
|
4916 <a id="FS_Q19_A5-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q79_A13.html">FP, Q[79], A[13]</a>, conscience is nothing else than the application of knowledge to some action. Now knowledge is in the reason. Therefore when
|
|
|
4917 the will is at variance with erring reason, it is against conscience. But every such will is evil; for it is written (
|
|
|
4918 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A5-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Rom.14.23" target="asv">Rom. 14:23</a>): "All that is not of faith"---i.e. all that is against conscience---"is sin." Therefore the will is evil when it is at
|
|
|
4919 variance with erring reason.
|
|
|
4920 </p>
|
|
|
4921 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p6">
|
|
|
4922 <b>I answer that,</b> Since conscience is a kind of dictate of the reason (for it is an application of knowledge to action, as was stated in the
|
|
|
4923
|
|
|
4924 <a id="FS_Q19_A5-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q19_A13.html">FP, Q[19], A[13]</a>), to inquire whether the will is evil when it is at variance with erring reason, is the same as to inquire "whether an erring
|
|
|
4925 conscience binds." On this matter, some distinguished three kinds of actions: for some are good generically; some are indifferent;
|
|
|
4926 some are evil generically. And they say
|
|
|
4927 that if reason or conscience tell us to do something which is good generically, there is no error: and in like manner if it
|
|
|
4928 tell us not to do something which is evil generically; since it is the same reason that prescribes what is good and forbids
|
|
|
4929 what is evil. On the other hand if a man's reason or conscience tells him that he is bound by precept to do what is evil in
|
|
|
4930 itself; or that what is good in itself, is forbidden, then his reason or conscience errs. In like manner if a man's reason
|
|
|
4931 or
|
|
|
4932 conscience tell him, that what is indifferent in itself, for instance to raise a straw from the ground, is forbidden or commanded,
|
|
|
4933 his reason or conscience errs. They say, therefore, that reason or conscience when erring in matters of indifference, either
|
|
|
4934 by commanding or by forbidding them, binds: so that the will which is at variance with that erring reason is evil and sinful.
|
|
|
4935 But they say that when reason or conscience errs in commanding what is evil in itself, or in forbidding what is good
|
|
|
4936 in itself and necessary for salvation, it does not bind; wherefore in such cases the will which is at variance with erring
|
|
|
4937 reason or conscience is not evil.
|
|
|
4938 </p>
|
|
|
4939 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p7"> But this is unreasonable. For in matters of indifference, the will that is at variance with erring reason or conscience,
|
|
|
4940 is evil in some way on account of the object, on which the goodness or malice of the will depends; not indeed on account of
|
|
|
4941 the object according as it is in its own nature; but according as it is accidentally apprehended by reason as something evil
|
|
|
4942 to do or to avoid. And since the object of the will is that which is proposed by the reason, as stated above
|
|
|
4943
|
|
|
4944 <a id="FS_Q19_A5-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, from the very fact that a thing is proposed by the reason as being evil, the will by tending thereto becomes evil. And this
|
|
|
4945 is the case not only in indifferent matters, but also in those that are good or evil in themselves. For not only indifferent
|
|
|
4946 matters can received the character of goodness or malice accidentally; but also that which is good, can receive the character
|
|
|
4947 of evil, or that which is evil, can receive the character of goodness, on account of the
|
|
|
4948 reason apprehending it as such. For instance, to refrain from fornication is good: yet the will does not tend to this good
|
|
|
4949 except in so far as it is proposed by the reason. If, therefore, the erring reason propose it as an evil, the will tends to
|
|
|
4950 it as to something evil. Consequently the will is evil, because it wills evil, not indeed that which is evil in itself, but
|
|
|
4951 that which is evil accidentally, through being apprehended as such by the reason. In like manner, to believe in Christ is
|
|
|
4952 good
|
|
|
4953 in itself, and necessary for salvation: but the will does not tend thereto, except inasmuch as it is proposed by the reason.
|
|
|
4954 Consequently if it be proposed by the reason as something evil, the will tends to it as to something evil: not as if it were
|
|
|
4955 evil in itself, but because it is evil accidentally, through the apprehension of the reason. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic.
|
|
|
4956 vii, 9) that "properly speaking the incontinent man is one who does not follow right reason; but accidentally, he is also
|
|
|
4957 one who does not follow false reason." We must therefore conclude that, absolutely speaking, every will at variance with reason,
|
|
|
4958 whether right or erring, is always evil.
|
|
|
4959 </p>
|
|
|
4960 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p8">
|
|
|
4961 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Although the judgment of an erring reason is not derived from God, yet the erring reason puts forward its judgment as being
|
|
|
4962 true, and consequently as being derived from God, from Whom is all truth.
|
|
|
4963 </p>
|
|
|
4964 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p9">
|
|
|
4965 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The saying of Augustine holds good when it is known that the inferior authority prescribes something contrary to the command
|
|
|
4966 of the higher authority. But if a man were to believe the command of the proconsul to be the command of the emperor, in scorning
|
|
|
4967 the command of the proconsul he would scorn the command of the emperor. In like manner if a man were to know that human reason
|
|
|
4968 was dictating something contrary to God's commandment, he would not be
|
|
|
4969 bound to abide by reason: but then reason would not be entirely erroneous. But when erring reason proposes something as being
|
|
|
4970 commanded by God, then to scorn the dictate of reason is to scorn the commandment of God.
|
|
|
4971 </p>
|
|
|
4972 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p10">
|
|
|
4973 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Whenever reason apprehends something as evil, it apprehends it under some species of evil; for instance, as being something
|
|
|
4974 contrary to a divine precept, or as giving scandal, or for some such like reason. And then that evil is reduced to that species
|
|
|
4975 of malice.
|
|
|
4976 </p>
|
|
|
4977 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p11"></p>
|
|
|
4978 <p id="FS_Q19_A5-p12"></p>
|
|
|
4979 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
4980 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
4981 </div>
|
|
|
4982 <div id="FS_Q19_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
4983 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
4984 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
4985 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A6-p0.1">Whether the will is good when it abides by erring reason?</h4>
|
|
|
4986 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
4987 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p2">
|
|
|
4988 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the will is good when it abides by erring reason. For just as the will, when at variance with the reason,
|
|
|
4989 tends to that which reason judges to be evil; so, when in accord with reason, it tends to what reason judges to be good. But
|
|
|
4990 the will is evil when it is at variance with reason, even when erring. Therefore even when it abides by erring reason, the
|
|
|
4991 will is good.
|
|
|
4992 </p>
|
|
|
4993 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p3">
|
|
|
4994 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the will is always good, when it abides by the commandment of God and the eternal law. But the eternal law and God's
|
|
|
4995 commandment are proposed to us by the apprehension of the reason, even when it errs. Therefore the will is good, even when
|
|
|
4996 it abides by erring reason.
|
|
|
4997 </p>
|
|
|
4998 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p4">
|
|
|
4999 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the will is evil when it is at variance with erring reason. If, therefore, the will is evil also when it abides
|
|
|
5000 by erring reason, it seems that the will is always evil when in conjunction with erring reason: so that in such a case a man
|
|
|
5001 would be in a dilemma, and, of necessity, would sin: which is unreasonable. Therefore the will is good when it abides by erring
|
|
|
5002 reason.
|
|
|
5003 </p>
|
|
|
5004 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p5">
|
|
|
5005 <b>On the contrary,</b> The will of those who slew the apostles was evil. And yet it was in accord with the erring reason, according to
|
|
|
5006 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A6-p5.1" href="./asv.html#John.16.2" target="asv"> Jn. 16:2</a>: "The hour cometh, that whosoever killeth you, will think that he doth a service to God." Therefore the will can be evil,
|
|
|
5007 when it abides by erring reason.
|
|
|
5008 </p>
|
|
|
5009 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p6">
|
|
|
5010 <b>I answer that,</b> Whereas the previous question is the same as inquiring "whether an erring conscience binds"; so this question is the same
|
|
|
5011 as inquiring "whether an erring conscience excuses." Now this question depends on what has been said above about ignorance.
|
|
|
5012 For it was said (Q[6], A[8]) that ignorance sometimes causes an act to be involuntary, and sometimes not. And since moral
|
|
|
5013 good and evil consist in action in so far as it is voluntary, as was stated above
|
|
|
5014
|
|
|
5015 <a id="FS_Q19_A6-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html">(A[2])</a>; it is evident that when ignorance causes an act to be involuntary, it takes away the character of moral good and evil; but
|
|
|
5016 not, when it does not cause the act to be involuntary. Again, it has been stated above (Q[6], A[8]) that when ignorance is
|
|
|
5017 in any way willed, either directly or indirectly, it does not cause the act to be involuntary. And I call that ignorance "directly"
|
|
|
5018 voluntary, to which the act of the will tends: and that, "indirectly" voluntary, which
|
|
|
5019 is due to negligence, by reason of a man not wishing to know what he ought to know, as stated above (Q[6], A[8]).
|
|
|
5020 </p>
|
|
|
5021 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p7"> If then reason or conscience err with an error that is involuntary, either directly, or through negligence, so that one errs
|
|
|
5022 about what one ought to know; then such an error of reason or conscience does not excuse the will, that abides by that erring
|
|
|
5023 reason or conscience, from being evil. But if the error arise from ignorance of some circumstance, and without any negligence,
|
|
|
5024 so that it cause the act to be involuntary, then that error of reason or conscience excuses the will,
|
|
|
5025 that abides by that erring reason, from being evil. For instance, if erring reason tell a man that he should go to another
|
|
|
5026 man's wife, the will that abides by that erring reason is evil; since this error arises from ignorance of the Divine Law,
|
|
|
5027 which he is bound to know. But if a man's reason, errs in mistaking another for his wife, and if he wish to give her her right
|
|
|
5028 when she asks for it, his will is excused from being evil: because this error arises from ignorance of a circumstance, which
|
|
|
5029 ignorance excuses, and causes the act to be involuntary.
|
|
|
5030 </p>
|
|
|
5031 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p8">
|
|
|
5032 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> As Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv), "good results from the entire cause, evil from each particular defect." Consequently in
|
|
|
5033 order that the thing to which the will tends be called evil, it suffices, either that it be evil in itself, or that it be
|
|
|
5034 apprehended as evil. But in order for it to be good, it must be good in both ways.
|
|
|
5035 </p>
|
|
|
5036 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p9">
|
|
|
5037 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The eternal law cannot err, but human reason can. Consequently the will that abides by human reason, is not always right,
|
|
|
5038 nor is it always in accord with the eternal law.
|
|
|
5039 </p>
|
|
|
5040 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p10">
|
|
|
5041 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Just as in syllogistic arguments, granted one absurdity, others must needs follow; so in moral matters, given one absurdity,
|
|
|
5042 others must follow too. Thus suppose a man to seek vainglory, he will sin, whether he does his duty for vainglory or whether
|
|
|
5043 he omit to do it. Nor is he in a dilemma about the matter: because he can put aside his evil intention. In like manner, suppose
|
|
|
5044 a man's reason or conscience to err through inexcusable ignorance, then evil
|
|
|
5045 must needs result in the will. Nor is this man in a dilemma: because he can lay aside his error, since his ignorance is vincible
|
|
|
5046 and voluntary.
|
|
|
5047 </p>
|
|
|
5048 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5049 <p id="FS_Q19_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5050 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5051 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5052 </div>
|
|
|
5053 <div id="FS_Q19_A7" class="div4">
|
|
|
5054 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5055 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5056 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A7-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will, as regards the means, depends on the intention of the end?</h4>
|
|
|
5057 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5058 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p2">
|
|
|
5059 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the will does not depend on the intention of the end. For it has been stated above
|
|
|
5060 <a id="FS_Q19_A7-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A2.html">(A[2])</a> that the goodness of the will depends on the object alone. But as regards the means, the object of the will is one thing,
|
|
|
5061 and the end intended is another. Therefore in such matters the goodness of the will does not depend on the intention of the
|
|
|
5062 end.
|
|
|
5063 </p>
|
|
|
5064 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p3">
|
|
|
5065 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, to wish to keep God's commandment, belongs to a good will. But this can be referred to an evil end, for instance,
|
|
|
5066 to vainglory or covetousness, by willing to obey God for the sake of temporal gain. Therefore the goodness of the will does
|
|
|
5067 not depend on the intention of the end.
|
|
|
5068 </p>
|
|
|
5069 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p4">
|
|
|
5070 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, just as good and evil diversify the will, so do they diversify the end. But malice of the will does not depend on
|
|
|
5071 the malice of the end intended; since a man who wills to steal in order to give alms, has an evil will, although he intends
|
|
|
5072 a good end. Therefore neither does the goodness of the will depend on the goodness of the end intended.
|
|
|
5073 </p>
|
|
|
5074 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p5">
|
|
|
5075 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Confess. ix, 3) that God rewards the intention. But God rewards a thing because it is good. Therefore the
|
|
|
5076 goodness of the will depends on the intention of the end.
|
|
|
5077 </p>
|
|
|
5078 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p6">
|
|
|
5079 <b>I answer that,</b> The intention may stand in a twofold relation to the act of the will; first, as preceding it, secondly as following [*Leonine
|
|
|
5080 edn.: 'accompanying'] it. The intention precedes the act of the will causally, when we will something because we intend a
|
|
|
5081 certain end. And then the order to the end is considered as the reason of the goodness of the thing willed: for instance,
|
|
|
5082 when a man wills to fast for God's sake; because the act of fasting is specifically good
|
|
|
5083 from the very fact that it is done for God's sake. Wherefore, since the goodness of the will depends on the goodness of the
|
|
|
5084 thing willed, as stated above (
|
|
|
5085 <a id="FS_Q19_A7-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2), it must, of necessity, depend on the intention of the end.
|
|
|
5086 </p>
|
|
|
5087 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p7"> On the other hand, intention follows the act of the will, when it is added to a preceding act of the will; for instance,
|
|
|
5088 a man may will to do something, and may afterwards refer it to God. And then the goodness of the previous act of the will
|
|
|
5089 does not depend on the subsequent intention, except in so far as that act is repeated with the subsequent intention.
|
|
|
5090 </p>
|
|
|
5091 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p8">
|
|
|
5092 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> When the intention is the cause of the act of willing, the order to the end is considered as the reason of the goodness of
|
|
|
5093 the object, as stated above.
|
|
|
5094 </p>
|
|
|
5095 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p9">
|
|
|
5096 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The act of the will cannot be said to be good, if an evil intention is the cause of willing. For when a man wills to give
|
|
|
5097 an alms for the sake of vainglory, he wills that which is good in itself, under a species of evil; and therefore, as willed
|
|
|
5098 by him, it is evil. Wherefore his will is evil. If, however, the intention is subsequent to the act of the will, then the
|
|
|
5099 latter may be good: and the intention does not spoil that act of the will which
|
|
|
5100 preceded, but that which is repeated.
|
|
|
5101 </p>
|
|
|
5102 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p10">
|
|
|
5103 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> As we have already stated (A[6], ad 1), "evil results from each particular defect, but good from the whole and entire cause."
|
|
|
5104 Hence, whether the will tend to what is evil in itself, even under the species of good; or to the good under the species of
|
|
|
5105 evil, it will be evil in either case. But in order for the will to be good, it must tend to the good under the species of
|
|
|
5106 good; in other words, it must will the good for the sake of the good.
|
|
|
5107 </p>
|
|
|
5108 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5109 <p id="FS_Q19_A7-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5110 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5111 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5112 </div>
|
|
|
5113 <div id="FS_Q19_A8" class="div4">
|
|
|
5114 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5115 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
5116 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A8-p0.1">Whether the degree of goodness or malice in the will depends on the degree of good or evil in the intention?</h4>
|
|
|
5117 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5118 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p2">
|
|
|
5119 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the degree of goodness in the will depends on the degree of good in the intention. Because on
|
|
|
5120 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A8-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.12.35" target="asv"> Mat. 12:35, </a> "A good man out of the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is good," a gloss says: "A man does as much good
|
|
|
5121 as he intends." But the intention gives goodness not only to the external action, but also to the act of the will, as stated
|
|
|
5122 above
|
|
|
5123 <a id="FS_Q19_A8-p2.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html">(A[7])</a>. Therefore the goodness of a
|
|
|
5124 man's will is according to the goodness of his intention.
|
|
|
5125 </p>
|
|
|
5126 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p3">
|
|
|
5127 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, if you add to the cause, you add to the effect. But the goodness of the intention is the cause of the good will.
|
|
|
5128 Therefore a man's will is good, according as his intention is good.
|
|
|
5129 </p>
|
|
|
5130 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p4">
|
|
|
5131 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, in evil actions, a man sins in proportion to his intention: for if a man were to throw a stone with a murderous
|
|
|
5132 intention, he would be guilty of murder. Therefore, for the same reason, in good actions, the will is good in proportion to
|
|
|
5133 the good intended.
|
|
|
5134 </p>
|
|
|
5135 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p5">
|
|
|
5136 <b>On the contrary,</b> The intention can be good, while the will is evil. Therefore, for the same reason, the intention can be better, and the will
|
|
|
5137 less good.
|
|
|
5138 </p>
|
|
|
5139 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p6">
|
|
|
5140 <b>I answer that,</b> In regard to both the act, and the intention of the end, we may consider a twofold quantity: one, on the part of the object,
|
|
|
5141 by reason of a man willing or doing a good that is greater; the other, taken from the intensity of the act, according as a
|
|
|
5142 man wills or acts intensely; and this is more on the part of the agent.
|
|
|
5143 </p>
|
|
|
5144 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p7"> If then we speak of these respective quantities from the point of view of the object, it is evident that the quantity in
|
|
|
5145 the act does not depend on the quantity in the intention. With regard to the external act this may happen in two ways. First,
|
|
|
5146 through the object that is ordained to the intended end not being proportionate to that end; for instance, if a man were to
|
|
|
5147 give ten pounds, he could not realize his intention, if he intended to buy a thing worth a hundred pounds.
|
|
|
5148 Secondly, on account of the obstacles that may supervene in regard to the exterior action, which obstacles we are unable to
|
|
|
5149 remove: for instance, a man intends to go to Rome, and encounters obstacles, which prevent him from going. On the other hand,
|
|
|
5150 with regard to the interior act of the will, this happens in only one way: because the interior acts of the will are in our
|
|
|
5151 power, whereas the external actions are not. But the will can will an object that is not proportionate to the intended end:
|
|
|
5152 and thus the will that tends to that object considered absolutely, is not so good as the intention. Yet because the intention
|
|
|
5153 also belongs, in a way, to the act of the will, inasmuch, to wit, as it is the reason thereof; it comes to pass that the quantity
|
|
|
5154 of goodness in the intention redounds upon the act of the will; that is to say, in so far as the will wills some great good
|
|
|
5155 for an end, although that by which it wills to gain so great a good, is not proportionate to that good.
|
|
|
5156 </p>
|
|
|
5157 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p8"> But if we consider the quantity in the intention and in the act, according to their respective intensity, then the intensity
|
|
|
5158 of the intention redounds upon the interior act and the exterior act of the will: since the intention stands in relation to
|
|
|
5159 them as a kind of form, as is clear from what has been said above (
|
|
|
5160 <a id="FS_Q19_A8-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q12_A4.html">Q[12], A[4]</a>;
|
|
|
5161 <a id="FS_Q19_A8-p8.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html"> Q[18], A[6]</a>). And yet considered materially, while the intention is intense, the interior or exterior
|
|
|
5162 act may be not so intense, materially speaking: for instance, when a man does not will with as much intensity to take medicine
|
|
|
5163 as he wills to regain health. Nevertheless the very fact of intending health intensely, redounds, as a formal principle, upon
|
|
|
5164 the intense volition of medicine.
|
|
|
5165 </p>
|
|
|
5166 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p9"> We must observe, however, that the intensity of the interior or exterior act, may be referred to the intention as its object:
|
|
|
5167 as when a man intends to will intensely, or to do something intensely. And yet it does not follow that he wills or acts intensely;
|
|
|
5168 because the quantity of goodness in the interior or exterior act does not depend on the quantity of the good intended, as
|
|
|
5169 is shown above. And hence it is that a man does not merit as much as he intends to merit: because the
|
|
|
5170 quantity of merit is measured by the intensity of the act, as we shall show later on (
|
|
|
5171 <a id="FS_Q19_A8-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A4.html">Q[20] , A[4]</a>;
|
|
|
5172 <a id="FS_Q19_A8-p9.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q114_A4.html"> Q[114], A[4]</a>).
|
|
|
5173 </p>
|
|
|
5174 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p10">
|
|
|
5175 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This gloss speaks of good as in the estimation of God, Who considers principally the intention of the end. Wherefore another
|
|
|
5176 gloss says on the same passage that "the treasure of the heart is the intention, according to which God judges our works."
|
|
|
5177 For the goodness of the intention, as stated above, redounds, so to speak, upon the goodness of the will, which makes even
|
|
|
5178 the external act to be meritorious in God's sight.
|
|
|
5179 </p>
|
|
|
5180 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p11">
|
|
|
5181 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The goodness of the intention is not the whole cause of a good will. Hence the argument does not prove.
|
|
|
5182 </p>
|
|
|
5183 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p12">
|
|
|
5184 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The mere malice of the intention suffices to make the will evil: and therefore too, the will is as evil as the intention
|
|
|
5185 is evil. But the same reasoning does not apply to goodness, as stated above (ad 2).
|
|
|
5186 </p>
|
|
|
5187 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p13"></p>
|
|
|
5188 <p id="FS_Q19_A8-p14"></p>
|
|
|
5189 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html"></a>
|
|
|
5190 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
5191 </div>
|
|
|
5192 <div id="FS_Q19_A9" class="div4">
|
|
|
5193 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5194 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
5195 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A9-p0.1">Whether the goodness of the will depends on its conformity to the Divine will?</h4>
|
|
|
5196 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5197 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p2">
|
|
|
5198 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness of the human will does not depend on its conformity to the Divine will. Because it is impossible
|
|
|
5199 for man's will to be conformed to the Divine will; as appears from the word of
|
|
|
5200 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A9-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.55.9" target="asv"> Isa. 55:9</a>: "As the heavens are exalted above the earth, so are My ways exalted above your ways, and My thoughts above your thoughts."
|
|
|
5201 If therefore goodness of the will depended on its conformity to the Divine will, it would follow
|
|
|
5202 that it is impossible for man's will to be good. Which is inadmissible.
|
|
|
5203 </p>
|
|
|
5204 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p3">
|
|
|
5205 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as our wills arise from the Divine will, so does our knowledge flow from the Divine knowledge. But our knowledge
|
|
|
5206 does not require to be conformed to God's knowledge; since God knows many things that we know not. Therefore there is no need
|
|
|
5207 for our will to be conformed to the Divine will.
|
|
|
5208 </p>
|
|
|
5209 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p4">
|
|
|
5210 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the will is a principle of action. But our action cannot be conformed to God's. Therefore neither can our will be
|
|
|
5211 conformed to His.
|
|
|
5212 </p>
|
|
|
5213 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p5">
|
|
|
5214 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
5215 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A9-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.26.39" target="asv">Mat. 26:39</a>): "Not as I will, but as Thou wilt": which words He said, because "He wishes man to be upright and to tend to God," as Augustine
|
|
|
5216 expounds in the Enchiridion [*Enarr. in
|
|
|
5217 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A9-p5.2" href="./asv.html#Ps.32" target="asv">Ps. 32</a>, serm. i.]. But the rectitude of the will is its goodness. Therefore the goodness of the will depends on its conformity to
|
|
|
5218 the Divine will.
|
|
|
5219 </p>
|
|
|
5220 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p6">
|
|
|
5221 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
5222 <a id="FS_Q19_A9-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A7.html">(A[7])</a>, the goodness of the will depends on the intention of the end. Now the last end of the human will is the Sovereign Good,
|
|
|
5223 namely, God, as stated above (Q[1], A[8]; Q[3], A[1]). Therefore the goodness of the human will requires it to be ordained
|
|
|
5224 to the Sovereign Good, that is, to God.
|
|
|
5225 </p>
|
|
|
5226 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p7"> Now this Good is primarily and essentially compared to the Divine will, as its proper object. Again, that which is first
|
|
|
5227 in any genus is the measure and rule of all that belongs to that genus. Moreover, everything attains to rectitude and goodness,
|
|
|
5228 in so far as it is in accord with its proper measure. Therefore, in order that man's will be good it needs to be conformed
|
|
|
5229 to the Divine will.
|
|
|
5230 </p>
|
|
|
5231 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p8">
|
|
|
5232 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The human will cannot be conformed to the will of God so as to equal it, but only so as to imitate it. In like manner human
|
|
|
5233 knowledge is conformed to the Divine knowledge, in so far as it knows truth: and human action is conformed to the Divine,
|
|
|
5234 in so far as it is becoming to the agent: and this by way of imitation, not by way of equality.
|
|
|
5235 </p>
|
|
|
5236 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p9"> From the above may be gathered the replies to the Second and Third Objections.</p>
|
|
|
5237 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p10"></p>
|
|
|
5238 <p id="FS_Q19_A9-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5239 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
5240 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
5241 </div>
|
|
|
5242 <div id="FS_Q19_A10" class="div4">
|
|
|
5243 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A9.html"></a>
|
|
|
5244 <a href="summa.FS_Q20.html"></a>
|
|
|
5245 <h4 id="FS_Q19_A10-p0.1">Whether it is necessary for the human will, in order to be good, to be conformed to the Divine will, as regards the thing
|
|
|
5246 willed?
|
|
|
5247 </h4>
|
|
|
5248 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5249 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p2">
|
|
|
5250 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the human will need not always be conformed to the Divine will, as regards the thing willed. For we cannot
|
|
|
5251 will what we know not: since the apprehended good is the object of the will. But in many things we know not what God wills.
|
|
|
5252 Therefore the human will cannot be conformed to the Divine will as to the thing willed.
|
|
|
5253 </p>
|
|
|
5254 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p3">
|
|
|
5255 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, God wills to damn the man whom He foresees about to die in mortal sin. If therefore man were bound to conform his
|
|
|
5256 will to the Divine will, in the point of the thing willed, it would follow that a man is bound to will his own damnation.
|
|
|
5257 Which is inadmissible.
|
|
|
5258 </p>
|
|
|
5259 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p4">
|
|
|
5260 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, no one is bound to will what is against filial piety. But if man were to will what God wills, this would sometimes
|
|
|
5261 be contrary to filial piety: for instance, when God wills the death of a father: if his son were to will it also, it would
|
|
|
5262 be against filial piety. Therefore man is not bound to conform his will to the Divine will, as to the thing willed.
|
|
|
5263 </p>
|
|
|
5264 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p5">
|
|
|
5265 <b>On the contrary,</b> (1) On
|
|
|
5266 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A10-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Ps.32.1" target="asv"> Ps. 32:1, </a> "Praise becometh the upright," a gloss says: "That man has an upright heart, who wills what God wills." But everyone is bound
|
|
|
5267 to have an upright heart. Therefore everyone is bound to will what God wills.
|
|
|
5268 </p>
|
|
|
5269 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p6"> (2) Moreover, the will takes its form from the object, as does every act. If therefore man is bound to conform his will to
|
|
|
5270 the Divine will, it follows that he is bound to conform it, as to the thing willed.
|
|
|
5271 </p>
|
|
|
5272 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p7"> (3) Moreover, opposition of wills arises from men willing different things. But whoever has a will in opposition to the Divine
|
|
|
5273 will, has an evil will. Therefore whoever does not conform his will to the Divine will, as to the thing willed, has an evil
|
|
|
5274 will.
|
|
|
5275 </p>
|
|
|
5276 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p8">
|
|
|
5277 <b>I answer that,</b> As is evident from what has been said above (
|
|
|
5278 <a id="FS_Q19_A10-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html">AA[3]</a>,5), the will tends to its object, according as it is proposed by the reason. Now a thing may be considered in various ways
|
|
|
5279 by the reason, so as to appear good from one point of view, and not good from another point of view. And therefore if a man's
|
|
|
5280 will wills a thing to be, according as it appears to be good, his will is good: and the will of another man, who wills that
|
|
|
5281 thing not to
|
|
|
5282 be, according as it appears evil, is also good. Thus a judge has a good will, in willing a thief to be put to death, because
|
|
|
5283 this is just: while the will of another---e.g. the thief's wife or son, who wishes him not to be put to death, inasmuch as
|
|
|
5284 killing is a natural evil, is also good.
|
|
|
5285 </p>
|
|
|
5286 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p9"> Now since the will follows the apprehension of the reason or intellect; the more universal the aspect of the apprehended
|
|
|
5287 good, the more universal the good to which the will tends. This is evident in the example given above: because the judge has
|
|
|
5288 care of the common good, which is justice, and therefore he wishes the thief's death, which has the aspect of good in relation
|
|
|
5289 to the common estate; whereas the thief's wife has to consider the private, the good of the family, and from
|
|
|
5290 this point of view she wishes her husband, the thief, not to be put to death. Now the good of the whole universe is that which
|
|
|
5291 is apprehended by God, Who is the Maker and Governor of all things: hence whatever He wills, He wills it under the aspect
|
|
|
5292 of the common good; this is His own Goodness, which is the good of the whole universe. On the other hand, the apprehension
|
|
|
5293 of a creature, according to its nature, is of some particular good, proportionate to that nature. Now a thing may happen to
|
|
|
5294 be
|
|
|
5295 good under a particular aspect, and yet not good under a universal aspect, or vice versa, as stated above. And therefore it
|
|
|
5296 comes to pass that a certain will is good from willing something considered under a particular aspect, which thing God wills
|
|
|
5297 not, under a universal aspect, and vice versa. And hence too it is, that various wills of various men can be good in respect
|
|
|
5298 of opposite things, for as much as, under various aspects, they wish a particular thing to be or not to be.
|
|
|
5299 </p>
|
|
|
5300 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p10"> But a man's will is not right in willing a particular good, unless he refer it to the common good as an end: since even the
|
|
|
5301 natural appetite of each part is ordained to the common good of the whole. Now it is the end that supplies the formal reason,
|
|
|
5302 as it were, of willing whatever is directed to the end. Consequently, in order that a man will some particular good with a
|
|
|
5303 right will, he must will that particular good materially, and the Divine and universal good, formally.
|
|
|
5304 Therefore the human will is bound to be conformed to the Divine will, as to that which is willed formally, for it is bound
|
|
|
5305 to will the Divine and universal good; but not as to that which is willed materially, for the reason given above.
|
|
|
5306 </p>
|
|
|
5307 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p11"> At the same time in both these respects, the human will is conformed to the Divine, in a certain degree. Because inasmuch
|
|
|
5308 as it is conformed to the Divine will in the common aspect of the thing willed, it is conformed thereto in the point of the
|
|
|
5309 last end. While, inasmuch as it is not conformed to the Divine will in the thing willed materially, it is conformed to that
|
|
|
5310 will considered as efficient cause; since the proper inclination consequent to nature, or to the particular
|
|
|
5311 apprehension of some particular thing, comes to a thing from God as its efficient cause. Hence it is customary to say that
|
|
|
5312 a man's will, in this respect, is conformed to the Divine will, because it wills what God wishes him to will.
|
|
|
5313 </p>
|
|
|
5314 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p12"> There is yet another kind of conformity in respect of the formal cause, consisting in man's willing something from charity,
|
|
|
5315 as God wills it. And this conformity is also reduced to the formal conformity, that is in respect of the last end, which is
|
|
|
5316 the proper object of charity.
|
|
|
5317 </p>
|
|
|
5318 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p13">
|
|
|
5319 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> We can know in a general way what God wills. For we know that whatever God wills, He wills it under the aspect of good. Consequently
|
|
|
5320 whoever wills a thing under any aspect of good, has a will conformed to the Divine will, as to the reason of the thing willed.
|
|
|
5321 But we know not what God wills in particular: and in this respect we are not bound to conform our will to the Divine will.
|
|
|
5322 </p>
|
|
|
5323 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p14"> But in the state of glory, every one will see in each thing that he wills, the relation of that thing to what God wills in
|
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|
5324 that particular matter. Consequently he will conform his will to God in all things not only formally, but also materially.
|
|
|
5325 </p>
|
|
|
5326 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p15">
|
|
|
5327 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> God does not will the damnation of a man, considered precisely as damnation, nor a man's death, considered precisely as death,
|
|
|
5328 because, "He wills all men to be saved" (
|
|
|
5329 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q19_A10-p15.1" href="./asv.html#iTim.2.4" target="asv">1 Tim. 2:4</a>); but He wills such things under the aspect of justice. Wherefore in regard to such things it suffices for man to will the
|
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|
5330 upholding of God's justice and of the natural order.
|
|
|
5331 </p>
|
|
108
|
5332 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p16"><b>Reply to Objection 3:</b>
|
|
|
5333 Wherefore the reply to the Third Objection is evident.</p>
|
|
64
|
5334 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p17"> To the first argument advanced in a contrary sense, it should be said that a man who conforms his will to God's, in the aspect
|
|
|
5335 of reason of the thing willed, wills what God wills, more than the man, who conforms his will to God's, in the point of the
|
|
|
5336 very thing willed; because the will tends more to the end, than to that which is on account of the end.
|
|
|
5337 </p>
|
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|
5338 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p18"> To the second, it must be replied that the species and form of an act are taken from the object considered formally, rather
|
|
|
5339 than from the object considered materially.
|
|
|
5340 </p>
|
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|
5341 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p19"> To the third, it must be said that there is no opposition of wills when several people desire different things, but not under
|
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|
5342 the same aspect: but there is opposition of wills, when under one and the same aspect, one man wills a thing which another
|
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|
5343 wills not. But there is no question of this here.
|
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|
5344 </p>
|
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|
5345 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p20"></p>
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5346 <p id="FS_Q19_A10-p21"></p>
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|
5347 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A9.html"></a>
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5348 <a href="summa.FS_Q20.html"></a>
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5349 </div>
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5350 <a href="summa.FS_Q18_A11.html"></a>
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5351 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html"></a>
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5352 </div>
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5353 <div id="FS_Q20" class="div3">
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5354 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A10.html"></a>
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5355 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html"></a>
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5356 <h3 id="FS_Q20-p0.1">OF GOODNESS AND MALICE IN EXTERNAL HUMAN AFFAIRS (SIX ARTICLES)</h3>
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5357 <p id="FS_Q20-p1"></p>
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5358 <p id="FS_Q20-p2"> We must next consider goodness and malice as to external actions: under which head there are six points of inquiry:</p>
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|
5359 <p id="FS_Q20-p3"> (1) Whether goodness and malice is first in the act of the will, or in the external action?</p>
|
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|
5360 <p id="FS_Q20-p4"> (2) Whether the whole goodness or malice of the external action depends on the goodness of the will?</p>
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|
5361 <p id="FS_Q20-p5"> (3) Whether the goodness and malice of the interior act are the same as those of the external action?</p>
|
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|
5362 <p id="FS_Q20-p6"> (4) Whether the external action adds any goodness or malice to that of the interior act?</p>
|
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|
5363 <p id="FS_Q20-p7"> (5) Whether the consequences of an external action increase its goodness or malice?</p>
|
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|
5364 <p id="FS_Q20-p8"> (6) Whether one and the same external action can be both good and evil?</p>
|
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5365 <div id="FS_Q20_A1" class="div4">
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5366 <a href="summa.FS_Q20.html"></a>
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5367 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A2.html"></a>
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5368 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A1-p0.1">Whether goodness or malice is first in the action of the will, or in the external action?</h4>
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5369 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p1"></p>
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5370 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p2">
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|
5371 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that good and evil are in the external action prior to being in the act of the will. For the will derives goodness
|
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|
5372 from its object, as stated above (
|
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|
5373 <a id="FS_Q20_A1-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A1.html">Q[19], AA[1]</a>,2). But the external action is the object of the interior act of the will: for a man is said to will to commit a theft, or
|
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|
5374 to will to give an alms. Therefore good and evil are in the external action, prior to being in the act of the will.
|
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|
5375 </p>
|
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|
5376 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p3">
|
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|
5377 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the aspect of good belongs first to the end: since what is directed to the end receives the aspect of good from
|
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|
5378 its relation to the end. Now whereas the act of the will cannot be an end, as stated above (
|
|
|
5379 <a id="FS_Q20_A1-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], A[1]</a>, ad 2), the act of another power can be an end. Therefore good is in the act of some other power prior to being in the act
|
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5380 of the will.
|
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|
5381 </p>
|
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|
5382 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p4">
|
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|
5383 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the act of the will stands in a formal relation to the external action, as stated above (
|
|
|
5384 <a id="FS_Q20_A1-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">Q[18], A[6]</a>). But that which is formal is subsequent; since form is something added to matter. Therefore good and evil are in the external
|
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5385 action, prior to being in the act of the will.
|
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|
5386 </p>
|
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5387 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p5">
|
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|
5388 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Retract. i, 9) that "it is by the will that we sin, and that we behave aright." Therefore moral good and
|
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5389 evil are first in the will.
|
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|
5390 </p>
|
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5391 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p6">
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|
5392 <b>I answer that,</b> External actions may be said to be good or bad in two ways. First, in regard to their genus, and the circumstances connected
|
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5393 with them: thus the giving of alms, if the required conditions be observed, is said to be good. Secondly, a thing is said
|
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|
5394 to be good or evil, from its relation to the end: thus the giving of alms for vainglory is said to be evil. Now, since the
|
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|
5395 end is the will's proper object, it is evident that this aspect of good or evil, which the
|
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|
5396 external action derives from its relation to the end, is to be found first of all in the act of the will, whence it passes
|
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|
5397 to the external action. On the other hand, the goodness or malice which the external action has of itself, on account of its
|
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5398 being about due matter and its being attended by due circumstances, is not derived from the will, but rather from the reason.
|
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|
5399 Consequently, if we consider the goodness of the external action, in so far as it comes from reason's ordination and
|
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5400 apprehension, it is prior to the goodness of the act of the will: but if we consider it in so far as it is in the execution
|
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|
5401 of the action done, it is subsequent to the goodness of the will, which is its principle.
|
|
|
5402 </p>
|
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|
5403 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p7">
|
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|
5404 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The exterior action is the object of the will, inasmuch as it is proposed to the will by the reason, as good apprehended
|
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|
5405 and ordained by the reason: and thus it is prior to the good in the act of the will. But inasmuch as it is found in the execution
|
|
|
5406 of the action, it is an effect of the will, and is subsequent to the will.
|
|
|
5407 </p>
|
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|
5408 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p8">
|
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|
5409 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The end precedes in the order of intention, but follows in the order of execution.
|
|
|
5410 </p>
|
|
|
5411 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p9">
|
|
|
5412 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> A form as received into matter, is subsequent to matter in the order of generation, although it precedes it in the order
|
|
|
5413 of nature: but inasmuch as it is in the active cause, it precedes in every way. Now the will is compared to the exterior action,
|
|
|
5414 as its efficient cause. Wherefore the goodness of the act of the will, as existing in the active cause, is the form of the
|
|
|
5415 exterior action.
|
|
|
5416 </p>
|
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|
5417 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p10"></p>
|
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|
5418 <p id="FS_Q20_A1-p11"></p>
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|
5419 <a href="summa.FS_Q20.html"></a>
|
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|
5420 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A2.html"></a>
|
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|
5421 </div>
|
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|
5422 <div id="FS_Q20_A2" class="div4">
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5423 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html"></a>
|
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|
5424 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
5425 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A2-p0.1">Whether the whole goodness and malice of the external action depends on the goodness of the will?</h4>
|
|
|
5426 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5427 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p2">
|
|
|
5428 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the whole goodness and malice of the external action depend on the goodness of the will. For it is written
|
|
|
5429 (
|
|
|
5430 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q20_A2-p2.1" href="./asv.html#Matt.7.18" target="asv">Mat. 7:18</a>): "A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can an evil tree bring forth good fruit." But, according to the gloss,
|
|
|
5431 the tree signifies the will, and fruit signifies works. Therefore, it is impossible for the interior act of the will to be
|
|
|
5432 good, and the external action evil, or vice versa.
|
|
|
5433 </p>
|
|
|
5434 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p3">
|
|
|
5435 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, Augustine says (Retract. i, 9) that there is no sin without the will. If therefore there is no sin in the will,
|
|
|
5436 there will be none in the external action. And so the whole goodness or malice of the external action depends on the will.
|
|
|
5437 </p>
|
|
|
5438 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p4">
|
|
|
5439 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the good and evil of which we are speaking now are differences of the moral act. Now differences make an essential
|
|
|
5440 division in a genus, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. vii, 12). Since therefore an act is moral from being voluntary,
|
|
|
5441 it seems that goodness and malice in an act are derived from the will alone.
|
|
|
5442 </p>
|
|
|
5443 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p5">
|
|
|
5444 <b>On the contrary,</b> Augustine says (Contra Mendac. vii), that "there are some actions which neither a good end nor a good will can make good."
|
|
|
5445 </p>
|
|
|
5446 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p6">
|
|
|
5447 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above
|
|
|
5448 <a id="FS_Q20_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, we may consider a twofold goodness or malice in the external action: one in respect of due matter and circumstances; the
|
|
|
5449 other in respect of the order to the end. And that which is in respect of the order to the end, depends entirely on the will:
|
|
|
5450 while that which is in respect of due matter or circumstances, depends on the reason: and on this goodness depends the goodness
|
|
|
5451 of the will, in so far as the will
|
|
|
5452 tends towards it.
|
|
|
5453 </p>
|
|
|
5454 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p7"> Now it must be observed, as was noted above (
|
|
|
5455 <a id="FS_Q20_A2-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A6.html">Q[19], A[6]</a>, ad 1), that for a thing to be evil, one single defect suffices, whereas, for it to be good simply, it is not enough for
|
|
|
5456 it to be good in one point only, it must be good in every respect. If therefore the will be good, both from its proper object
|
|
|
5457 and from its end, if follows that the external action is good. But if the will be good from its intention of the end, this
|
|
|
5458 is not enough to make the
|
|
|
5459 external action good: and if the will be evil either by reason of its intention of the end, or by reason of the act willed,
|
|
|
5460 it follows that the external action is evil.
|
|
|
5461 </p>
|
|
|
5462 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p8">
|
|
|
5463 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> If the good tree be taken to signify the good will, it must be in so far as the will derives goodness from the act willed
|
|
|
5464 and from the end intended.
|
|
|
5465 </p>
|
|
|
5466 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p9">
|
|
|
5467 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> A man sins by his will, not only when he wills an evil end; but also when he wills an evil act.
|
|
|
5468 </p>
|
|
|
5469 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p10">
|
|
|
5470 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Voluntariness applies not only to the interior act of the will, but also to external actions, inasmuch as they proceed from
|
|
|
5471 the will and the reason. Consequently the difference of good and evil is applicable to both the interior and external act.
|
|
|
5472 </p>
|
|
|
5473 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5474 <p id="FS_Q20_A2-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5475 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5476 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5477 </div>
|
|
|
5478 <div id="FS_Q20_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
5479 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5480 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5481 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A3-p0.1">Whether the goodness and malice of the external action are the same as those of the interior act?</h4>
|
|
|
5482 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5483 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p2">
|
|
|
5484 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the goodness and malice of the interior act of the will are not the same as those of the external action.
|
|
|
5485 For the principle of the interior act is the interior apprehensive or appetitive power of the soul; whereas the principle
|
|
|
5486 of the external action is the power that accomplishes the movement. Now where the principles of action are different, the
|
|
|
5487 actions themselves are different. Moreover, it is the action which is the subject of goodness
|
|
|
5488 or malice: and the same accident cannot be in different subjects. Therefore the goodness of the interior act cannot be the
|
|
|
5489 same as that of the external action.
|
|
|
5490 </p>
|
|
|
5491 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p3">
|
|
|
5492 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, "A virtue makes that, which has it, good, and renders its action good also" (Ethic. ii, 6). But the intellective
|
|
|
5493 virtue in the commanding power is distinct from the moral virtue in the power commanded, as is declared in Ethic. i, 13. Therefore
|
|
|
5494 the goodness of the interior act, which belongs to the commanding power, is distinct from the goodness of the external action,
|
|
|
5495 which belongs to the power commanded.
|
|
|
5496 </p>
|
|
|
5497 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p4">
|
|
|
5498 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the same thing cannot be cause and effect; since nothing is its own cause. But the goodness of the interior act
|
|
|
5499 is the cause of the goodness of the external action, or vice versa, as stated above (
|
|
|
5500 <a id="FS_Q20_A3-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2). Therefore it is not the same goodness in each.
|
|
|
5501 </p>
|
|
|
5502 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p5">
|
|
|
5503 <b>On the contrary,</b> It was shown above (
|
|
|
5504 <a id="FS_Q20_A3-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A6.html">Q[18], A[6]</a>) that the act of the will is the form, as it were, of the external action. Now that which results from the material and formal
|
|
|
5505 element is one thing. Therefore there is but one goodness of the internal and external act.
|
|
|
5506 </p>
|
|
|
5507 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p6">
|
|
|
5508 <b>I answer that,</b> As stated above (Q[17], A[4]), the interior act of the will, and the external action, considered morally, are one act. Now
|
|
|
5509 it happens sometimes that one and the same individual act has several aspects of goodness or malice, and sometimes that it
|
|
|
5510 has but one. Hence we must say that sometimes the goodness or malice of the interior act is the same as that of the external
|
|
|
5511 action, and sometimes not. For as we have already said (
|
|
|
5512 <a id="FS_Q20_A3-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2),
|
|
|
5513 these two goodnesses or malices, of the internal and external acts, are ordained to one another. Now it may happen, in things
|
|
|
5514 that are subordinate to something else, that a thing is good merely from being subordinate; thus a bitter draught is good
|
|
|
5515 merely because it procures health. Wherefore there are not two goodnesses, one the goodness of health, and the other the goodness
|
|
|
5516 of the draught; but one and the same. On the other hand it happens sometimes that that which is subordinate to something
|
|
|
5517 else, has some aspect of goodness in itself, besides the fact of its being subordinate to some other good: thus a palatable
|
|
|
5518 medicine can be considered in the light of a pleasurable good, besides being conducive to health.
|
|
|
5519 </p>
|
|
|
5520 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p7"> We must therefore say that when the external action derives goodness or malice from its relation to the end only, then there
|
|
|
5521 is but one and the same goodness of the act of the will which of itself regards the end, and of the external action, which
|
|
|
5522 regards the end through the medium of the act of the will. But when the external action has goodness or malice of itself,
|
|
|
5523 i.e. in regard to its matter and circumstances, then the goodness of the external action is distinct from the
|
|
|
5524 goodness of the will in regarding the end; yet so that the goodness of the end passes into the external action, and the goodness
|
|
|
5525 of the matter and circumstances passes into the act of the will, as stated above (
|
|
|
5526 <a id="FS_Q20_A3-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2).
|
|
|
5527 </p>
|
|
|
5528 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p8">
|
|
|
5529 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This argument proves that the internal and external actions are different in the physical order: yet distinct as they are
|
|
|
5530 in that respect, they combine to form one thing in the moral order, as stated above (
|
|
|
5531 <a id="FS_Q20_A3-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q17_A4.html">Q[17], A[4]</a>).
|
|
|
5532 </p>
|
|
|
5533 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p9">
|
|
|
5534 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> As stated in Ethic. vi, 12, a moral virtue is ordained to the act of that virtue, which act is the end, as it were, of that
|
|
|
5535 virtue; whereas prudence, which is in the reason, is ordained to things directed to the end. For this reason various virtues
|
|
|
5536 are necessary. But right reason in regard to the very end of a virtue has no other goodness than the goodness of that virtue,
|
|
|
5537 in so far as the goodness of the reason is participated in each virtue.
|
|
|
5538 </p>
|
|
|
5539 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p10">
|
|
|
5540 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> When a thing is derived by one thing from another, as from a univocal efficient cause, then it is not the same in both: thus
|
|
|
5541 when a hot thing heats, the heat of the heater is distinct from the heat of the thing heated, although it be the same specifically.
|
|
|
5542 But when a thing is derived from one thing from another, according to analogy or proportion, then it is one and the same in
|
|
|
5543 both: thus the healthiness which is in medicine or urine is derived from
|
|
|
5544 the healthiness of the animal's body; nor is health as applied to urine and medicine, distinct from health as applied to the
|
|
|
5545 body of an animal, of which health medicine is the cause, and urine the sign. It is in this way that the goodness of the external
|
|
|
5546 action is derived from the goodness of the will, and vice versa; viz. according to the order of one to the other.
|
|
|
5547 </p>
|
|
|
5548 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5549 <p id="FS_Q20_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5550 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5551 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5552 </div>
|
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|
5553 <div id="FS_Q20_A4" class="div4">
|
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5554 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A3.html"></a>
|
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|
5555 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5556 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A4-p0.1">Whether the external action adds any goodness or malice to that of the interior act?</h4>
|
|
|
5557 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5558 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p2">
|
|
|
5559 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the external action does not add any goodness or malice to that of the interior action. For Chrysostom
|
|
|
5560 says (Hom. xix in Mat.): "It is the will that is rewarded for doing good, or punished for doing evil." Now works are the witnesses
|
|
|
5561 of the will. Therefore God seeks for works not on His own account, in order to know how to judge; but for the sake of others,
|
|
|
5562 that all may understand how just He is. But good or evil is to be estimated according
|
|
|
5563 to God's judgment rather than according to the judgment of man. Therefore the external action adds no goodness or malice to
|
|
|
5564 that of the interior act.
|
|
|
5565 </p>
|
|
|
5566 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p3">
|
|
|
5567 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the goodness and malice of the interior and external acts are one and the same, as stated above
|
|
|
5568 <a id="FS_Q20_A4-p3.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A3.html">(A[3])</a>. But increase is the addition of one thing to another. Therefore the external action does not add to the goodness or malice
|
|
|
5569 of the interior act.
|
|
|
5570 </p>
|
|
|
5571 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p4">
|
|
|
5572 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, the entire goodness of created things does not add to the Divine Goodness, because it is entirely derived therefrom.
|
|
|
5573 But sometimes the entire goodness of the external action is derived from the goodness of the interior act, and sometimes conversely,
|
|
|
5574 as stated above (
|
|
|
5575 <a id="FS_Q20_A4-p4.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2). Therefore neither of them adds to the goodness or malice of the other.
|
|
|
5576 </p>
|
|
|
5577 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p5">
|
|
|
5578 <b>On the contrary,</b> Every agent intends to attain good and avoid evil. If therefore by the external action no further goodness or malice be added,
|
|
|
5579 it is to no purpose that he who has a good or an evil will, does a good deed or refrains from an evil deed. Which is unreasonable.
|
|
|
5580 </p>
|
|
|
5581 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p6">
|
|
|
5582 <b>I answer that,</b> If we speak of the goodness which the external action derives from the will tending to the end, then the external action
|
|
|
5583 adds nothing to this goodness, unless it happens that the will in itself is made better in good things, or worse in evil things.
|
|
|
5584 This, seemingly, may happen in three ways. First in point of number; if, for instance, a man wishes to do something with a
|
|
|
5585 good or an evil end in view, and does not do it then, but afterwards wills and does it,
|
|
|
5586 the act of his will is doubled and a double good, or a double evil is the result. Secondly, in point of extension: when, for
|
|
|
5587 instance, a man wishes to do something for a good or an evil end, and is hindered by some obstacle, whereas another man perseveres
|
|
|
5588 in the movement of the will until he accomplish it in deed; it is evident that the will of the latter is more lasting in good
|
|
|
5589 or evil, and in this respect, is better or worse. Thirdly, in point of intensity: for these are certain external
|
|
|
5590 actions, which, in so far as they are pleasurable, or painful, are such as naturally to make the will more intense or more
|
|
|
5591 remiss; and it is evident that the more intensely the will tends to good or evil, the better or worse it is.
|
|
|
5592 </p>
|
|
|
5593 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p7"> On the other hand, if we speak of the goodness which the external action derives from its matter and due circumstances, thus
|
|
|
5594 it stands in relation to the will as its term and end. And in this way it adds to the goodness or malice of the will; because
|
|
|
5595 every inclination or movement is perfected by attaining its end or reaching its term. Wherefore the will is not perfect, unless
|
|
|
5596 it be such that, given the opportunity, it realizes the operation. But if this prove impossible, as long
|
|
|
5597 as the will is perfect, so as to realize the operation if it could; the lack of perfection derived from the external action,
|
|
|
5598 is simply involuntary. Now just as the involuntary deserves neither punishment nor reward in the accomplishment of good or
|
|
|
5599 evil deeds, so neither does it lessen reward or punishment, if a man through simple involuntariness fail to do good or evil.
|
|
|
5600 </p>
|
|
|
5601 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p8">
|
|
|
5602 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Chrysostom is speaking of the case where a man's will is complete, and does not refrain from the deed save through the impossibility
|
|
|
5603 of achievement.
|
|
|
5604 </p>
|
|
|
5605 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p9">
|
|
|
5606 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> This argument applies to that goodness which the external action derives from the will as tending to the end. But the goodness
|
|
|
5607 which the external action takes from its matter and circumstances, is distinct from that which it derives from the end; but
|
|
|
5608 it is not distinct from that which it has from the very act willed, to which it stands in the relation of measure and cause,
|
|
|
5609 as stated above (
|
|
|
5610 <a id="FS_Q20_A4-p9.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html">AA[1]</a>,2).
|
|
|
5611 </p>
|
|
112
|
5612 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p10"><b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> From this the reply to the Third Objection is evident.</p>
|
|
64
|
5613 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5614 <p id="FS_Q20_A4-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5615 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5616 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5617 </div>
|
|
|
5618 <div id="FS_Q20_A5" class="div4">
|
|
|
5619 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5620 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5621 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A5-p0.1">Whether the consequences of the external action increase its goodness or malice?</h4>
|
|
|
5622 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5623 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p2">
|
|
|
5624 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that the consequences of the external action increase its goodness or malice. For the effect pre-exists virtually
|
|
|
5625 in its cause. But the consequences result from the action as an effect from its cause. Therefore they pre-exist virtually
|
|
|
5626 in actions. Now a thing is judged to be good or bad according to its virtue, since a virtue "makes that which has it to be
|
|
|
5627 good" (Ethic. ii, 6). Therefore the consequences increase the goodness or malice of an
|
|
|
5628 action.
|
|
|
5629 </p>
|
|
|
5630 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p3">
|
|
|
5631 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, the good actions of his hearers are consequences resulting from the words of a preacher. But such goods as these
|
|
|
5632 redound to the merit of the preacher, as is evident from
|
|
|
5633 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q20_A5-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Phil.4.1" target="asv"> Phil. 4:1</a>: "My dearly beloved brethren, my joy and my crown." Therefore the consequences of an action increase its goodness or malice.
|
|
|
5634 </p>
|
|
|
5635 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p4">
|
|
|
5636 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, punishment is not increased, unless the fault increases: wherefore it is written (
|
|
|
5637 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q20_A5-p4.1" href="./asv.html#Deut.25.2" target="asv">Dt. 25:2</a>): "According to the measure of the sin shall the measure also of the stripes be." But the punishment is increased on account
|
|
|
5638 of the consequences; for it is written (
|
|
|
5639 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q20_A5-p4.2" href="./asv.html#Exod.21.29" target="asv">Ex. 21:29</a>): "But if the ox was wont to push with his horn yesterday and the day before, and they warned his master, and he did not
|
|
|
5640 shut him up, and he shall
|
|
|
5641 kill a man or a woman, then the ox shall be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death." But he would not have been
|
|
|
5642 put to death, if the ox, although he had not been shut up, had not killed a man. Therefore the consequences increase the goodness
|
|
|
5643 or malice of an action.
|
|
|
5644 </p>
|
|
|
5645 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p5">
|
|
|
5646 <b>Objection 4:</b> Further, if a man do something which may cause death, by striking, or by sentencing, and if death does not ensue, he does
|
|
|
5647 not contract irregularity: but he would if death were to ensue. Therefore the consequence of an action increase its goodness
|
|
|
5648 or malice.
|
|
|
5649 </p>
|
|
|
5650 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p6">
|
|
|
5651 <b>On the contrary,</b> The consequences do not make an action that was evil, to be good; nor one that was good, to be evil. For instance, if a man
|
|
|
5652 give an alms to a poor man who makes bad use of the alms by committing a sin, this does not undo the good done by the giver;
|
|
|
5653 and, in like manner, if a man bear patiently a wrong done to him, the wrongdoer is not thereby excused. Therefore the consequences
|
|
|
5654 of an action doe not increase its goodness or malice.
|
|
|
5655 </p>
|
|
|
5656 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p7">
|
|
|
5657 <b>I answer that,</b> The consequences of an action are either foreseen or not. If they are foreseen, it is evident that they increase the goodness
|
|
|
5658 or malice. For when a man foresees that many evils may follow from his action, and yet does not therefore desist therefrom,
|
|
|
5659 this shows his will to be all the more inordinate.
|
|
|
5660 </p>
|
|
|
5661 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p8"> But if the consequences are not foreseen, we must make a distinction. Because if they follow from the nature of the action
|
|
|
5662 and in the majority of cases, in this respect, the consequences increase the goodness or malice of that action: for it is
|
|
|
5663 evident that an action is specifically better, if better results can follow from it; and specifically worse, if it is of a
|
|
|
5664 nature to produce worse results. On the other hand, if the consequences follow by accident and seldom, then they do
|
|
|
5665 not increase the goodness or malice of the action: because we do not judge of a thing according to that which belongs to it
|
|
|
5666 by accident, but only according to that which belongs to it of itself.
|
|
|
5667 </p>
|
|
|
5668 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p9">
|
|
|
5669 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> The virtue of a cause is measured by the effect that flows from the nature of the cause, not by that which results by accident.
|
|
|
5670 </p>
|
|
|
5671 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p10">
|
|
|
5672 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The good actions done by the hearers, result from the preacher's words, as an effect that flows from their very nature. Hence
|
|
|
5673 they redound to the merit of the preacher: especially when such is his intention.
|
|
|
5674 </p>
|
|
|
5675 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p11">
|
|
|
5676 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The consequences for which that man is ordered to be punished, both follow from the nature of the cause, and are supposed
|
|
|
5677 to be foreseen. For this reason they are reckoned as punishable.
|
|
|
5678 </p>
|
|
|
5679 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p12">
|
|
|
5680 <b>Reply to Objection 4:</b> This argument would prove if irregularity were the result of the fault. But it is not the result of the fault, but of the
|
|
|
5681 fact, and of the obstacle to the reception of a sacrament.
|
|
|
5682 </p>
|
|
|
5683 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p13"></p>
|
|
|
5684 <p id="FS_Q20_A5-p14"></p>
|
|
|
5685 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5686 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5687 </div>
|
|
|
5688 <div id="FS_Q20_A6" class="div4">
|
|
|
5689 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5690 <a href="summa.FS_Q21.html"></a>
|
|
|
5691 <h4 id="FS_Q20_A6-p0.1">Whether one and the same external action can be both good and evil?</h4>
|
|
|
5692 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5693 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p2">
|
|
|
5694 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that one and the same external action can be both good and evil. For "movement, if continuous, is one and the
|
|
|
5695 same" (Phys. v, 4). But one continuous movement can be both good and bad: for instance, a man may go to church continuously,
|
|
|
5696 intending at first vainglory, and afterwards the service of God. Therefore one and the same action can be both good and bad.
|
|
|
5697 </p>
|
|
|
5698 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p3">
|
|
|
5699 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, according to the Philosopher (Phys. iii, 3), action and passion are one act. But the passion may be good, as Christ's
|
|
|
5700 was; and the action evil, as that of the Jews. Therefore one and the same act can be both good and evil.
|
|
|
5701 </p>
|
|
|
5702 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p4">
|
|
|
5703 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, since a servant is an instrument, as it were, of his master, the servant's action is his master's, just as the action
|
|
|
5704 of a tool is the workman's action. But it may happen that the servant's action result from his master's good will, and is
|
|
|
5705 therefore good: and from the evil will of the servant, and is therefore evil. Therefore the same action can be both good and
|
|
|
5706 evil.
|
|
|
5707 </p>
|
|
|
5708 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p5">
|
|
|
5709 <b>On the contrary,</b> The same thing cannot be the subject of contraries. But good and evil are contraries. Therefore the same action cannot be
|
|
|
5710 both good and evil.
|
|
|
5711 </p>
|
|
112
|
5712 <!-- Duplicate <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p6">
|
|
64
|
5713 <b>On the contrary,</b> The same thing cannot be the subject of contraries. But good and evil are contraries. Therefore the same action cannot be
|
|
|
5714 both good and evil.
|
|
112
|
5715 </p>-->
|
|
64
|
5716 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p7">
|
|
|
5717 <b>I answer that,</b> Nothing hinders a thing from being one, in so far as it is in one genus, and manifold, in so far as it is referred to another
|
|
|
5718 genus. Thus a continuous surface is one, considered as in the genus of quantity; and yet it is manifold, considered as to
|
|
|
5719 the genus of color, if it be partly white, and partly black. And accordingly, nothing hinders an action from being one, considered
|
|
|
5720 in the natural order; whereas it is not one, considered in the moral order; and
|
|
|
5721 vice versa, as we have stated above (A[3], ad 1;
|
|
|
5722 <a id="FS_Q20_A6-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q18_A7.html"> Q[18], A[7]</a>, ad 1). For continuous walking is one action, considered in the natural order: but it may resolve itself into many actions,
|
|
|
5723 considered in the moral order, if a change take place in the walker's will, for the will is the principle of moral actions.
|
|
|
5724 If therefore we consider one action in the moral order, it is impossible for it to be morally both good and evil. Whereas
|
|
|
5725 if it be one as to natural and not moral
|
|
|
5726 unity, it can be both good and evil.
|
|
|
5727 </p>
|
|
|
5728 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p8">
|
|
|
5729 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> This continual movement which proceeds from various intentions, although it is one in the natural order, is not one in the
|
|
|
5730 point of moral unity.
|
|
|
5731 </p>
|
|
|
5732 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p9">
|
|
|
5733 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Action and passion belong to the moral order, in so far as they are voluntary. And therefore in so far as they are voluntary
|
|
|
5734 in respect of wills that differ, they are two distinct things, and good can be in one of them while evil is in the other.
|
|
|
5735 </p>
|
|
|
5736 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p10">
|
|
|
5737 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> The action of the servant, in so far as it proceeds from the will of the servant, is not the master's action: but only in
|
|
|
5738 so far as it proceeds from the master's command. Wherefore the evil will of the servant does not make the action evil in this
|
|
|
5739 respect.
|
|
|
5740 </p>
|
|
|
5741 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5742 <p id="FS_Q20_A6-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5743 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A5.html"></a>
|
|
|
5744 <a href="summa.FS_Q21.html"></a>
|
|
|
5745 </div>
|
|
|
5746 <a href="summa.FS_Q19_A10.html"></a>
|
|
|
5747 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5748 </div>
|
|
|
5749 <div id="FS_Q21" class="div3">
|
|
|
5750 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
5751 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5752 <h3 id="FS_Q21-p0.1">OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN ACTIONS BY REASON OF THEIR GOODNESS AND MALICE (FOUR ARTICLES)</h3>
|
|
|
5753 <p id="FS_Q21-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5754 <p id="FS_Q21-p2"> We have now to consider the consequences of human actions by reason of their goodness and malice: and under this head there
|
|
|
5755 are four points of inquiry:
|
|
|
5756 </p>
|
|
|
5757 <p id="FS_Q21-p3"> (1) Whether a human action is right or sinful by reason of its being good or evil?</p>
|
|
|
5758 <p id="FS_Q21-p4"> (2) Whether it thereby deserves praise or blame?</p>
|
|
|
5759 <p id="FS_Q21-p5"> (3) Whether accordingly, it is meritorious or demeritorious?</p>
|
|
|
5760 <p id="FS_Q21-p6"> (4) Whether it is accordingly meritorious or demeritorious before God?</p>
|
|
|
5761 <div id="FS_Q21_A1" class="div4">
|
|
|
5762 <a href="summa.FS_Q21.html"></a>
|
|
|
5763 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5764 <h4 id="FS_Q21_A1-p0.1">Whether a human action is right or sinful, in so far as it is good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
5765 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5766 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p2">
|
|
|
5767 <b>Objection 1:</b> It seems that a human action is not right or sinful, in so far as it is good or evil. For "monsters are the sins of nature"
|
|
|
5768 (Phys. ii, 8). But monsters are not actions, but things engendered outside the order of nature. Now things that are produced
|
|
|
5769 according to art and reason imitate those that are produced according to nature (Phys. ii, 8). Therefore an action is not
|
|
|
5770 sinful by reason of its being inordinate and evil.
|
|
|
5771 </p>
|
|
|
5772 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p3">
|
|
|
5773 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, sin, as stated in Phys. ii, 8 occurs in nature and art, when the end intended by nature or art is not attained.
|
|
|
5774 But the goodness or malice of a human action depends, before all, on the intention of the end, and on its achievement. Therefore
|
|
|
5775 it seems that the malice of an action does not make it sinful.
|
|
|
5776 </p>
|
|
|
5777 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p4">
|
|
|
5778 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if the malice of an action makes it sinful, it follows that wherever there is evil, there is sin. But this is false:
|
|
|
5779 since punishment is not a sin, although it is an evil. Therefore an action is not sinful by reason of its being evil.
|
|
|
5780 </p>
|
|
|
5781 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p5">
|
|
|
5782 <b>On the contrary,</b> As shown above (
|
|
|
5783 <a id="FS_Q21_A1-p5.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A4.html">Q[19], A[4]</a>), the goodness of a human action depends principally on the Eternal Law: and consequently its malice consists in its being
|
|
|
5784 in disaccord with the Eternal Law. But this is the very nature of sin; for Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 27) that "sin
|
|
|
5785 is a word, deed, or desire, in opposition to the Eternal Law." Therefore a human action is sinful by reason of its being evil.
|
|
|
5786 </p>
|
|
|
5787 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p6">
|
|
|
5788 <b>I answer that,</b> Evil is more comprehensive than sin, as also is good than right. For every privation of good, in whatever subject, is an
|
|
|
5789 evil: whereas sin consists properly in an action done for a certain end, and lacking due order to that end. Now the due order
|
|
|
5790 to an end is measured by some rule. In things that act according to nature, this rule is the natural force that inclines them
|
|
|
5791 to that end. When therefore an action proceeds from a natural force, in accord with the
|
|
|
5792 natural inclination to an end, then the action is said to be right: since the mean does not exceed its limits, viz. the action
|
|
|
5793 does not swerve from the order of its active principle to the end. But when an action strays from this rectitude, it comes
|
|
|
5794 under the notion of sin.
|
|
|
5795 </p>
|
|
|
5796 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p7"> Now in those things that are done by the will, the proximate rule is the human reason, while the supreme rule is the Eternal
|
|
|
5797 Law. When, therefore, a human action tends to the end, according to the order of reason and of the Eternal Law, then that
|
|
|
5798 action is right: but when it turns aside from that rectitude, then it is said to be a sin. Now it is evident from what has
|
|
|
5799 been said (
|
|
|
5800 <a id="FS_Q21_A1-p7.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q19_A3.html">Q[19], AA[3]</a>,4) that every voluntary action that turns aside from the order
|
|
|
5801 of reason and of the Eternal Law, is evil, and that every good action is in accord with reason and the Eternal Law. Hence
|
|
|
5802 it follows that a human action is right or sinful by reason of its being good or evil.
|
|
|
5803 </p>
|
|
|
5804 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p8">
|
|
|
5805 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Monsters are called sins, inasmuch as they result from a sin in nature's action.
|
|
|
5806 </p>
|
|
|
5807 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p9">
|
|
|
5808 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> The end is twofold; the last end, and the proximate end. In the sin of nature, the action does indeed fail in respect of
|
|
|
5809 the last end, which is the perfection of the thing generated; but it does not fail in respect of any proximate end whatever;
|
|
|
5810 since when nature works it forms something. In like manner, the sin of the will always fails as regards the last end intended,
|
|
|
5811 because no voluntary evil action can be ordained to happiness, which is the last
|
|
|
5812 end: and yet it does not fail in respect of some proximate end: intended and achieved by the will. Wherefore also, since the
|
|
|
5813 very intention of this end is ordained to the last end, this same intention may be right or sinful.
|
|
|
5814 </p>
|
|
|
5815 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p10">
|
|
|
5816 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Each thing is ordained to its end by its action: and therefore sin, which consists in straying from the order to the end,
|
|
|
5817 consists properly in an action. On the other hand, punishment regards the person of the sinner, as was stated in the
|
|
|
5818 <a id="FS_Q21_A1-p10.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q48_A5.html">FP, Q[48], A[5]</a>, ad 4; A[6], ad 3.
|
|
|
5819 </p>
|
|
|
5820 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5821 <p id="FS_Q21_A1-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5822 <a href="summa.FS_Q21.html"></a>
|
|
|
5823 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5824 </div>
|
|
|
5825 <div id="FS_Q21_A2" class="div4">
|
|
|
5826 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5827 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5828 <h4 id="FS_Q21_A2-p0.1">Whether a human action deserves praise or blame, by reason of its being good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
5829 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5830 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p2">
|
|
|
5831 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a human action does not deserve praise or blame by reason of its being good or evil. For "sin happens
|
|
|
5832 even in things done by nature" (Phys. ii, 8). And yet natural things are not deserving of praise or blame (Ethic. iii, 5).
|
|
|
5833 Therefore a human action does not deserve blame, by reason of its being evil or sinful; and, consequently, neither does it
|
|
|
5834 deserve praise, by reason of its being good.
|
|
|
5835 </p>
|
|
|
5836 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p3">
|
|
|
5837 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, just as sin occurs in moral actions, so does it happen in the productions of art: because as stated in Phys. ii,
|
|
|
5838 8 "it is a sin in a grammarian to write badly, and in a doctor to give the wrong medicine." But the artist is not blamed for
|
|
|
5839 making something bad: because the artist's work is such, that he can produce a good or a bad thing, just as he lists. Therefore
|
|
|
5840 it seems that neither is there any reason for blaming a moral action, in the fact that it
|
|
|
5841 is evil.
|
|
|
5842 </p>
|
|
|
5843 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p4">
|
|
|
5844 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that evil is "weak and incapable." But weakness or inability either takes away or
|
|
|
5845 diminishes guilt. Therefore a human action does not incur guilt from being evil.
|
|
|
5846 </p>
|
|
|
5847 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p5">
|
|
|
5848 <b>On the contrary,</b> The Philosopher says (De Virt. et Vit. i) that "virtuous deeds deserve praise, while deeds that are opposed to virtue deserve
|
|
|
5849 censure and blame." But good actions are virtuous; because "virtue makes that which has it, good, and makes its action good"
|
|
|
5850 (Ethic. ii, 6): wherefore actions opposed to virtue are evil. Therefore a human action deserves praise or blame, through being
|
|
|
5851 good or evil.
|
|
|
5852 </p>
|
|
|
5853 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p6">
|
|
|
5854 <b>I answer that,</b> Just as evil is more comprehensive than sin, so is sin more comprehensive than blame. For an action is said to deserve praise
|
|
|
5855 or blame, from its being imputed to the agent: since to praise or to blame means nothing else than to impute to someone the
|
|
|
5856 malice or goodness of his action. Now an action is imputed to an agent, when it is in his power, so that he has dominion over
|
|
|
5857 it: because it is through his will that man has dominion over his actions, as was made
|
|
|
5858 clear above (
|
|
|
5859 <a id="FS_Q21_A2-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q1_A1.html">Q[1], AA[1]</a>,2). Hence it follows that good or evil, in voluntary actions alone, renders them worthy of praise or blame: and in such like
|
|
|
5860 actions, evil, sin and guilt are one and the same thing.
|
|
|
5861 </p>
|
|
|
5862 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p7">
|
|
|
5863 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> Natural actions are not in the power of the natural agent: since the action of nature is determinate. And, therefore, although
|
|
|
5864 there be sin in natural actions, there is no blame.
|
|
|
5865 </p>
|
|
|
5866 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p8">
|
|
|
5867 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Reason stands in different relations to the productions of art, and to moral actions. In matters of art, reason is directed
|
|
|
5868 to a particular end, which is something devised by reason: whereas in moral matters, it is directed to the general end of
|
|
|
5869 all human life. Now a particular end is subordinate to the general end. Since therefore sin is a departure from the order
|
|
|
5870 to the end, as stated above
|
|
|
5871 <a id="FS_Q21_A2-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q21_A1.html">(A[1])</a>, sin may occur in two ways,
|
|
|
5872 in a production of art. First, by a departure from the particular end intended by the artist: and this sin will be proper
|
|
|
5873 to the art; for instance, if an artist produce a bad thing, while intending to produce something good; or produce something
|
|
|
5874 good, while intending to produce something bad. Secondly, by a departure from the general end of human life: and then he will
|
|
|
5875 be said to sin, if he intend to produce a bad work, and does so in effect, so that another is taken in thereby. But this sin
|
|
|
5876 is
|
|
|
5877 not proper to the artist as such, but as man. Consequently for the former sin the artist is blamed as an artist; while for
|
|
|
5878 the latter he is blamed as a man. On the other hand, in moral matters, where we take into consideration the order of reason
|
|
|
5879 to the general end of human life, sin and evil are always due to a departure from the order of reason to the general end of
|
|
|
5880 human life. Wherefore man is blamed for such a sin, both as man and as a moral being. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi,
|
|
|
5881 5)
|
|
|
5882 that "in art, he who sins voluntarily is preferable; but in prudence, as in the moral virtues," which prudence directs, "he
|
|
|
5883 is the reverse."
|
|
|
5884 </p>
|
|
|
5885 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p9">
|
|
|
5886 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Weakness that occurs in voluntary evils, is subject to man's power: wherefore it neither takes away nor diminishes guilt.
|
|
|
5887 </p>
|
|
|
5888 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p10"></p>
|
|
|
5889 <p id="FS_Q21_A2-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5890 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
5891 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5892 </div>
|
|
|
5893 <div id="FS_Q21_A3" class="div4">
|
|
|
5894 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5895 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5896 <h4 id="FS_Q21_A3-p0.1">Whether a human action is meritorious or demeritorious in so far as it is good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
5897 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5898 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p2">
|
|
|
5899 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that a human action is not meritorious or demeritorious on account of its goodness or malice. For we speak
|
|
|
5900 of merit or demerit in relation to retribution, which has no place save in matters relating to another person. But good or
|
|
|
5901 evil actions are not all related to another person, for some are related to the person of the agent. Therefore not every good
|
|
|
5902 or evil human action is meritorious or demeritorious.
|
|
|
5903 </p>
|
|
|
5904 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p3">
|
|
|
5905 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, no one deserves punishment or reward for doing as he chooses with that of which he is master: thus if a man destroys
|
|
|
5906 what belongs to him, he is not punished, as if he had destroyed what belongs to another. But man is master of his own actions.
|
|
|
5907 Therefore a man does not merit punishment or reward, through putting his action to a good or evil purpose.
|
|
|
5908 </p>
|
|
|
5909 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p4">
|
|
|
5910 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, if a man acquire some good for himself, he does not on that account deserve to be benefited by another man: and
|
|
|
5911 the same applies to evil. Now a good action is itself a kind of good and perfection of the agent: while an inordinate action
|
|
|
5912 is his evil. Therefore a man does not merit or demerit, from the fact that he does a good or an evil deed.
|
|
|
5913 </p>
|
|
|
5914 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p5">
|
|
|
5915 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
5916 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q21_A3-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.3.10" target="asv">Is. 3:10,11</a>): "Say to the just man that it is well; for he shall eat the fruit of his doings. Woe to the wicked unto evil; for the reward
|
|
|
5917 of his hands shall be given him."
|
|
|
5918 </p>
|
|
|
5919 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p6">
|
|
|
5920 <b>I answer that,</b> We speak of merit and demerit, in relation to retribution, rendered according to justice. Now, retribution according to justice
|
|
|
5921 is rendered to a man, by reason of his having done something to another's advantage or hurt. It must, moreover, be observed
|
|
|
5922 that every individual member of a society is, in a fashion, a part and member of the whole society. Wherefore, any good or
|
|
|
5923 evil, done to the member of a society, redounds on the whole society: thus, who hurts
|
|
|
5924 the hand, hurts the man. When, therefore, anyone does good or evil to another individual, there is a twofold measure of merit
|
|
|
5925 or demerit in his action: first, in respect of the retribution owed to him by the individual to whom he has done good or harm;
|
|
|
5926 secondly, in respect of the retribution owed to him by the whole of society. Now when a man ordains his action directly for
|
|
|
5927 the good or evil of the whole society, retribution is owed to him, before and above all, by the whole society;
|
|
|
5928 secondarily, by all the parts of society. Whereas when a man does that which conduces to his own benefit or disadvantage,
|
|
|
5929 then again is retribution owed to him, in so far as this too affects the community, forasmuch as he is a part of society:
|
|
|
5930 although retribution is not due to him, in so far as it conduces to the good or harm of an individual, who is identical with
|
|
|
5931 the agent: unless, perchance, he owe retribution to himself, by a sort of resemblance, in so far as man is said to be just
|
|
|
5932 to
|
|
|
5933 himself.
|
|
|
5934 </p>
|
|
|
5935 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p7"> It is therefore evident that a good or evil action deserves praise or blame, in so far as it is in the power of the will:
|
|
|
5936 that it is right or sinful, according as it is ordained to the end; and that its merit or demerit depends on the recompense
|
|
|
5937 for justice or injustice towards another.
|
|
|
5938 </p>
|
|
|
5939 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p8">
|
|
|
5940 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> A man's good or evil actions, although not ordained to the good or evil of another individual, are nevertheless ordained
|
|
|
5941 to the good or evil of another, i.e. the community.
|
|
|
5942 </p>
|
|
|
5943 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p9">
|
|
|
5944 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Man is master of his actions; and yet, in so far as he belongs to another, i.e. the community, of which he forms part, he
|
|
|
5945 merits or demerits, inasmuch as he disposes his actions well or ill: just as if he were to dispense well or ill other belongings
|
|
|
5946 of his, in respect of which he is bound to serve the community.
|
|
|
5947 </p>
|
|
|
5948 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p10">
|
|
|
5949 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> This very good or evil, which a man does to himself by his action, redounds to the community, as stated above.
|
|
|
5950 </p>
|
|
|
5951 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p11"></p>
|
|
|
5952 <p id="FS_Q21_A3-p12"></p>
|
|
|
5953 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A2.html"></a>
|
|
|
5954 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A4.html"></a>
|
|
|
5955 </div>
|
|
|
5956 <div id="FS_Q21_A4" class="div4">
|
|
|
5957 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
5958 <a href="summa.FS.iii.html"></a>
|
|
|
5959 <h4 id="FS_Q21_A4-p0.1">Whether a human action is meritorious or demeritorious before God, according as it is good or evil?</h4>
|
|
|
5960 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p1"></p>
|
|
|
5961 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p2">
|
|
|
5962 <b>Objection 1:</b> It would seem that man's actions, good or evil, are not meritorious or demeritorious in the sight of God. Because, as stated
|
|
|
5963 above
|
|
|
5964 <a id="FS_Q21_A4-p2.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, merit and demerit imply relation to retribution for good or harm done to another. But a man's action, good or evil, does
|
|
|
5965 no good or harm to God; for it is written (
|
|
|
5966 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q21_A4-p2.2" href="./asv.html#Job.35.6" target="asv">Job 35:6,7</a>): "If thou sin, what shalt thou hurt Him? . . . And if thou do justly, what shalt thou give Him?"
|
|
|
5967 Therefore a human action, good or evil, is not meritorious or demeritorious in the sight of God.
|
|
|
5968 </p>
|
|
|
5969 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p3">
|
|
|
5970 <b>Objection 2:</b> Further, an instrument acquires no merit or demerit in the sight of him that uses it; because the entire action of the instrument
|
|
|
5971 belongs to the user. Now when man acts he is the instrument of the Divine power which is the principal cause of his action;
|
|
|
5972 hence it is written (
|
|
|
5973 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q21_A4-p3.1" href="./asv.html#Isa.10.15" target="asv">Is. 10:15</a>): "Shall the axe boast itself against him that cutteth with it? Or shall the saw exalt itself against him by whom it is drawn?"
|
|
|
5974 where man while acting is
|
|
|
5975 evidently compared to an instrument. Therefore man merits or demerits nothing in God's sight, by good or evil deeds.
|
|
|
5976 </p>
|
|
|
5977 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p4">
|
|
|
5978 <b>Objection 3:</b> Further, a human action acquires merit or demerit through being ordained to someone else. But not all human actions are ordained
|
|
|
5979 to God. Therefore not every good or evil action acquires merit or demerit in God's sight.
|
|
|
5980 </p>
|
|
|
5981 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p5">
|
|
|
5982 <b>On the contrary,</b> It is written (
|
|
|
5983 <a class="scripRef" id="FS_Q21_A4-p5.1" href="./asv.html#Eccl.12.14" target="asv">Eccles. 12:14</a>): "All things that are done, God will bring into judgment . . . whether it be good or evil." Now judgment implies retribution,
|
|
|
5984 in respect of which we speak of merit and demerit. Therefore every human action, both good and evil, acquires merit or demerit
|
|
|
5985 in God's sight.
|
|
|
5986 </p>
|
|
|
5987 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p6">
|
|
|
5988 <b>I answer that,</b> A human action, as stated above
|
|
|
5989 <a id="FS_Q21_A4-p6.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html">(A[3])</a>, acquires merit or demerit, through being ordained to someone else, either by reason of himself, or by reason of the community:
|
|
|
5990 and in each way, our actions, good and evil, acquire merit or demerit, in the sight of God. On the part of God Himself, inasmuch
|
|
|
5991 as He is man's last end; and it is our duty to refer all our actions to the last end, as stated above (Q[19], A[10]). Consequently,
|
|
|
5992 whoever
|
|
|
5993 does an evil deed, not referable to God, does not give God the honor due to Him as our last end. On the part of the whole
|
|
|
5994 community of the universe, because in every community, he who governs the community, cares, first of all, for the common good;
|
|
|
5995 wherefore it is his business to award retribution for such things as are done well or ill in the community. Now God is the
|
|
|
5996 governor and ruler of the whole universe, as stated in the
|
|
|
5997 <a id="FS_Q21_A4-p6.2" shape="rect" href="summa.FP_Q103_A5.html">FP, Q[103], A[5]</a>: and especially of
|
|
|
5998 rational creatures. Consequently it is evident that human actions acquire merit or demerit in reference to Him: else it would
|
|
|
5999 follow that human actions are no business of God's.
|
|
|
6000 </p>
|
|
|
6001 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p7">
|
|
|
6002 <b>Reply to Objection 1:</b> God in Himself neither gains nor losses anything by the action of man: but man, for his part, takes something from God, or
|
|
|
6003 offers something to Him, when he observes or does not observe the order instituted by God.
|
|
|
6004 </p>
|
|
|
6005 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p8">
|
|
|
6006 <b>Reply to Objection 2:</b> Man is so moved, as an instrument, by God, that, at the same time, he moves himself by his free-will, as was explained above
|
|
|
6007 (
|
|
|
6008 <a id="FS_Q21_A4-p8.1" shape="rect" href="summa.FS_Q9_A6.html">Q[9], A[6]</a>, ad 3). Consequently, by his action, he acquires merit or demerit in God's sight.
|
|
|
6009 </p>
|
|
|
6010 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p9">
|
|
|
6011 <b>Reply to Objection 3:</b> Man is not ordained to the body politic, according to all that he is and has; and so it does not follow that every action
|
|
|
6012 of his acquires merit or demerit in relation to the body politic. But all that man is, and can, and has, must be referred
|
|
|
6013 to God: and therefore every action of man, whether good or bad, acquires merit or demerit in the sight of God, as far as the
|
|
|
6014 action itself is concerned.
|
|
|
6015 </p>
|
|
|
6016 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p10"></p>
|
|
|
6017 <p id="FS_Q21_A4-p11"></p>
|
|
|
6018 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A3.html"></a>
|
|
|
6019 <a href="summa.FS.iii.html"></a>
|
|
|
6020 </div>
|
|
|
6021 <a href="summa.FS_Q20_A6.html"></a>
|
|
|
6022 <a href="summa.FS_Q21_A1.html"></a>
|
|
|
6023 </div>
|
|
|
6024 <a href="summa.FS_Q5_A8.html"></a>
|
|
|
6025 <a href="summa.FS_Q6.html"></a>
|
|
|
6026 `
|
|
101
|
6027 </div>
|
